Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
SOLUTION:
• Divide the rod into components at the load application points.
• Evaluate the total of the component deflections.
Pi Li 1 P1L1 P2 L2 P3 L3
A
i i iE E 1A A 2 A 3
1
60 103 12 15 103 12 30 103 16
6
29 10 0. 9 0.9 0.3
75.9 10 3 in.
B 0.514 mm
Displacement of D:
MB 0
PL
D
AE
0 30 kN 0.6 m FCD 0.2 m 90 103 N 0.4 m
BB BH
DD HD
0.514 mm 200 mm x
0.300 mm x
x 73.7 mm
EE HE
DD HD
E
400 73.7 mm
0.300 mm 73.7 mm
E 1.928 mm
E 1.928 mm
Static Indeterminacy
• Structures for which internal forces and reactions
cannot be determined from statics alone are said
to be statically indeterminate.
• A structure will be statically indeterminate
whenever it is held by more supports than are
required to maintain its equilibrium.
• Redundant reactions are replaced with
unknown loads which along with the other
loads must produce compatible deformations.
L R 0
Example
Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel
bar and loading shown, assuming a close fit at
both supports before the loads are applied.
SOLUTION:
• Consider the reaction at B as redundant,
release the bar from that support, and solve
for the displacement at B due to the applied
loads.
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the
redundant reaction at B.
• Require that the displacements due to the
loads and due to the redundant reaction be
compatible, i.e., require that their sum be
zero.
• Solve for the reaction at A due to applied loads and the reaction found
at B.
Example SOLUTION:
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the
applied loads with the redundant constraint
released,
P1 0 P2 P3 600 103 N P4 900 103 N
A1 A2 400 10 6 m 2 A3 A4 250 10 6 m 2
L1 L2 L3 L4 0.150 m
Pi Li 1.125 109
L
i Ai Ei E
δR
Pi Li
1.95 103 RB
A
i i iE E
Example
• Require that the displacements due to the loads
and due to the redundant reaction be compatible,
L R 0
1.125 109 1.95 103 RB
0
E E
RB 577 103 N 577 kN
A1 A2 400 10 6 m 2 A3 A4 250 10 6 m 2
L1 L2 L3 L4 0.150 m
Pi Li 1.125 109
L
i Ai Ei E
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the
redundant constraint,
P1 P2 RB
δR
Pi Li
1.95 103 RB
i Ai Ei E
Example
• Require that the displacements due to the loads
and due to the redundant reaction be compatible,
L R 0
1.125 109 1.95 103 RB0
E E
RB 577 103 N 577 kN
• Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the
reaction at B
R A 323 kN
RB 577 kN
Example
A sleeve in the form of a circular tube of length L is placed around a
bolt and fitted between washers at each end. The nut is then turned
until it is just snug. The sleeve and bolt are made of different
materials and have different cross-sectional areas. (Assume that the
coefficient of thermal expansion αS of the sleeve is greater than the
coefficient αB of the bolt.)
(a) If the temperature of the entire assembly is raised by an amount
ΔT, what stresses σS and σB are developed in the sleeve and bolt,
respectively?
(b) What is the increase δ in the length L of the sleeve and bolt?
JU. Dr. Ibrahim Abu-Alshaikh
Bolts and Turnbuckles
Pres-tressing a structure requires that one or more parts of the
structure be stretched or compressed from their theoretical lengths. A
simple way to produce a change in length is to tighten a bolt or a
turnbuckle. In the case of a bolt each turn of the nut will cause the
nut to travel along the bolt a distance equal to the spacing p of the
threads (called the pitch of the threads). Thus, the distance traveled
by the nut is
np
in which n is the number of
revolutions of the nut (not
necessarily an integer). Depending
upon how the structure is arranged,
turning the nut can stretch or
compress a member.
Turnbuckles
In the case of a double-acting turnbuckle, there are two end screws.
Because a right-hand thread is used at one end and a left-hand thread
at the other, the device either lengthens or shortens when the buckle
is rotated. Each full turn of the buckle causes it to travel a distance p
along each screw, where again p is the pitch of the threads.
Therefore, if the turnbuckle is tightened by one turn, the screws are
drawn closer together by a distance 2p and the effect is to shorten the
2np
device by 2p. For n turns, we have
In geometric terms, the work done by the load is equal to the area
below the load-displacement curve.
The strain energy, is defined as the energy absorbed by the bar
during the loading process. From the principle of conservation of
energy, we know that this strain energy is equal to the work done by
the load provided no energy is added or subtracted in the form of heat.
Therefore,
U W P1 d1
0
P 2 L EA 2 P 2 k 2
U W
2 EA 2L 2k 2
When replacing the stiffness EA/L of the prismatic bar by the stiffness
k of the spring.
Non-uniform Bars
The total strain energy U of a bar
consisting of several segments is
equal to the sum of the strain
energies of the individual segments.
That is
n
Pi 2 Li
n
U U i
i 1 i 1 2 Ei Ai
P( x)
L 2
U dx
0
2 EA( x)
ur
2E
Another quantity, called toughness, refers to the ability of a material to
absorb energy without fracturing. The corresponding modulus, called
the modulus of toughness ut, is the strain-energy density when the
material is stressed to the point of failure. It is equal to the area below
the entire stress-strain curve. The higher the modulus of toughness, the
greater the ability of the material to absorb energy without failing.
Example
Three round bars having the
same length L but different
shapes are shown. The first bar
has diameter d over its entire
length, the second has
diameter d over one-fifth of its
length, and the third has
diameter d over one-fifteenth
of its length. Elsewhere, the
second and third bars have
diameter 2d.
All three bars are subjected to the same axial load P. Compare the
amounts of strain energy stored in the bars, assuming linearly elastic
behavior. (Disregard the effects of stress concentrations and the
weights of the bars.)
a) Strain energy U1 of the first bar P2 L 2P2 L
U1
2 EA E d 2
b) Strain energy U2 of the second bar. The strain energy is found by
summing the strain energies in the three segments of the bar
3
Pi 2 Li 2P2 L 2P 2 L 4P 2 L 2U1
U2
i 1 2 Ei Ai 5E d 2
5E d 2
5E d 2
5
which is only 40% of the strain energy of the first bar. Thus,
increasing the cross-sectional area over part of the length has greatly
reduced the amount of strain energy that can be stored in the bar.
(c) The strain energy U3 of the third bar is
3
Pi 2 Li 2P2 L 7P2 L 9P2 L 3U1
U2
i 1 2 Ei Ai 15E d 15E d
2 2
15E d 2
10
The strain energy has now decreased to 30% of the strain energy of the
first bar.
Example
A( L x)
2 L
A
L 2 L 2 3 2 3
A ( L x ) A L
U dx ( L x) dx
2
0
2 EA 2E 0
2E 3 0 6E
(b) Strain energy due to the weight of the bar plus the load P, however
in this case the axial force N(x) acting on the element is
N ( x) A( L x) P
By integration we can write
A 2 L3 PL2 P 2 L
U
6E 2E 2 EA
Example
The cylinder for a compressed air machine is clamped by bolts that pass
through the flanges of the cylinder. A detail of one of the bolts is shown
in the figure. The diameter d of the shank is 13 mm and the root
diameter dr of the threaded portion is 10 mm. The grip g of the bolts is
40 mm and the threads extend a distance t = 6.5 mm into the grip.
Under the action of repeated cycles of high and low pressure in the
chamber, the bolts may eventually break. To reduce the likelihood of
the bolts failing, the designers suggest two possible modifications:
(1) Machine down the shanks of the bolts so that the shank diameter is
the same as the thread diameter dr , as shown.
(2) Replace each pair of bolts by a single long bolt. The long bolts are
similar to the original bolts except that the grip is increased to the
distance L=340 mm. Compare the energy-absorbing capacity of the
three bolt configurations: (a) original bolts, (b) bolts with reduced shank
diameter, and (c) long bolts. (Assume linearly elastic behavior and
disregard the effects of stress concentrations)
shank diameter (d) >
thread diameter (dr)
1. The collar does not rebound after the collar sticks to the flange.
2. We disregard all energy losses and assume that the kinetic energy
of the falling mass is transformed entirely into strain energy of the
bar.
3. We disregard any change in the potential energy of the bar itself
(due to the vertical movement of elements of the bar)
4. We assume that the stresses in the bar remain within the linearly
elastic range.
5. We assume that the stress distribution throughout the bar is the
same as when the bar is loaded statically by a force at the lower
end, that is, we assume the stresses are uniform throughout the
volume of the bar. (In reality longitudinal stress waves will travel
through the bar, thereby causing distribution)
JU. Dr. Ibrahim Abu-Alshaikh
Maximum Elongation of the Bar
The maximum elongation δmax can be obtained from the principle of
conservation of energy by equating the potential energy lost by the
falling mass to the maximum strain energy acquired by the bar. The
potential energy lost is W(h + δmax), where W = Mg is the weight of
the collar and (h + δmax ) is the distance through which it moves. The
strain energy of the bar is EA 2
max
2L
where EA is the axial rigidity and L is the length of the bar. Thus, we
obtain the following equation:
EA max
2
W (h max )
2L
This equation is quadratic in δmax and can be solved for the positive
root; the result is 1/2
WL WL WL
2
max 2h
EA EA EA
The preceding equation can be written in simpler form by
introducing the notation WL MgL
st
EA EA
in which δst is the elongation of the bar due to the weight of the collar
under static loading conditions. Thus, δmax becomes
1/2 2h 1/2
max st st 2h st st 1 1
2
st
When the height h is large compared to the static elongation (h>> δst ),
we can obtain
2
Mv L
max 2h st , where v 2 gh
EA
in which M = W/g
Maximum Stress in the Bar
The maximum stress can be calculated easily from the maximum
elongation, hence we assume that the stress distribution is uniform
throughout the length of the bar, we get .
PL L 1/2 max L
max st st 2h st
2
EA E E
E 1/2
2 hE
1/2
max st st 2h st st st st
2 2
L L
2 Eh 1/2
max st 1 1
L st
E st
where st
L
Again considering the case where
2hE st 2
Mv E
the height h is large compared to the max
elongation of the bar, we obtain L AL
Impact Factor
The ratio of the dynamic response of a structure to the static response
(for the same load) is known as an impact factor. For instance, the
impact factor for the elongation of the bar is the ratio of the maximum
elongation to the static elongation:
max
Impact Factor
st
Suddenly Applied Load
A special case of impact occurs when a load is applied suddenly with
no initial velocity. To explain this, assume that the sliding collar is
lowered gently until it just touches the flange, that is h=0 which leads
that 1/2
max st st 2h st 2 st
2
Limitations
WL MgL 20(9.81)2
st 0.0106 mm
EA EA 210 109 (0.015) 2
4
h 150
14150
st 0.0106
2h 1/2
max st 1 1 1.78 mm
st
The impact factor is equal to the ratio of the maximum elongation to
the static elongation 1.78
Impact Factor max
169
st 0.0106
(b) Maximum tensile stress. The maximum stress produced by the
falling collar is obtained as follows:
max E 1.78 210 109
max 188MPa
L 2
This stress may be compared with the static stress, which is
W
st 1.1 MPa
A
The ratio of σmax to σst is 188/1.11 = 169, which is the same impact
factor as for the elongations.
2
Mv L
max
EA
The maximum stress in the bar is found from the maximum shortening
by means of
2
Mv E
max
AL End of IMPACT LOADING
JU. Dr. Ibrahim Abu-Alshaikh
STRESS CONCENTRATIONS
• Loads transmitted through rigid
plates result in uniform
distribution of stress and strain.
• Concentrated loads result in
large stresses in the vicinity of
the load application point.
• Stress and strain distributions
become uniform at a relatively
short distance from the load
application points.
• Saint-Venant’s Principle:
Stress distribution may be
assumed independent of the
mode of load application
except in the immediate
vicinity of load application
points.
Of course, this “principle” is not a
rigorous law of mechanics but is a
common-sense observation based
upon theoretical and practical
experience.
max
For a bar in tension, the nominal stress is the average K
stress based upon the net cross-sectional area. nom
Stress Concentration: Fillet
Stress-concentration factor K for flat bars with shoulder fillets. The
dashed line is for a full quarter-circular fillet
Stress-concentration factor K for round bars with shoulder fillets.
The dashed line is for a full quarter-circular fillet.
Example SOLUTION:
• Determine the geometric ratios
and find the stress concentration
factor from the Figure in the
previous slide .
Determine the largest axial
load P that can be safely • Find the allowable average
supported by a flat steel bar normal stress using the material
consisting of two portions, allowable normal stress and the
both 10 mm thick, and stress concentration factor.
respectively 40 and 60 mm
wide, connected by fillets of
• Apply the definition of normal
radius R = 8 mm. Assume an
stress to find the allowable load.
allowable normal stress of
165 MPa.
• Determine the geometric ratios
and find the stress concentration
factor from Fig. 2.64b.
b 60 mm R 8 mm
1.50 0.20
c 40 mm c 40 mm
K 1.82
K 2.35
(a) Determine the maximum allowable tensile load. Pmax
For the segment of the bar of width b and thickness t and having a
hole of diameter d, the net cross-sectional area is (b - d)(t), and the
nominal axial stress may be computed as
Pmax allow u / FS
nom and nom
(b d )t K hole K hole
Pmax
200 10 6
/ 2.8
(9 1.8)(1) 20.5 kN
2.51
Next, we must investigate the tensile load carrying capacity of the
stepped bar in the segment having fillets of radius R =0.5 cm.
Following the same procedure we can write
Pmax allow u / FS
nom
ct K fillet K fillet
Pmax
200 10 6
/ 2.8
(6)(1) 18.24 kN
2.35
we see that the lesser value of the maximum allowable tensile load
Pmax is 18.24
(b) Determine the maximum hole diameter.
Comparing results of part a, we see that the segment of the stepped bar
with a hole has greater tensile load capacity Pmax than the segment with
the fillets. Thus, if we enlarge the hole, we will reduce the net cross
sectional area, Anet = (b - d)(t), (note that width b and thickness t
remain unchanged), but at the same time, we will reduce the stress
concentration factor Khole because ratio d/b increases. Rearranging
previous equations, we get
Pmax
u / FS (b d )t 18.24 10
3
K hole
d
u / FS b(1 d )t 18.24 103 b ) 0.284
(1
K hole b K hole
L
dx
0 where L is the length of the bar.
• If the strains are expressed analytically, that is, by algebraic
formulas, it may be possible to integrate the last equation by formal
mathematical means and thus obtain an expression for the change in
length.
• If the stresses and strains are expressed numerically, that is, by a
series of numerical values, we can proceed as follows. We can divide
the bar into small segments of length Δx, determine the average
stress and strain for each segment, and then calculate the elongation
of the entire bar by summing the elongations for the individual
segments. This process is equivalent to evaluating the integral of the
last equation by numerical methods instead of by formal integration.
• If the strains are uniform throughout the length of the bar, as in the
case of a prismatic bar with constant axial force, the integration of
the last Eq. is trivial and the change in length is
L
JU. Dr. Ibrahim Abu-Alshaikh
Ramberg-Osgood Stress-Strain Law
Stress-strain curves for several metals, including aluminum and
magnesium, can be accurately represented by the Ramberg-Osgood
equation: m
0 0 0
In this equation, σ and ε are the stress and strain, respectively, and ε0,
σ0, α, and m are constants of the material (obtained from tension
tests). An alternative form of this equation is
m
0
E E 0
in which E=σ0/ε0 is the modulus of elasticity in the initial part of the
stress-strain curve.
JU. Dr. Ibrahim Abu-Alshaikh
Example
A graph for an aluminum
alloy for which the
constants are as follows:
E = 70 GPa, σ0 = 260
MPa, α = 3/7, and m =
10. The equation of this
particular stress-strain
curve is
1
10
70 103
628.2 260
1
10
70 103
628.2 260
L1 L2
Then the inner bar is more highly stressed than the outer bars and will
reach the yield stress first. When that happens, F2 = σY A and We can
determine PY as : A L 2L A 2L
PY Y 1 2
Y
1 2
PL1 P L1
The downward displacement of the rigid bar at the yield load, called
the yield displacement δY, is equal to the elongation of the inner bar
when its stress first reaches the yield stress σY: FL L
Y 2 2
Y 2
AE E
Example
The structure consists of a horizontal beam AB (assumed to be rigid)
supported by two identical bars (bars 1 and 2) made of an elastoplastic
material. The bars have length L and cross-sectional area A, and the
material has yield stress σY, yield strain εY, and modulus of elasticity E
= σY/εY. The beam has length 3b and supports a load P at end B.
(a) Determine the yield load PY and the corresponding yield
displacement δY at the end of the bar (point B). (b) Determine the
plastic load PP and the corresponding plastic displacement δP at point
B.
(c) Construct a load-
displacement diagram
relating the load P to
the displacement δB of
point B.
Equations of equilibrium. Considering the equilibrium of beam AB,
we take moments about point A and obtain
MA 0
F1(b) + F2(2b) - P(3b) = 0
in which F1 and F2 are the axial forces in bars 1 and 2, respectively.
This equation simplifies to
F1 + 2F2 = 3P
Equation of compatibility. The compatibility equation is based upon
the geometry of the structure. Under the action of the load P the rigid
beam rotates about point A, the downward displacement at every
point along the beam is proportional to its distance from point A.
Thus, the compatibility equation is
δ2 = 2δ1
where δ2 is the elongation of bar 2 and δ1 is the elongation of bar 1.
JU. Dr. Ibrahim Abu-Alshaikh
(a) Yield load and yield displacement. When the load P is small and
the stresses in the material are in the linearly elastic region, the force-
displacement relations for the two bars are
F1 L F2 L
1 ; 2
EA EA
Combining these equations with the compatibility condition gives
F2 L F1 L
2 2 2 2 F2 2 F1
EA EA
3P 6P
F1 2 F2 3P F1 and F2
5 5
Bar 2, which has the larger force, will be the first to reach the yield
stress, thus at that instant the force in bar 2 will be F2 = σY A:
5 Y A
FY
6
The corresponding elongation of bar 2 is δ2 = σY L/E, and therefore the
yield displacement at point B is
3 2 3 Y L
Y
2 2E
Both PY and δY are indicated on the load-displacement diagram
Point B
(b) Plastic load and plastic displacement. When the plastic load PP is
reached, both bars will be stretched to the yield stress and both forces
F1 and F2 will be equal to σY A. It follows from equilibrium
F1 + 2F2 = 3P
that the plastic load is
Pp Y A
At this load, the left-hand bar (bar 1) has just reached the yield stress;
therefore, its elongation is δ1 = σY L/E, and the plastic displacement of
point B is
3 Y L
P 31
E
The ratio of the plastic load PP to the yield load PY is 6/5, and the ratio
of the plastic displacement δP to the yield displacement δY is 2. These
values are also shown on the load-displacement diagram.
(c) Load-displacement diagram. The complete load-displacement
behavior of the structure is pictured in Figure. The behavior is
linearly elastic in the region from O to A, partially plastic from A to
B, and fully plastic from B to C.