Sex Roles, VoL 9, No.

2, 1983

Preschool Children's Preferences and Recall for

Stereotyped Versus Nonstereotyped Stories
Jerri Jaudon Kropp 2 and Charles F. Halverson
University of Georgia

This study assessed children's preferences and recall for stereotyped versus non-
stereotyped stories. The sample consisted o f 32 preschool children, ranging
in age from 60 months to 75 months. Four stories with boys or girls as the main
character, each portraying typically masculine or feminine activities, were read
to each child. Both preference and recall measures were obtained immediately
and one day later. The hypothesis was confirmed that the stories were differen-
tially preferred by boys and girls as a function o f stereotyping o f story. Girls
preferred the story with a female character and a feminine activity and least
preferred the story with a male character and a masculine activity. For boys,
the reverse was true. The second choice for both boys and girls involved pref-
erence for activisT, not sex o f main character. A cross-lagged panel revealed that
preference at Time 1 was causally related to recall at Time 2. The children re-
membered the most at Time 2 about the stories they liked the least at Time 1.

Both cognitive developmental and social learning theory offer plausible hypothe-
ses regarding the development of early sex-typed behavior. Kohlberg (1966), the
major proponent of cognitive developmental theory, asserts that as children
become more convinced o f the unchangeability of their gender identity, they
increase their s~me-sex preferences to seek information consistent with their
gender. Accordingly, children tend to value positively activities that are con-
gruent with their gender identity. From a social learning viewpoint, sex-role pref-

1This article is based on the first author's master's thesis, submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for a M.S. degree at the University of Georgia. A summary of this re-
search was presented at the Fourth Annual Southeastern Conference on the Family and
the Child, Athens, Ga., 1979.
2Correspondence should be sent to Jerri Jaudon Kropp, Department of Family and Con-
sumer Resources, Wayne State University, 160 Old Main, Detroit, Michigan 48202.
261
0360-0025/83/0200-0261503.00/0 © 1983 Plenum Publishing Corporation
262 Kropp and Halverson

erences and behaviors are highly dependent on societal expectations and social
reinforcement (Marcus & Overton, 1978; Mischel, 1970). Children use models
as sources of information for appropriate and inappropriate behavior (Bandura,
1977). In fact, modeling is one area where both social learning and cognitive
developmental theories merge. Both theories agree that models provide essential
information for children's acquisition of sex-typed behaviors and beliefs. One
potentially influential source of sex-role information comes from exposure to
traditional sex-typed models in children's books.
Several researchers have postulated that books provide role models of what
children can and should be when they grow up (Child, Potter, & Levine, 1946;
Jacklin & Mischel, 1973; Rachlin & Vogt, 1974; Weitzman, Eifler, Hokada, &
Ross, 1972). In the last decade, the research literature has been flooded with
articles pointing out that the roles of characters in children's books are tradi-
tionally stereotyped by both authors and illustrators (Weitzman et al., 1972;
Nilsen, 1971 ; Women on Words and Images, 1972; Stewig & Higgs, 1973; Rach-
lin & Vogt, 1974). All of these studies support the generalization that sex roles
asportrayed in children's literature are unnecessarily rigid and present a narrow
view of reality which may restrict children's views of men's and women's roles
(Weitzman, 1972).
The concerns over stereotyping in children's literature, however, represent
adult values. While there has been considerable documentation of sex-role stereo-
types, relatively few studies have examined the possible impact of such stereo-
types on children's preference for and retention of sex-related information con-
tained in these books (Koblinsky, Cruse, & Sugawara, 1978). McGee (Note 1)
points out that despite the considerable documentation of gender role stereo-
typing in children's literature, very little is known about the reactions of the
children. Kingston and Lovelace (1977-1978) also criticize studies that presume
to investigate sexism in children's books, but fail to consider the impact on the
motivation and learning of children. Simpson (1978) argues that while most
authors refer to the damaging effect of sexist materials on children, few actually
document this effect.
In recent research literature, several studies have indicated that young
children of both sexes prefer stories that are sex-typed. While some studies focus
on sex of character, others focus on the character's role. Deutsch (1975) found a
significant interaction between sex of subject and sex of character in studying
preschoolers' perceptions and responses to story sequences; 3-and 4-year-old
children were verbally more accurate on stories with same-sex characters than on
stories with opposite-sex characters. McArthur and Eisen (1976) found that
regardless of the character's role, 90% of the nursery school boys preferred the
male character and 96% of the girls preferred the female character. When asked
why, the children's most common explanations offered centered on same-sex
identification.
Children's Preference and Recall 263

Styer (19"75) studied the reaction of kindergarten children to the nontra-

ditional portrayal of boy characters in two stories. In one story, the boy showed
fear; and in the other, he wanted a doll. The majority of children of both sexes
objected to the behavior of both characters. Styer's study is particularly inter-
esting because it reveals the persistence of children's stereotyped definitions of
sex roles, even when realistic characters portraying alternative roles are presented
to them (Simpson, 1978).
Concerning children's preference for sex-typing of activity in stories,
Rose, Zimet, and Blom (1972) found that first-grade boys preferred boy-activity
stories and girls preferred girl-activity stories. Ross (Note 2) found that pre-
school children of both sexes showed sex-typed story preferences, and sex-linked
preferences were greater for boys.
Jennings (1975) found that although preschool children of both sexes
preferred stories with the role appropriate to their sex, they remembered more
about nonstereotyped stories, which they liked the least. Jennings presumed that
this ability to recall more about nonstereotyped stories was due to the novelty
of the character's behavior. As Koblinsky et al. (1978) point out, however, Jen-
nings' study was limited by the use of only same-sex characters in the stories
read to the children. Thus, Koblinsky et al. developed four experimental stories,
each depicting a male and female character who exhibited an equal number of
masculine and fl~minine characteristics. Although the results of Koblinsky et al.
revealed that fifth-grade students exhibited selective memory for stereotypic sex-
role content, Jennings' finding of selective memory for novel information was
not supported.
Two additional studies assessed children's memory for story content. Na-
delman (1974) found that 5-year-old children recalled, knew, and preferred
same-sex items significantly more than opposite-sex items. McArthur and Eisen
(1976) reported that girls were just as likely to recall information about the male
character as the female character, but boys were less likely to recall information
about the female character.
Since none of the studies reviewed considered the relative strengths of
children's preferences for same-sex characters versus sex-appropriateness of
activity, one of the major purposes of the present study was to assess preschool
children's preferences when faced with this choice. Previous research indicates
that children attend to same-sex models (Mischel, 1970). Assuming characters
in children's books do serve as models, we predicted that children's preferences
for same-sex characters would be stronger than for sex appropriateness of ac-
tivity.
Another purpose of the study was to determine whether children's pref-
erences were related to their ability to recall story content, and to consider this
relationship over time. There has been very little systematic assessment of the
relationship of these two variables (preference and recall), but at least four pos-
264 Kropp and Halverson

sibilities exist: (a) Preference may be causally related to recall, (b) recall may be
causally related to preference, (c) the two variables may be unrelated, and (d)
the relationship may change over time. Following Jennings (1975), we predicted
that children would remember the most about the least preferred stories and the
least preferred stories would be the stereotyped stories for the opposite sex.

METHOD

Subjects

The sample consisted of 32 preschool children (16 boys and 16 girls) rang-
ing in age from 60 months to 75 months (mean age 66 months); 4 boys and 4
girls were enrolled in a university nursery school facility, and 12 boys and 12
girls were enrolled in two private day care centers serving a university commu-
nity. The children were predominantly White and from middle-class families.

Materials

In pilot testing, 10 stories were assessed after being discussed with 19 5-

year-old children. Four stories were then selected, each depicting a male or female
character engaging in either stereotyped or nonstereotyped activities. In all four
stories (a) the main character appears to be about 5 or 6 years old; (b) the theme
is similar - i n two stories the child plays with a typically sex-appropriate toy,
and in the other two stories the child wants a typically sex-inappropriate toy,
but is discouraged by the parents; (c) other family members are involved in the
plot. Brief descriptions of the stories follow:
1. William's Doll (Zolotow, 1972). William wants a doll, but is discouraged
by his father, who buys him other things instead. But William's grandmother
buys him a doll when she comes for a visit (nonstereotyped, male character,
typical feminine activity).
2. A Train for Jane (Klein, 1974). Jane finally gets the train she wants for
Christmas after members of her family are unsuccessful in convincing her that
girls' toys would be more fun (nonstereotyped, female character, typical mascu-
line activity).
3. The Best Train Set Ever (Hutchins, 1978). Peter wants a train, but
thinks it is too expensive. He is surprised on his birthday because each family
member has bought a different part of the set (stereotyped, male activity, typ-
ical masculine activity).
4. Debbie and Her Dolls (Lenski, 1970). Debbie pretends to be the mother
of her seven dolls. She is described performing various activities with them,
Children's Preference and Recall 265

including playing school and having a tea party (stereotyped, female activity,
typical feminine activity.
Although these stories were published children's books certain changes
were made for this study. The title The Best Train Set Ever was shortened to
Peter's Train Set, and all four stories were edited to be similar length. In the
edited versions, A Train for Jane was 435 words, Peter's Train Set was 491
words, William's Doll was 497 words, and Debbie and Her Dolls was 440 words.
Also, in an effort to control for visual and tactile differences in the books, all
stories were transcribed uniformly into 9" X 6" eight-page booklets. These
booklets each included 10 illustrations obtained from toy catalogs. The illustra-
tions appeared on every other page, opposite a page of script. 3

Testing Procedure

A female experimenter read four stories to each subject individually. Each

of the four stories was selected to be read first four times and last four times for
each sex. The order of the stories read second and third was randomized. This
allowed for an analysis of primacy and recency effects on both preference and
recall measures. The procedure took place in a room separated from the other
kindergarten activities. The experimenter sat on the floor next to the child and
held the booklet so that the child could see the pictures as the pages were turned.
The experimenter began each session by saying: " I ' m going to read four stories
to you. I want you to listen very carefully because after I finish reading all of
the stories, I'm going to ask you some questions about what happened in the
stories. While we're talking, I'm going to turn on the tape recorder and then at
the end we can listen to what we said, okay?"
Both preference and recall measures were obtained immediately (Time 1)
and again one day later (Time 2). For Time 1, each of the four stories was read
and then pictures from each story depicting the main character and the object
on which the story centered were displayed in random order in front of the
child. The child was asked to "point to the story that you liked the best." A
questioning procedure followed, in which the child was first asked to "tell me
what happened in that story." If no response was offered, s/he was prompted
by the experimenter, who said "Look at the picture and see if you can remem-
ber." If the child was still unable to answer, s/he was asked three specific ques-
tions about the story. The children who answered in the free recall situation
were also asked any questions that they had not specifically answered. The
specific questions for each story are listed in Table I.

3Copies of the stories and illustrations used in the study are available from the first author.
266 Kropp and Halverson

Table I. Specific Story Questions

Story Questions

A Train for Jane

1. What does Jane want for Christmas?
2. What was something that her mother and father wanted to buy for
her instead?
3, What was under the tree for Jane on Christmas morning?
Debbie and Her Dolls
1. What does Debbie like to play with?
2. What was something that Debbie and her dolls did together?
3. What did Debbie's brother and sister do to the dolls?
Peter's Train Set
1. What does Peter want for his birthday?
2. Why was Peter sad in the story?
3. Who bought Peter the train set in the end?
William's Doll
1. What does William want?
2. What was one of the things that WiUiam's father bought for him
instead?
3. Who bought William the doll in the end?

This procedure was repeated for each of the remaining stories. The order
in which the stories were discussed was determined by the child's response to
the question that s/he "point to the one that y o u liked the n e x t best." As each
story was discussed, the booklet was removed. After discussion o f all four sto-
ries, the child was asked "What do y o u think about boys/girls playing with dolls/
trains . . . is that okay or not okay?" Informal discussion was thus p r o m p t e d
pertaining to the children's concepts of appropriate sex-role behavior. This
entire session lasted about 20 minutes for each child, and the child's responses
were tape-recorded.
To check stability of the children's preferences and ability to recall the
stories, the same questioning procedure was repeated on the following day.
Again, the children's responses were tape-recorded.

Scoring

Each child's responses were transcribed verbatim from the audiotapes.

Preferences for stories were ranked for each child, with 1 being the most pre-
ferred and 4 being the least preferred.
To obtain a recall score for each child, points were assigned to each correct
fact the child reported for the story; 2 points were given for each correct free
recall response, and 1 point was given for each p r o m p t e d response. Half-points
were given for partially correct responses. No points were added or subtracted
Children's Preference and Recall 267

for wrong answers. The points for each child were added to yield recall scores
for each story. The scores ranged from 1 to 22, with 4 being the modal score.
Two additional scorers independently coded the transcribed responses.
Interrater reliabilities among the three scorers were calculated by Pearson
product-moment correlations for each of the four stories for both Time 1 and
Time 2. These correlations were found to be consistently high (range .89 to .99,
average r = .97). For subsequent data analyses, the few disagreements were
resolved by discussion.

RESULTS

The data were analyzed in two separate parts: (a) preference and (b)
preference and iecall considered together. A discussion of each analysis follows.

Preference

The data fbr story preference are summarized in Table II. Because scores
for Time 1 and rime 2 were stable (average r = .63, p < .01), and there were no
significant differences in rankings of the stories between Time 1 and Time 2, the
data were collapsed across time.
To assess whether the stories were differentially preferred by boys and
girls as a function of story stereotyping, two Friedman two-way analyses of
variance by ranks (Siegel, 1956) were performed separately for boys and girls.
The tests were significant for both boys and girls (for boys, x2r(3) = 66, p < .001 ;
for girls, x2r(3) = 74, p < .001).
Because the overall tests were significant, the Wilcoxon matched-pairs
signed ranks test (Siegel, 1956) was used to examine differences between pairs of
stories within sex. The results of the aftertests can be summarized as follows: For
both boys and girls, the extremely ranked stories (Debbie and Her Dolls and
Peter's Train Set) were significantly different from each other (ps < .01 ). For both
boys and girls, the intermediately ranked stories (A Train for Jane and WiIliam's
Doll) were not significantly different from each other. In addition, in a compari-
son between intermediately ranked stories and extremely ranked stories, all pairs
of stories were significantly different from each other for girls. For boys, all pairs
of stories were significantly different from each other, with the exception of A
Train for Jane and Peter's Train Set. In other words, boys did not differentiate
between the two train stories in terms of preference, but girls did.
Because the preference data were ranks, no analysis of variance between
boys and girls was possible. Therefore, it was not possible to test directly an
interaction between sex of child and story preference. Nor is there a nonparamet-
ric analogue to a repeated measures analysis of variance which could be easily
268 Kropp and Halverson

Table II. Story Preference for Males and Femalesa

Ranking
1 2 3 4 )(
Males
Debbie and Her Dolls 0 2 13 17 3.47
William's Doll 6 6 11 9 2.72
A Train for Jane 10 13 7 3 2.16
Peter's Train Set 16 11 1 3 1.66
Females
Debbie and Her Dolls 24 5 1 2 1.41
Williarn'sDoll 4 16 7 5 2.41
A Train For Jane 2 7 17 6 2.84
Peter's Train Set 2 4 7 19 3.34

aData from Times 1 and 2 are summed.

substituted to test such an interaction. Such an interaction can be inferred, how-

ever, by noting that the extremely ranked stories in Table II (both high and low)
were significantly different from each other by sex when tested by the Wilcoxon
matched pairs signed-ranks test (ps < .01). These data, together with the signifi.
cant differential ordering within each sex, strongly imply a significant inter-
action between sex of child and story preference, with the order of preference
reversed for males and females.
In summary, the hypothesis was confirmed that the stories would be dif-
ferentially preferred by boys and girls as a function of stereotyping of story.
Girls preferred the story with the female character and the feminine activity
(Debbie and Her Dolls) and least preferred the story with the male character and
the masculine activity (Peter's Train Set). Boys, however, preferred the story
with the male character and the masculine activity (Peter's Train Set) and least
preferred the story with the female character and the feminine activity (Debbie
and Her Dolls).
Not confirmed was the hypothesis that children would select as their sec-
ond choice the story with a same-sex character and typically sex-inappropriate
activity. Rather, the second choice for both boys and girls involved preference
for activity, rather than for sex of character.

Preference and Recall

A cross-lagged panel was constructed to assess the relations between pref-

erence and recall at Time 1 and Time 2 (Kenny, 1975). Pearson product-mo-
ment correlations assessed the significance of the autocorrelations for preference
Children's Pxeference and Recall 269

Table IlL Relations Between Preference and Recall at Time 1 and Time 2
for Total Samplea
Preference Recall Preference Recall
(Time 1) (Time 1) (Time 2) (Time2)

Preference (Time 1)
Recall (Time 1) .13 -
Preference (Time 2) .63 c .13 -
Recall (Time 2) .42b .66b .18

aBecause high preference was coded 1 and low preference was coded 4,
positive correlations between preference and recall indicate that the higher
the preference, the lower the recall.
bp < .05.
cp < .01.

and recall as well as the synchronous correlations at Time 1 and Time 2. As can
be seen in Table III, the preference and recall autocorrelations show significant
stabilities from Time 1 to Time 2.
To determine covariation of preference and recall within subjects across
the four stories, Cattell's P technique was used as the index o f association. All
correlations were based on four pairs of scores (one pair for each o f the four
stories) per subject (Cattell, 1952, 1963). Analyses were performed separately
for boys and girls but were not significantly different from each other. There-
fore, the correlations summarized in Table III are for the total sample.
The cross-lagged correlations suggest that preference at Time 1 was the
cause of recall at Time 2. This can be concluded because the cross-lag of prefer-
ence at Time 1 and Time 2 is greater than the cross-lag correlation of recall at
Time 1 and preference at Time 2 (Z = 1.91, p < .06). As preference at Time 1
increases, recall at Time 2 decreases. Within both time periods, the synchronous
correlations were not significant.

DISCUSSION

That the four stories were differentially preferred by preschool children

o f both sexes as a function o f stereotyping o f story is similar to findings of
previous research. Both boys and girls most preferred the stories that were
stereotyped with regard to both sex of character and sex appropriateness of
activity. In cognitive developmental terms, these results confirm Kohlberg's
notion that children tend to respond to new activities and interests that are
consistent with old ones. Kohlberg (1966) points out that this parallels the
Piagetian concept that children assimilate only objects and activities that are
270 Kropp and Halverson

consistent with their established interests and preferences. Kohlberg also suggests
that children's moralization of sex-role stereotypes (the tendency to perceive
conformity as morally right and deviance from conformity as morally wrong)
increases from ages 5 to 8.
Children's preferences for stereotyped stories can also be interpreted
within a social learning context, especially if Marcus and Overton's (1978) argu-
ment that expressed sex-role preferences are highly dependent on societal expec-
tation is correct. In addition, information pertaining to children's past experi-
ences with books may offer evidence in support of a social learning model of
sex-typed preferences, but in the present study this was an unknown variable.
The hypothesis that children's preferences for same-sex characters would
be stronger than for sex appropriateness of activity was not confirmed. The op-
posite finding was obtained; namely, the second choice for both boys and girls
involved preference for sex appropriateness of activity, rather than for sex of
character. One possible explanation for this finding can be derived from the
children's comments. Children of both sexes objected to stories with characters
of their sex engaging in sex-inappropriate behavior. Frequent responses were
that "he's a boy and boys don't play with dolls" or "she's a girl and gifts don't
play with trains." Furthermore, it seems likely that children project themselves
into the stories and therefore attend more to the type of activity than to the
character. Perhaps the children saw themselves as the actor in the stories and on
this basis decided whether they would like to engage in the particular activity.
Then it would follow that the children chose as their favorite stories those
depicting activities which they would like to do or which they considered ap-
propriate.
It is interesting to note here that 14 out of the 32 subjects (9 boys and 5
girls) referred to Jane in A Train for Jane as "he." One possible explanation is
that since cross-sex activities are more acceptable for girls than for boys, the
children overlooked the sex of this character. An a!ternative explanation involves
the establishment of gender identity. For example, children who have not firmly
established gender identity may believe that engaging in an opposite-sex activity
could possibly change the character's gender. This interpretation, however, does
not explain why the children did not also refer to William as "she."
The analysis of the effect of preference on recall suggested that the children
tended to remember at Time 2 the most about the stories they liked the least
at Time 1. Because the stories the children least preferred were the stereotyped
stories for the opposite sex, and assuming that the children did not consider
these stories to be novel, the present results were not consistent with Jennings'
(1975) findings of selective memory for novel information. The present study,
however, was more complex in that both same-sex and opposite-sex characters
were presented, as well as stereotyped and nonstereotyped roles, while Jermings'
subjects were only presented with stories involving same-sex characters.
Children's Prefezence and Recall 271

Exploration of additional factors might be considered in order to extend

implications of the present study. For example, researchers have pointed out
that exposure over longer periods to nonstereotyped materials should be consid-
ered (Simpson, 1978; Koblinsky et at., 1978). Simpson (1978) also hypothesized
that nonstereotyped materials may have only a limited effect on children's
stereotypic thinking. If children do exhibit selective memory for stereotypic
content, the predicted gains of curricular intervention may fall short of actuali-
zation (Koblinsky et al., 1978). Future research that focuses on the development
of sex-typed attitudes and behavior as a function of age may provide useful
information. If gender development is a function of cognitive development, at-
tempts to utilize nonsexist materials may be fruitless before a child reaches a
certain age. A final implication of the present study is that if preschool children
attend more to the activity in the story than to the sex of the character, perhaps
more stories are needed which depict children of both sexes engaging in non-
stereotyped activities.
In summary, children's literature, by its very nature, may oversimplify
experience, and the use of the familiar may be necessary for the young child
(McDowell, 1977), since research results and clinical observation indicate that
much of the young child's thinking is radically different from that of adults
(Kohlberg, 1966). Like other concepts held by young children, sex-role stereo-
types are oversimplified and only imperfectly match adult conceptions of reality
(Goetz, 1978). While these arguments do not lessen the importance of using non-
sexist materials, one might consider the advice of Kingston and Lovelace (1977-
1978) that before we disregard traditional children's literature, "some careful
consumer surveys should be run. The consumers, of course, are the children"
(p. 152).

REFERENCE NOTES

1. McGee, J. Gender stereotypes of parental roles: Flexibility in children's conceptions.

Unpublished manuscript, 1978. (Available from University of Oregon, Department of
Sociology, Eugene, Ore. 94703).
2. Ross, M. Are story preferences sex-linked for 2 and 3 year oMs and for 4 and 5 year
olds? Tallahassee: The Florida State University 1977. (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 134 324).

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