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Lecture 4

Objective

Matrix is backbone of logical execution. This provides fundamentals of different arrangements in


space. Objective of this lecture is to know the Matrix Concept

List of Topics

• Definition of Matrix

• Basic Operations

Matrices

In mathematics, a matrix (plural matrices, or less commonly matrixes) is a rectangular array of


numbers.

That is...

A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers.[1] For example,

An alternative notation uses large parentheses instead of box brackets:


The horizontal and vertical lines in a matrix are called rows and columns, respectively. The
numbers in the matrix are called its entries or its elements. To specify a matrix's size, a matrix
with m rows and n columns is called an m-by-n matrix or m × n matrix, while m and n are called
its dimensions. The above is a 4-by-3 matrix.

A matrix with one row (a 1 × n matrix) is called a row vector, and a matrix with one column (an
m × 1 matrix) is called a column vector. Any row or column of a matrix determines a row or
column vector, obtained by removing all other rows respectively columns from the matrix. For
example, the row vector for the third row of the above matrix A is

When a row or column of a matrix is interpreted as a value, this refers to the corresponding row
or column vector. For instance one may say that two different rows of a matrix are equal,
meaning they determine the same row vector. In some cases the value of a row or column should
be interpreted just as a sequence of values (an element of Rn if entries are real numbers) rather
than as a matrix, for instance when saying that the rows of a matrix are equal to the
corresponding columns of its transpose matrix.

Notation

The specifics of matrices notation varies widely, with some prevailing trends. Matrices are
usually denoted using upper-case letters while the corresponding lower-case letters, with two
subscript indices, represent the entries. In addition to using upper-case letters to symbolize
matrices, many authors use a special typographical style, commonly boldface upright (non-
italic), to further distinguish matrices from other variables. An alternative notation involves the

use of a double-underline with the variable name, with or without boldface style, (e.g. )

The entry that lies in the i-th row and the j-th column of a matrix is typically referred to as the i,j,
(i,j), or (i,j)th entry of the matrix. For example, the (2,3) entry of the above matrix A is 7. The (i,
j)th entry of a matrix A is most commonly written as ai,j. Alternative notations for that entry are
A[i,j] or Ai,j.

Sometimes a matrix is referred to by giving a formula for its (i,j)th entry, often with double
parenthesis around the formula for the entry, for example, if the (i,j)th entry of A were given by
aij, A would be denoted ((ai,j)).

An asterisk is commonly used to refer to whole rows or columns in a matrix. For example, ai,∗
refers to the ith row of A, and a∗,j refers to the jth column of A. The set of all m-by-n matrices is
denoted (m, n).

A common shorthand is

A = [ai,j]i=1,...,m; j=1,...,n or more briefly A = [ai,j]m×n to define an m × n matrix A. Usually the


entries ai,j are defined separately for all integers 1 ≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n. They can however
sometimes be given by one formula; for example the 3-by-4 matrix

can alternatively be specified by A = [i − j]i=1,2,3; j=1,...,4, or simply A = ((i-j)), where the size
of the matrix is understood

Basic operations
There are a number of operations that can be applied to modify matrices called matrix addition,
scalar multiplication and transposition. These form the basic techniques to deal with matrices

The rules for addition, subtraction, multiplications and divisions between matrices are as follows.
Let first assume that matrix A and B are used to construct matrix Z. It must follow that for

• Addition: Z = A + B; zij = aij + bij

• Subtraction: Z = A - B; zij = aij - bij

• Multiplication: Z = A*B, if # columns in A = # rows in B; zij = ai1* b1j + ai2* b2j +


ai3* b3j + ... aim* bnj

The rules for multiplication and division of a matrix by a scalar (a real number) are simpler. If
matrix Z is constructed by multiplying all elements of matrix A by a scalar c, then its elements
are zij = c*aij. In an analogous manner, dividing matrix A by c gives zij = (1/c)*aij.

All these operations are illustrated


Summary:

This lecture has given us the detailed concept of Matrix. We are also able to

write Matrix in different forms. At the last we have been introduced with operations also.
Lecture 5

Objective

This lecture explains various operations done with the matrices in detail which was introduced in
lecture 4.

List of Topics

• Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication

• Different Types of Matrices

Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

To add or subtract matrices these must be of identical order. This just means that the matrices
involved must have the same number of rows and columns. If they don't have the same number
of rows and columns we cannot add or subtract these.

The expression

zij = aij + bij

Means "to element in row i, column j of matrix A add element in row i, column j of matrix B". If
we do this with each element of A and B we end with matrix Z
Subtraction is performed in analogous manner. The expression

zij = aij - bij

Means "to element in row i, column j of matrix A deduct element in row i, column j of matrix
B". If we do this with each element of A and B we end with matrix Z.
Multiplication of Matrices

Consider two matrices A and B with the following characteristics: the number of columns in A
equals the number of rows in B. These are conformable with respect to one another, and they can
be multiplied together to form a new matrix Z.

The expression

zij = ai1* b1j + ai2* b2j + ai3* b3j + ... aim* bnj

Means "add the products obtained by multiplying elements in each i row of matrix A by
elements in each j column of matrix B". Figure 4 illustrates what we mean by this statement
Matrix multiplication has a catch as we mentioned before. The order in which we multiply terms
does matter. The reason for this is that we need to multiply row elements by column elements
and one by one. Therefore A*B and B*A can produce different results

ie AB ≠ BA

TYPES OF MATRICES

Row Matrix:

A matrix having a single row is called a row matrix. e. g. [1 3 5 7]

Column Matrix:

A matrix having a single column is called a column matrix. e.g.


.

Square Matrix:

An m x n matrix A is said to be a square matrix if m = n i.e. number of rows = number of


columns.

is a square matrix of order 3 × 3.

Note:

The diagonal from left hand side upper corner to right hand side lower side lower corner is
known as leading diagonal or principal diagonal. In the above example square matrix containing
the elements 1, 3, 5 is called the leading or principal diagonal.

Diagonal Matrix:

A square matrix all of whose elements except those in the leading diagonal, are zero is called a
diagonal matrix. For a square matrix A = [aij]n×n to be a diagonal matrix, aij = 0, whenever i ≠ j.

is a diagonal matrix of order 3 × 3.


Scalar Matrix:

A diagonal matrix whose all the leading diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar matrix.

For a square matrix A = [aij]n×n to be a scalar matrix aij = , where m ≠ 0.

is a scalar matrix.

Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix:

A diagonal matrix of order n which has unity for all its diagonal elements, is called a unit matrix
of order n and is denoted by In

Thus a square matrix A = [aij]nxn is a unit matrix if aij =

Triangular Matrix:

A square matrix in which all the elements below the diagonal elements are zero is called Upper
Triangular matrix and a square matrix in which all the elements above diagonal elements are
zero is called Lower Triangular matrix.

Given a square matrix A = [aij]n×n,


For upper triangular matrix, aij = 0, i>j

and for lower triangular matrix, aij = 0, i < j

Notes:

Diagonal matrix is both upper and lower triangular

A triangular matrix A = [aij]n×n is called strictly triangular if aii = 0 for 1 < i < n.

are respectively upper and lower triangular matrices.

Null Matrix:

If all the elements of a matrix (square or rectangular) are zero, it is called a null or zero matrix.

For A = [aij] to be null matrix, aij = 0 ∀for all i, j

is a zero matrix

Summary:

Now we have learnt the Operations on Matrices. At the end of the lecture we are able to identify
different type of matrices.
Lecture 6

Objective

Objective of this lecture is to brief us the theory of determinants

List of Topics

• Concept of Determinants

• Solution of Linear Equations by Determinant Method(Cramer’s Rule)

Determinants

A determinant is a square array of numbers (written within a pair of vertical lines) which
represents a certain sum of products.

Below is an example of a 3 × 3 determinant (it has 3 rows and 3 columns).

The result of multiplying out, then simplifying the elements of a determinant is a single number
(a scalar quantity).

Calculating a 2 × 2 Determinant

In general, we find the value of a 2 × 2 determinant with elements a, b, c, d as follows:


We multiply the diagonals (top left × bottom right first), then subtract

Example:

The final result is a single number

3 × 3 Determinants

A 3 × 3 determinant

Can be evaluated in various ways.


We will use the method called "expansion by minors". But first, we need a definition---

Cofactors

The 2 × 2 determinant

is called the cofactor of a1 for the 3 × 3 determinant:

The cofactor is formed from the elements that are not in the same row as a1 and not in the same
column as a1.

Similarly, the determinant

is called the cofactor of a2. It is formed from the elements not in the same row as a2 and not in
the same column as a2.

We continue the pattern for the cofactor of a3


Expansion by Minors

We evaluate our 3 × 3 determinant using expansion by minors. This involves multiplying the
elements in the first column of the determinant by the cofactors of those elements. We subtract
the middle product and add the final product.

Note that we are working down the first column and multiplying by the cofactor of each element

Example:

Evaluate

Solution:
= -2[(-1)(2) − (-8)(4)] − 5[(3)(2) − (-8)(-1)] + 4[(3)(4) − (-1)(-1)]

= -2(30) − 5(-2) + 4(11)

= -60 + 10 + 44

= -6

Here, we are expanding by the first column. We can do the expansion by using the first row and
we will get the same result

Systems of Linear Equations

Cramer's Rule

We can solve the system

by using:

Where
Example:

Solve, using Cramer's Rule:

Solution:

Where

So
Checking solutions:

[1] 2(4) + 3(-3) + 3 = 2 OK

[2] -(4) + 2(-3) + 3(3) = -1 OK

[3] -3(4) - 3(-3) + 3 = 0 OK

So the solution is (4, -3, 3).

Example:

Solve, using Cramer's Rule:

Solution:

where
Note: Once we have x and y, we can find z without using Cramer's Rule.

So

Using these two results, we can easily find that z = -2.

Checking the solution:

[1] (4) + 3(2/3) + -2 = 4

[2] 2(4) - 6(2/3) - 3(-2) = 10

[3] 4(4) - 9(2/3) + 3(-2) = 4

So the solution is (4, 2/3, -2)

Summary:

Lecture of this session has explained about the Determinants and their expansion. We have also
learnt to find the solution of linear equations by Determinant Method.
Lecture 7

Objective

Objective of this lecture is to learn to find the Inverse of a square Matrix

List of Topics

• Concept of Inverse

• Properties of Inverse

• Method of finding Inverse

Inverse of Matrix

Writing the transpose of the matrix of cofactor, known as an adjugate matrix, can also be an
efficient way to calculate the inverse of small matrices, but this recursive method is inefficient
for large matrices. To determine the inverse, we calculate a matrix of cofactors:

Where |A| is the determinant of A, Cij is the matrix of cofactors, and CT represents the matrix
transpose.
Inversion of 2×2 matrices

The cofactor equation listed above yields the following result for 2×2 matrices. Inversion of
these matrices can be done easily as follows:

This is possible because 1/(ad-bc) is the reciprocal of the determinant of the matrix in question,
and the same strategy could be used for other matrix sizes

Inversion of 3×3 matrices

A computationally efficient 3x3 matrix inversion is given by

Where

Z = a(ek − fh) + b(fg − kd) + c(dh − eg)

which is the determinant of the matrix. If Z is non-zero, the matrix is invertible, with the
elements of the above matrix on the right side given by

The general 3×3 inverse can be expressed concisely in terms of the cross product and triple
product,:

If a matrix (consisting of three column vectors, , , and ) is


invertible, its inverse is given by
where is a column vector and is a row vector. Note that det(A) is equal to the triple
product of , , and —the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the rows or columns:

The correctness of the formula can be checked by using cross- and triple-product properties and
by noting that for groups, left and right inverses always coincide. Intuitively, because of the cross
products, each row of is orthogonal to the non-corresponding two columns of (causing
the off-diagonal terms of be zero). Dividing by

causes the diagonal elements of to be unity. For example, the first diagonal is:

More clearly Adjoint of a square Matrix is----

is defined as the transpose of the matrix [Aij] where Aij are the cofactors of the elements aij.

Adjoint of A is denoted by adj A.


Example:

Find the adjoint of the matrix.


Inverse of a Square Matrix

Let A be a square matrix of order n. If there exists a matrix B of order n such that AB = BA = I,
where I is the identity matrix of order n, then the matrix A is said to be invertible and B is called
the inverse (or reciprocal) of A.

Note:

• Only a square matrix can have its inverse

• From the definition, it is clear that if B is the inverse of A, then A is the inverse of B.

• Inverse of A is denoted by A-1, thus B = A-1 and AA-1 = A-1A=I.

Theorem

If A and B are two invertible matrices of the same order, then (AB)-1 = B-1A-1.
Proof:

From the definition of inverse of a matrix, we have

(AB)(AB)-1 = I

or A-1 (AB)(AB)-1 = A-1 I (Pre-multiplying both sides by A-1)

or (A-1A) B (AB)-1 = A-1 (Since A-1 I = A-1)

or I B (AB)-1 = A-1

or B (AB)-1 = A-1

or (B-1B)(AB)-1 =B-1A-1

or I(AB)-1= B-1A-1

or (AB)-1 = B-1A-1

Theorem
Non-singular Matrix

A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if its determinant value is non-zero.

i.e.,

Singular Matrix

A square matrix A is said to be singular if |A| = 0

Properties of Inverse of Matrix

In other words, a square matrix A is invertible if and only if A is a non-singular matrix.

(c) If A and B are invertible square matrices, then

(AB)-1 = B-1 A-1

(d) If A and B are two non-singular square matrices of the same order, then

AB and BA are also non-singular matrices of the same order.

Example

Find inverse of
 3 −1 1 
A =  2 1 0 

1 2 −1
Solution

The determinant of A is |A| = (3) (-1-0)-(-1)(-2-0)+(1)(4-1) = -2

The elements of the cofactor matrix are

c12 =−(−2), c11 =+(−1), c13 = + (3),


c22 =+(−4), c21 =−(−1), c23 = −(7),
c32 =−(−2), c31 =+(−1), c33 = +(5),

The cofactor matrix is therefore

 −1 2 3 
C=  1 −4 −7 
 −1 2 5 

so,

 −1 1 −1
= C=  2 −4 2 
adjA T

 3 −7 5 

and

 −1 1 −1  0.5 −0.5 0.5 


adjA 1 
−1
A == 2 −4 2  =
 −1.0 2.0 −1.0 
A −2   
 3 −7 5   −1.5 3.5 −2.5 

Summary:

Objective of the lecture was to find the Inverse of Matrix and to study the properties of inverse.
At the last we have done the things.
Lecture 8

Objective

Objective of this lecture is to learn to find the solution of Linear Equations using Matrix Inverse

List of Topics

• Matrix Inversion Method

Consistency and Inconsistency of a System of Linear Equations

A system of linear equations is said to be consistent if it has a solution. This means that the
solution satisfies all the equations in the system simultaneously.

If a system of linear equations has no solution, then it is said to be inconsistent.

Solution of linear simultaneous Equations

One of the most important applications of matrices is to the solution of linear simultaneous
equations. We will see an example....

Step 1

Consider the simultaneous equations

x + 2y = 4

3x − 5y = 1
Provided we understand how matrices are multiplied together, we will realize that these can be
written in matrix form as

1 2   x   4 
3 − 5  y  = 1 
    

1 2  x  4
=
writing A  = , X =  ,B  
3 − 5   y 1 

We have AX = B

This is the matrix form of the simultaneous equations. Here the unknown is the matrix X, since
A and B are already known. A is called the matrix of coefficients.

Step 2

Solving the simultaneous equations

Given AX = B

We can multiply both sides by the inverse of A, provided this exists, to give

A−1 AX = A−1 B

This gives X = A−1 B

Therefore, = , then X A−1 B


If AX B=
This result gives us a method for solving simultaneous equations. All we need do is write them in
matrix form, calculate the inverse of the matrix of coefficients, and finally perform a matrix
multiplication.

We need to calculate the inverse of

1 2 
3 − 5 
 

1  −5 − 2 
A−1 =
(1)(−5) − (2)(3)  −3 1 

−1  −5 − 2 
A−1 =
11  −3 1 

−1  −5 − 2   4 
  
Then X is given by X = A B = 11  −3 1  1 
−1

−1  −22 
 
= 11  −11 

2
1 
=  

Hence x = 2, y = 1 is the solution of the simultaneous equations.


Summary:

At the end we have learnt another method of Solution of Linear Equations

using Matrix Inverse.

Questions

1. (a) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, write down P(A) by listing its elements. What is

the value of | P(A) |?

(b) If | A | = 5, what is the value of | P(A) |?

(c) If | A | = 10, what is the value of | P(A) |?

2. Prove the following identities, stating carefully which of the set laws

we are using at each stage of the proof.

(a) B ∪ (ø ∩ A) = B

(b) (A ′ ∩ U) ′ = A

(c) (C ∪ A) ∩ (B ∪ A) = A ∪ (B ∩ C)

(d) (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ B ' ) = A

(e) (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ B ' ) ′ = B

(f) A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A
2 5 1 2 
 3 and B =  4 7 

3. If A =  4

Then Find the Value of X Such that - A2 + 5 A + BX = [0] . Also Compute the

Value of 3A + 5 B – I

 3 − 5
 −4 2 
4. . If A = 

Find A2 – 5A- 141

2 0 − 1 
5 1 0 

0 1 3
5. Find the Inverse of

6. Solve the following system of Equations, using Matrix Method.

x + 2 y + z = 7 , x + 3 z = 11 And 2x – 3y =1

7. Solve by Cramer’s rule

x+y = 5,

y+z = 3’
x+z = 4

8. The equilibrium conditions for three related markets are given by

11P1 − P2 − P3 =
31
− P1 + 6 P2 − 2 P3 =26
− P1 + 2 P2 + 7 P3 =24

9.An automobile company uses three types of steel S1, S2 and S3 for producing three types of

cars c1, c2, c3. Steel Requirements (in tons) for each type of car are given below:

Types of car

C1 C2 C3

Types S1 2 3 4

of S2 1 1 2

Steel
S3 3 2 1

Determine the number of cars of each type which an be produced using 29, 13 and 16 tons of
steel of three types respectively

10. Solve the following equations by matrix inversion method

5x − 6 y + 4 z =15
7 x + 4 y − 3z =19
2x + y + 6z = 46

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