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GEARS AND
GEAR CUTTING

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GEARS AND
GEAR CUTTING
Ivan Law

Special Interest Model Books

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Special Interest Model Books Ltd.
Stanley House
3 Fleets Lane
Poole
Dorset
BH153AJ

First published by Argus Books Ltd. 1988

Reprinted 1990, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999

This edition published by Special Interest Model Books Ltd. 2002

Reprinted 2003

© Special Interest Model Books Ltd. 2003

The right of Ivan Law to be identified as the Author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Rights Act of 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by
print, photography, microfilm or any other means without written permission
from the publisher.

ISBN 0-85242-911-8

Printed and bound in Great Britain by BiddIes Ltd. www.bidd/es.co.uk

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Contents

Preface .......................................................... . 6
Acknowledgements ............................................... . 7
Chapter 1 Basics ............................................... . 8
Chapter 2 Tooth form .......................................... . 14
Chapter3 Gear tooth sizes ...................................... . 29
Chapter4 Rack and pinion gears ................................. . 32
Chapter 5 Bevel wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37
Chapter6 Worm gears. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
Chapter7 Definitions and formulae ................................ 55
Chapter8 Dividing heads ........................................ 59
Chapter9 Cutting spur gears ..................................... 64
Chapter 10 Cutting worms and wormwheels ......................... 85
Chapter 11 Cutting bevel gears. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 104
Chapter 12 Making gear cutters .................................... 112
Index ............................................................ 135

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PREFACE
Gearing, if studied deeply, can be - in endeavoured wherever possible to use
fact is - a complicated and highly plain, simp le and non-technical
technical subject on which many books language and have kept the level of
have been written , often by people who mathematics down to the simplest form .
have spent their entire academic lives Indeed, any reader whose mathematical
studying the many problems involved. education ext ended no further than
This is not one ofthose books ; this is not reciting his multiplication tables will, if
for the technical student who is on his he follows the methods outlined, have
way to a Ph.D in engineering but for the no difficulty in satisfactorily solving the
average man who, in his back garden problems that arise in designing and
workshop, enjoys model-making or just producing a pair of spur gears. This does
tinkering about with mechanisms and not mean that corners have been cut nor
may wish to use a pair of gears in some that the information given is not
project. Rather than modifying or theoretically correct. Neither does it
impairing his design by trying to work-in mean that the gears produced as a resu It
commercial gears, he may wish to offollowing th e information given in this
produce his own. But often gears do book will be in any way inferior to
represent a threshold over which the commercially produced ones. What has
amateur, through lack of information, is been done is to approach the question of
hesitant to step and I have written this gears, not from the scientific ortechnical
book with the express purpose of point of view, but from a purely practical
encouraging these people to 'have a go' standpoint.
and to show them that the design and It is hoped that not only the potential
manufacture of a pair of gears is well constructor of his own gears but also
within their capacity . No special any reader who merely wishes to obtain
knowledge is needed, just plain a basic understanding of gearing will
commonsense, which is never lacking find this book of considerable interest
with model engineers. I have and assistance.

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Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank two of his long-standing
friends for the help he has received from them. Firstly, Mr. C.
Tissiman, who volunteered to read the manuscript prior to
publication. Mr. Tissiman has, over the years, cut many
gears for small mechanisms and has the reputation of being
able to repair and completely restore to their original
condition musical boxes and all other mechanical musical
devices whose gearing often defies all conventional
principles! Secondly, Professor D. H. Chaddock, whose
considerable knowledge on engineering matters is only
overshadowed by his keen and eager willingness to help all
who seek his counsel.

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CHAPTER 1

Basics

When faced with any problem the asked themselves the question - "What
greatest step forward in finding a are gears?".
solution is to be able to fully understand Gears are used to transmit motion,
just what the problem is. Once the and therefore power, between one shaft
problem is clearly understood then the and another. To help to understand the
first - and possibly the most important- principle involved it is advantageous to
hurdle has been overcome! Gears are no ignore the teeth on the gears and look
exception and amateur engineers who upon them as discs with the outer
either try to ignore gears and pretend surfaces in contact. For example,
they are non-existent, or who get into looking at Fig. 1, here we have two shafts
trouble when producing them, have A & B and we wish to transmit motion
usually not begun at the beginning and from shaft A to shaft B. Two discs of

S~FTt>- SHt>-FT B

I
j
D121VE12. - '-- 0 I2N E.N

FIe; 1

C.E~TI2E DISl"A.~ DEPENDS uPo"-l


lHE. DISC. OlA.ME.TE2S.

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SPE.E.O OF 5HA.FT t>.... = 011\ OF DISC B
SPE.E.D OF 5HI\FT B. 01A. OF DI~c.. t>...

FIG, 2

CEN~E OI5TA."-lc..E c DIA. A... ~ 01A. B


2
equal diameter are used, one secured to discs is the same length then the speed
each of the shafts. The diameters are of rotation will also be similar. Finally,
such that the discs make contact and if since no slip between the two discs is
we assume that no slip takes place taking place, then whatever the
between them then as disc A rotates on movement characteristics of shaft A
its shaft it will in turn rotate disc Band happen to be, the same characteristics
hence shaft B. This is a simple diagram will be passed on to shaft B, albeit in the
but quite a lot can be learned from it, the opposite direction. Or, to put it another
first thing being that the rotation of the way, the velocity between the two shafts
two shafts will be in opposite directions. will be constant. This last finding is of
As the drawing shows, the driver the utmost importance as the whole idea
shaft A is turning clockwise and shaft B, behind gear tooth design is to try to
which is called the driven shaft, must maintain this constant velocity. Even
then rotate anti-clockwise. If the design with all the advantages of modern
requirement is that both shafts should technology friction drive using discs is
rotate in the same direction then this often used if it is imperative to maintain
cannot be accomplished by using a pair a perfect velocity.
of discs. The next thing we learn is that As a result of design requirements it
the diameter of the discs is determined may be necessary to have the two shafts
by the centre distance of the two shafts. A & B rotating at different speeds.
In this case, since both discs are of equal Referenc:e to Fig. 2 shows how this is
diameter then the diameter of these achieved. If disc A is made smaller than
discs will be the same as the centre disc B then the circumference of disc A
distance between the two shafts. will be less than that of disc Band
Thirdly, as the circumference of both therefore one complete revolution of

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IDL£2 GEA.~ . THIS CCEAI2. IS Foe ~E.\lE2..5I~~
D I2.EC.T IDN O~ 20T/>..TION . I T5 ~IZ.;: HI>..S to..lO
BEl>.l2Jto..lE, Ot-.! THE GEA.e el>..TIO

FIG"7 \ "-I~ODUCJ"-IG, t>.I-J \Du:.~ E\.JA..BLE~


B01">4 D21\JEN ~ Del\J~ TO 20T.....TE.
IN THE S/>,.ME DleE(.TIOto.l

shaft A will not result in one complete require a speed reduction of three, then
revolution of shaft B. It will be readily the diameter of the driven disc B must be
understood that the actual relationship three times greater than the diameter of
between the speeds of the two shafts the driver disc A. Referring again to Fig.
will be directly proportional to the 2, it will be seen that the distance
circumferential distance of the two between the two shafts is equal to the
discs. If the distance around disc A is combined radi i ofthe two discs, or to put
only one-half ofthe distance around disc it another way, Centre distance = 112 (dia.
B, then disc A will have to make two A + dia. B) and this equation is correct
complete revolutions for one complete for any two touching discs. When two
revolution of disc B - and so on . When dissimilar diameters are used the small
calculating circumferences of the discs disc is usually referred to as the 'pinion'
the constant Pi has to be used and since while the larger disc is called the 'wheel'.
this is, to say the least, a most So far we have only considered two
unfortunate number as far as round touching discs, but there may be any
figures are concerned it follows that the number and where more than two are
resultant figure of the circumferences used then the arrangement is called a
will also be an awkward number. 'train'. It was said earlier that if the two
Fortunately, since Pi is constant to both shafts A & B are to rotate in the same
discs and therefore appears on both direction then a pairofdiscs could not be
sides of the speed equation, it cancels used ; this is correct but a third disc could
itself out and so we can say that the be introduced into the train whose only
speed of the discs is proportional to the function would be to reverse the
diameter of the discs. If, therefore, we direction of rotation. This third disc is

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1C>\.£12 U5~ AS
Dr2NE£ -~ A SPA.'-E12 ~.
1'1

-r
A- I

--~
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I

FIG 4-. ~---

CE"-lTI2.E DISTA.NCE. .. ~ (A.-T 8) -T IDLE Q

called an "idler", see Fig. 3. The size and than the other discs but it need not be so.
position of the idler has no bearing at all It may be that the two shafts A & Bare
on the speed or 'gear' ratio between the too far apart to allow two discs of
original two discs. The relative speeds of sufficient diameter to be employed and
A & B are still dependent on their so an idler disc is used to bridge the gap
respective diameters. Usually, for as shown in Fig. 4. Again, the size of the
design reasons, the idler disc is smaller idler has no bearing on the gear ratio. It

CENTI2.E DISTAoNc...c

FI~? - 2 ID\...erzs USED p..S SPA.c-H~S ~IVE2

/>.NO DE!IVEI-oJ EbTATE 1\'..1 OPP05ITE DII2e.C.TIONS

11

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l
I

I
has, of course, reversed the direction of arranged and in all the examples shown
the driven gear B and this is illustrated in so far the end discs have been the driver
Figs. 3 and 4. Should it be a design and the driven discs but this need not be
requirement that the driven gear has to so. In Fig. 7 we have a situation where
rotate in the opposite direction to the three driven wheels of the same
driver gear, as in Figs. 1 and 2, then a diameter need to be in a straight line -
second idler can be introduced into the discs B, C and E. The power source, or
train, as in Fig. 5. The two idlers take up driver Disc A, has been placed between
the space and reverse the rotation of the the discs Band C and so drives both of
driven disc B. All four discs are shown in them directly. Consequently both Band
one straight line but if the space C rotate in the same direction; the third
available necessitates the use of idler driven disc E has to be driven by means
wheels smaller than it is considered of an idler - disc D - which is serving a
prudent to use, then the centres of the dual purpose of bridging the gap
idler wheels could be staggered as between discs C and E and also acting as
shown in Fig. 6. There may be any a direction reverser in order to ensure
number of wheels in a train but if all the that the disc E rotates in the same
wheels are connected to each other in a direction as Band C. This arrangement
way similarto the diagrams shown, then could be stretched out to extend the
it is only the diameters of the driver disc range of driven wheels, such as in a
A and the driver disc B that are roller conveyor, but in every case the
considered when determining the gear speed of rotation of each driven disc will
ratio of the train. The speed of the idlers be determined by the diameter of the
will be dependent on their respective driven disc in question and the diameter
diameters but whatever these are it will of the driving disc A. The size and speed
have no effect on the final speed of the of any other disc need not be
driven disc B. considered.
There are many permutations in Up to now we have considered only
which a simple gear train can be rotating discs - not gears with teeth in

FIE, (;

S"TAc;.G.E~E.D \DLe..s~S REOUCE. CE.l-...neE.


DisTANCE. OF DeiVEE ~ oelVE.N DIsc.S

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FIG,7 GEAR. TRA.ll\l '5HOlNll\lC:, I Del\jE~
3 De'VE.t-J t>.."-lO O"-lE. IDLEI:: DISC:'.

them - and this is the correct path to the gear!


follow as when designing and setting- Gearing, like any other subject, has its
out a gear drive or train they are looked own terminology and the correct title for
upon as discs and all the setting-out and the disc is the 'pitch circle diameter'
calculations are based upon the disc, not often referred to as the p.e.D.

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CHAPTER 2

Tooth Form

Up to now we have only considered THIS WHEE.L I S ~ SEe..lES Of"


discs rolling on each other's surface and
driving one another by the frictional
forces between the two discs. If we refer
,
Pe.OJEs:....TION S .7

back to Fig. 1 we can see that the driven


wheel B will resist the moving action of
the driving wheel, this resistance being a
combination of the friction forces in the
bearing and the useful work load we
wish to obtain from the driven disc. As
soon as the resistance to movement

SE.e.IE.~
becomes greater than the friction grip
between the surfaces of the two discs,
slip will occur and the drive will fail. To THiS WHEe.L Ie;, A.
overcome this problem teeth are added OF SLOTS
to the discs, which ensures positive FIG 9
engagement between the components spur wheels. However, the solution of
and no loss of motion: the resulting one problem often brings with it many
discs are referred to as spur gears or more problems and putting teeth on the
PRO..) E.C-TIO>...i ~
l'LOT discs is certainly no exception. Referring
to Fig. 8 we see here that a 'lump' or
projection has been added to the wheel
A, so, as the wheel rotates a groove or
slot must be made in wheel B, otherwise
the two wheels would jam together and
movement would cease. When the
projection enters the slot, the projection
will act as a driving dog and slip cannot
then take place; however, as soon as the
FIG 6 projection disengages the slot, slip once

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more becomes possible. It is obvious
therefore that a series of projections and
slots must be provided so that at any
point around the wheel there is always a
projection engaged in a slot. This
arrangement is shown at Fig. 9. It can be
seen that the two wheels are now
dissimilar, one being a disc with
projections around it while the other is a
disc with grooves all the way around.
FIG I' eE:CTA.~Uu-..e. T~TI-l \NOUl.D

Pl20JECT\~7 SLOT LDC..I( THE 'WHE..EL.S io<qE.-n-\Ee..

happened in that we have completely


lost the original disc. None of it remains
and yet it has been the basis for all our
setting-out and calculations. This is just
one peculiar aspect of gears -the datum
is the pitch circle diameter and yet it
does not exist on the finished item. It
cannot be seen and it cannot be touched
so it cannot be utilised for direct
measurements either from it or to it, but
we must always consider a gear as a
rolling P.C.D.

FIG 10 A SLO'"T If Pe.OJE.CTION

HA.\JE.. Bt:.COME. f>... TOO'H

There are spaces between each


projection and slot which is the surface
of the original disc and these spaces can
be utilised by introducing an additional
range of slots and projections, but in the
case of this second set the projections
are positioned between the slots on
wheel 8, and the slots are positioned
between the projections on wheel A, the
arrangement being that every projection
is followed by a slot and every slot is E:t-J LA.2.G.£C VIE: \-J Or et:.c., A.N~\J\....A..'<
followed by a projection. Each slot and 'TooiH+ y..)1i"1-\ CI...E.A~~NCa TO t>.L.L.OW
projection combination is referred to as I2OTA.\ION TO T"'-ICE PLA.C.t:.
a 'tooth', see Figure 10. In arranging the
series of teeth an unfortunate thing has FI<q 1'2.

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16

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Having established that each tooth There are two geometric curves that
now consists of two parts, the projection can be employed to give us the
above the P.C.D. and the groove or slot conditions we require. One curve is
below it, it is not practical to make the based on a shape called the cycloid and
projections and grooves any old shape. the second is based on the involute
For example, supposing they were curve. Gears can be, and are, made to
made rectangular, see Fig. 11, what has both standards but gears made to one
been done here is to key both wheels standard must not be meshed with
together and so rotation cannot take gears based on the other curve.
place at all! Rotation could become In the past the cycloldal type ot gear
possible if a working clearance around was very much in favour while the
the tooth were given as shown at Fig. 12, involute stood in the wings. Nowadays,
but an examination of the action is not however, general engineering favours
encouraging. The corners of the tooth the involute gears. There are reasons for
and the corners of the slot - areas this change, the main one being that the
shaded on the drawing - would in turn involute curve can be easily generated
rub their way down the side of the slot and is therefore suitable for modern
and tooth as rotation took place. The end production methods. It could be argued
result would be excessive friction that since the cycloidal gear is not often
causing rapid wear and quickly leading used in modern engineering this book
to a complete failure ofthe teeth, and the should ignore it and concentrate on the
noise such a pair of gears would popular involute gear but model
generate would be painful on the ears, to engineers, who often look into the past
say the least! However, the biggest for prototypes to model, will most likely
disadvantage to this arrangement become involved with the gearing based
would be the complete loss of constant on the cycloid. Whether they substitute
velocity between the two rolling P.C.Ds. the modern involute gear in their
The driver wheel may turn with a recreation is, naturally, their choice but it
constant and even velocity butthe antics must be an advantage to understand the
of the driven wheel would be difficult to basic principles involved in both types.
visualise. It would rotate with a That is why it is the intention of the
succession of stops, starts, acceler- author to give sufficient information for
ations, decelerations and judders, and the reader to produce gear trains of both
the whole arrangement would, of cycloidal and involute form; however,
course, be totally unacceptable. when it comes to cutting gears
The above, and extreme, example concentration will be on the involute.
was taken to emphasise that in order to
maintain the constant velocity obtained THE CYCLOID CURVE
by the rolling P.C.D., the shape of the The definition of a cycloidal curve is as
gear teeth is vitally important. A shape follows:-
that simply allows rotation to take place A cycloid is the curve which is described
will not necessarily be acceptable, it by a point fixed at the circumference of a
must also be a specific shape - a shape circle when that circle is rolled in contact
that allows the gears to rotate as though with a straight line. This may be better
they were still discs. understood by referring to Fig. 13. Think

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of the circle drawn here as a locomotive onto the base line and this line is then
wheel and the straight line as the track in also divided into the same number of
front of that wheel. In position 1 the equal divisions as was chosen for the
point of the wheel is in contact with the circle. These divisions are then
track; in the final position it is again on projected upwards and onto the centre
the track but the wheel has made one line and so fix the centres ofthe circle at
complete revolution. Intermediate 16 different positions. Horizontal lines
positions of the wheel have been plotted are then drawn from the 16 points
to show the progress of the point. The around the original circle and where
resultant curve described by the point these lines intersect their relative circles
during the one complete turn of the they fix points on the cycloidal curve. In
wheel is the cycloidal curve. the diagram Fig. 14 point 10 has been
It is not a difficult curve to draw and chosen to illustrate the method. It can be
Fig. 14 shows how this can be done. A seen that it is not necessary to draw the
circle is drawn on the line and this circle complete circle to fix the point, an arc
is then divided into any number of parts crossing the horizontal line is all that is
- 16 are shown in the example but the needed. A smooth curve is then drawn
more divisions used the easier it will be passing through all 16 points. It can be
to obtain a good curve. A length equal to seen that the curve is symmetrical about
the circumference ofthe circle is marked the vertical centre line.

FIG I';> THE. E.PIC.YC.LOIDA..L Cue.'VE

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If, however, instead of rolling the rolling the generating circle, as it is
circle along a straight line it is rolled called, outside the base circle it can be
around the circumference of another rolled inside it when another curve will
circle, the resulting curve traced by a be found. The construction of the new
point on the rolling circle will produce a curve is basically similar to the
curve known as an epicycloid, see Fig. epicycloid, see Fig. 16. This new curve is
15. The construction of the curve is called the hypocycloid and represents
basically similar to the cycloid except the shape of a gear tooth below the
that the length of the circumference of p.e.D.
the rolling circle is measured around the It can now be seen that the shape of a
circumference of the base circle, the gear tooth of cycloidal form is a
intermediate points being obtained by combination of two distinct curves
division as before. Another difference in joined together at the pitch circle
construction is that the projections from diameter of the gear. Fig. 17 shows the
the point on the rolling circle are not shape of a typical gear tooth; it also
straight lines but are arcs taken from the shows that the surface above the p.e.D.
centre of the base circle which can be is usually called the 'face' whilst the
swung round with the aid of a pair of surface below the p.e.D. is referred to as
compasses. This epicycloidal curve is the 'flank'. The whole of the tooth above
important as the initial part of this curve the p.e.D. is the addendum whilst the
is the correct shape for the gear tooth whole ofthe tooth below the p.e.D. is the
outside the p.e.D. dedendum.
Going one step further, instead of By studying the way in which the

SA. SE C.IR,C.LE.~,
p

HYPOCYCLOID

FICO IG, THE. HYPOC.YC.LOIOAL cue,,\:


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ADDE>JDU,",, 7
used in the same train . It is possible, but
not usual when considering a pair of
gears that only mesh with each other, to
have one generating circle for the flanks
ofthe driverteeth and faces ofthe driven
teeth, and another generating circle for
the flanks of the driven teeth and faces of
the driver teeth .
When setting out a gear train from
scratch, the size of the generating circle

~ICYC.LOID _

FIG. 17 A TYPICAL CfC.LOI D"L


TOOTH -l---t----+-!p.~.,C . o.
tooth shapes are determined it will be RE.\JEesED c.ueve.
clearly seen that the shape of a gear \4YPOC.YCLOID _ /
tooth on any p.e.D. can be influenced by
the size of the rolling or generating
circle. The size of the generating circle
may vary but not in any two gears that
are to mesh together. All gears based on
the same rolling or generating circle will \=IG I~. SHOWlt-.!G 1\.1E. E.I=FE.C.T Ot-.! TOOTH
run together correctly and maintain
WI-<E"-l 'T\4E. DI .... METE:~ OF'il-\E <::.EIJEeATlt-JE,
constant velocity but gears having
different generating circles must not be eleCLE I S c:,~e.I>.~g l>11>.l-J A. I4A.LI= of
Tt-lE P. C. D.

E.PIC.Yc.LOID _ must be determined and often the size


chosen is half t he p.e .D. of the smallest
pinion . This ra t io is interesting because
_ 1-------t--_.L Pc. 0 the hypocycloid generated by a rolling
circle whose diameter is half the p.e .D. is
a straight line. It is easy to verify this for
S~I ... I_fTL..INE yourself by simply drawing one
I-<VPOC.YC.LOID - following the instructions already given .
This means, of course, that the flanks of
the teeth on such a gear are straight-
sided and radial, see Fig . 18. Even
FIG 18. SHO"WIt-.!G, TI-IE TDOTI-I PROI=ILE
though the flanks are straight lines the
USING ,... 1Qe.\...iE.~T I t-.!G. C.IRCLE. WI-<05E. gears will still roll together correctly and
DI-'\-,\E.TEP I S A. I4"'LI=' OF" THE. RCD. maintain constant velocity .

20

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It is possible to increase the size ofthe teeth of the two gears must make
generating circle further and still contact with each other while in mesh.
produce correctly formed gears; When discussing the impractical
however, doing this produces a flank rectangular tooth shape earlier it was
with a reversed curve. This undercuts pointed out that a geat amount of
the root of the tooth and so produces a friction was caused by the 'teeth'
weak form of tooth. This type of gear is rubbing together. Friction is the main
only used for lightly loaded lowly- enemy of the engineer as not only is it
stressed duties, see Fig. 19. responsible for power losses but it also

~~-+-~~~~+- LIIJE. 01= COI'JTACT


P.CD. 01= OC2.IVE.1J BETWEE.l--l TEETH
INHEEL-
\
\
8

y
FIe:, 20 ILLUSnzA..TI>JE, THE. LIIJE. 01= CO>JTA.CT
BETWEEN Two C.YC.LOIDA.L Te.E.T14

There is no ideal ratio between the generates heat and causes rapid wear.
P.C.D. and the generating circle, Gears are no exception and every effort
otherwise it would always be used and must be made to reduce the rubbing
become a standard. One eminent gear action between the engaged teeth. This
designer suggests that 2.22 times the is another reason why gear tooth shape
circular pitch is a good base from which is important. Ideally the teeth should not
to start. rub against each other but merely roll
over one another.lfthe rubbing action is
TOOTH CONTACT removed then so is most of the friction.
If one gear has to pass its power onto Fortunately the shape that gives us
another gear then it is obvious that the 'constant velocity' also gives us the

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basic rolling action. As the teeth come driver that make contact with flanks of the
into mesh and out again, contact has to driven gear.
be made and this contact is not There are occasions when the
haphazard but follows a definite path, or elimination of as much friction as is
line of action. This is illustrated in Fig . 20 possible becomes paramount over
which shows that the line of contact other considerations and such a
follows the shape of the generating situation arises in the gear trains of
circle of the driver gear A, but only up to clocks where little power needs to be
the centre line passing between the two transmitted, t he clockmaker being
gears - line XV. Here the line of action interested mainly in motion . To
leaves the generating circle of wheel A conserve power by reducing friction is
to follow the path of the generating the prime consideration and since the
circle of wheel 8 until disengagement is high friction point of the arc of contact is
complete. The line of action up to the the approach then this is where
centre line is termed the 'arc of attention must be concentrated. The
approach' whilst the line of contact after obvious solution is to eliminate the
the centre line is called the 'arc of whole of the contact before the centre
recess'. As in the case ofthe shape ofthe line is reached, which means completely
gear tooth, the line of action is a removing all the flanks off the teeth of
combination of two curves that join the driver. This drastic action renders
together at the p.e.Ds. the faces of the driven wheel redundant
and so they can go also. What remains is
LANTERN PINIONS a driver wheel with no teeth below the
It is an engineering fact that the friction pitch circle and a driven wheel with no
that is generated during the engagement teeth above the p.e.D. It was seen that
of the teeth is far greater than the friction altering the size of the generating circle
arising during disengagement. Referring had a considerable effect upon the
to Fig. 20 the friction along the line of con- cycloidal curves. If the size of the
tact left of the line XY is greater, thereby generating circle were to be made the
causing more wear and power loss, than same diameter as the p.e.D. of the
the friction that occurs after or to the right driven wheel which will be regarded as a
of the line XV. The above is only correct so pinion, then the shape of the resulting
long as A is the driver; should A become hypercycloid on the driven wheel
the driven gear then the roles will be becomes a point. The form of the wheel
reversed and the high friction side would and pinion is now as shown in Fig. 21.
be to the right, which would then be the Obviously the above arrangement is
new approach side. Referring back to the impractical and therefore some
'arc of approach' the actual parts of the modifications must be made to the
teeth that would be in contact are the points on the pinion so that some useful
flanks of the driver gear A and the faces of advantage can be gained from this
the driven gear 8, that is the 'root' of the theoretical situation. Euclid defines a
teeth on the driver and the 'tops' of the point as having pOSitIOn but no
teeth on the driven. After the centre line is magnitude. In order to obtain
passed, the point of contact moves up the magnitude a circle of material can be
teeth so that it is now the faces of the added completely around the points on

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PC.D. OF PI"-lIO"-l "'''-lD
AL.50 GE.NEeA.Tlt-JG,
DRIVI"t-J PI"-lION - c:.11<c:.LE. OF 80114 GE.AK'S

EPICYCLOID~ TEET14 H.A.VE


FoRI-'IED BY BECOME. POlt-JTS
GENE"A.""iI"-l ~

PC.D OF DRIV~
the pinion thus making them into pins, to give the clearance will not do as this
the centre of the pins thus becoming the would mean that the p.e.D. of the two
original points. The behaviour of the gears would no longer be in contact and
pins will theoretically be similar to that this condition must be at all times be
of the original points and for all practical preserved. The solution to the problem
purposes the pins have become is to remove or cut away part of the teeth
hypercycloids. Enlarging the points into on the wheel so as to make room for the
pins will necessitate modification to the pins on the pinion. If the portion cut
wheel in orderto make room forthe pins away from each tooth is one-half of the
to engage with the teeth of the wheel. pin's diameter and with the cutting line
Moving the wheel centres further apart parallel to the original outline of the

REMOVI>J6 H""LF PI"-l


DI"'ME.1'E12 ACoM QRlG,I"-lA.L
EP\C..YCLOID5

FIG, 2'2. SHO\oJI'-lG, \\-IE. PRA.C.TiCAL. FORM OF' THE L."'~TE.2"-l


PIt-lS At-lD ""iEEil4 M~E. STILL OF CO,,"~c:.T C.YCL.OIDA..L FOe'''''.

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as loose pins in space and so a pinion is
usually a series of pins mounted
between two sides or end cheeks. This
type of pinion is called a lantern pinion
simply because it resembles an old type
of lantern - see Fig. 23.
In all gears of this type ifthe wheel A,
Fig. 20, is the driver then the
engagement of the gear teeth will take
FIG 23 SHD'W\~6 TI-IE. FOR""
place after the line of centres has been
passed and so is in the low friction area
OF A. Lt>..NTE~~ PINION
of recess. This results in the minimum of
tooth then a space will be made power being lost during transmission.
available for the pin; however, in order The wheel with the projecting teeth
to complete the clearance a semi- must always drive the pin wheel or
circular space must be provided below lantern pinion. Should the lantern pinion
the pitch line of the tooth. Fig. 22 shows be made the driver then the contact
the final shape. The pinion cannot exist between the teeth would be in the high
e

Bt>-.SE. CII<c..I..E.

FIG 2.4. THI:: INVOLUTE CUI2.VE. At-.JD


IT:; c.O\.J5TlZ.L.lCTION

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friction arc of approach and the whole adversely affect the proper action of the
object of the design would be lost. It is gear teeth. The definition of the involute
not usual in general engineering for the curve as applied to gear teeth is a
larger wheel to drive the smaller pinion geometrical curve traced by a point in a
and so the lantern wheel is mainly flexible inextendable cord being
confined to clock work where this unwound from a circular disc, the
arrangement is the norm. circumference of which is called the
It can be seen that cycloidal teeth can base circle, the disc being concentric
vary considerably in shape and yet still with the pitch circle of the gear. That is
fulfil the needs of smooth action and the technical definition of an involute
constant velocity between the mating but it is more easily understood by
gears. So long as the generating circles thinking of a disc or drum with a string
are the same diameter for any two gears around it and as the string is unwound
running together, then whatever the from the drum, so long as the string is
resulting shape of the teeth may be, the kept taut, the path taken by the end of the
two gears will run together string will describe an involute curve;
satisfactorily. Fig. 24 shows an involute curve and its
geometrical construction. Any number
INVOLUTE TEETH of radial lines, OA, OB, OC, etc., may be
Gears based upon the cycloidal curve do drawn and the more lines that are used
maintain constant velocity between the the more points on the curve will be
two P.C.Ds butthis is only true so long as produced thus making it easier to draw
the two P.C.Ds are touching each other. the involute correctly. The lines Bb, Cc,
If, for any reason, the gear centres are Dd, are always tangents or, in other
opened out and the P.C.Ds lose contact words, the angles OEe, ODd, OCc, etc.,
then the constant velocity condition will are always right-angles and the length of
not be met. Th is means that if the wheel the lines Bb, Cc, etc., is the same length
centres are not accurately set in the first as the circumference between the
place or, as is more likely, the wheel relevant tangent point and the start of
bearing wears thus allowing the gears to the 'unwinding' point A. Unlike the
spread, the constant velocity condition cycloidal curve which has a definite start
will be lost. The gear ratio between the and finish and can be repeated over and
gears cannot alter as this is determined over again, the involute is one curve
by the number of teeth on the respective only and goes on indefinitely as the
gears but the gears will not revolve unwinding action continues. Although
evenly; speeding up and slowing down the curve is endless the only part that is
will take place as the teeth come into and considered in the formation of gear
out ofthe engagement, thus introducing teeth shape is the initial part of the curve
vibration and noise in the mechanism. If where it leaves the base circle. Fig. 25
the gearteeth are shaped on the involute shows a typical tooth shape for an
curve then the constant velocity involute gear. It can be seen from this
condition will not be affected by a small that the contact surfaces of the face and
arr:ount of spreading of the gear wheel flank are not two curves intersecting on
centres, which means that any normal the pitch line but one continuous curve
wear in the gear wheel bearings will not that starts on the base circle. The base

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I"-lVOLUTE. CUI2VE-

FACE -
_ _LPlT0-\ Cle..c.I...E

--------
BA.SE oec.LE.

FIG 25 I"'VOLU,c Too,H FoeM.

circle is not the pitch circle, it is the disc must be concentric to it. The tooth
or drum from which the 'string' extends below the base circle by a small
unwinds. The base circle is always amount which provides a clearance
smaller in diameter than the P.C.D. but between the bottom of one tooth and the
A

PC-D. -~_

BA-5E. CIRCLE. 7 TANGE"-.IT POI"-\T--

"i
/~/
,

:
IT

/ /
/

C
2('" THIS SHOWS HO\,..} '\-IE
FIE.
---_. ~TIO oE.TWEEN
THE. BASE. CJ'2.C.LE. At-JD ,\-IE. P. c.o. IS e.EPI2E.SE."-!TE.D
A5 A.l-J ANGLE.

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top of another and also allows a space tangential to the base circle, the tangent
for a small blending radius to add point being point T with the angle TCP
strength to the root ofthe tooth. Any pair being the pressure angle ofthe gear. It is
or train of involute wheels that are to more usual, however, to show angle
work together must have the same ratio TPD on gear tooth drawings as this has
between the radius ofthe base circle and the same value as angle TCP but
the radius of the pitch circle. Reference eliminates the necessity of drawing the
to Fig. 26 will show that the ratio gear centre. In the case of the cycloidal
between the base circle and the P.C.D. is teeth it was seen that the line of contact
not usually quoted as a ratio but as an between the gear teeth was a
angle. AC is the centre line of the tooth combination of two curves; in the case
passing through the centre of the gear of the involute form the line of contact is
and where this line intersects the pitch a straight line and is shown in Fig. 27 as
circle establishes the position of point P. the line AB. All the contact takes place
A line is now drawn from point P outside the base circles.

PITo-I C.le.C.LE'E>

.... ~

L
/ '"',
BASE c"12.C,Ll:.

ROTATlO"-l-7

CONT,<>.CT START'S '"T


POIlVT A A"-lD El--lDS
AT POI'-lT B.

FIG '21 THE. Ul--lE. O!= CO"-lT",CT BETWEE."-l


TWO 1"-l\JOLUTE TEETI-\

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Altering the pressure angle of the tooth that appear longer. Only gears of the
not only alters the shape of the teeth but same pressure angle should be used in
also alters the length ofthe contact path: the same train. Gears with a 20° pressure
the greaterthe pressure angle the longer angle should not be used to mesh with
will be the line of contact. Fortunately in gears based on the 14'/2° angle;
modern involute gearing there is not a although they would rotate their action,
great proliferation of pressure angles, performance and life would be seriously
the most common angle in use being impaired. Any involute gears of the
20°. This angle has been found to give same pressure angle and pitch will run
good tooth shape and also provide a together correctly although the shape of
strong tooth root producing a gear that the teeth on one gear may not be similar
is capable of long life and good to the shape of the teeth on the mating
performance. The only other pressure gear. This is due to the involute curve
angle that has been in general use is varying with the diameter of its base
14V2°, however, this angle seems to have circle. The tooth shape will have a
fallen out of favour with gear designers pronounced curve on a pinIOn
although some lathe manufacturers still possessing relatively few teeth while on
use the 14'/2° pressure angle for the the larger wheels the sides of the teeth
change-wheels. The larger pressure may be almost straight. In fact the rack
angles make the teeth more 'stubby' form of the involute is a perfectly
while the smaller angles produce teeth straight line at the pressure angle.

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CHAPTER 3

Gear Tooth Sizes

In the previous chapters the shape ofthe the circular pitch will invariably result in
gear teeth has been discussed but not an awkward number for the pitch circle
the size. Obviously a gear of, say, 3in. diameter. The reason for this is that the
diameter could have 20 teeth upon it or it circumference of the P.C.D. equals the
could have 200 teeth. Both sets of teeth number ofteeth in the gear multiplied by
could be of perfect involute form but the circular pitch. The number of teeth
they could not be run together as their must, of course, be a whole number and
physical sizes would be considerably when this is multiplied by the round
different. Some means or standard of figureofthecircularpitch itwill naturally
determining tooth size is therefore result in a round figure for the
necessary. The basic datum for all gear circumference. However, in order to
calculations has up to now been the obtain the P.C.D. the circumference
pitch circle diameter and it remains so must be divided by Pi, and any round
for determining or defining the tooth
CE"-lT~E
size. There are three methods in general
use for specifying the size of gear teeth,
these are the circular pitch, the
diametrical pitch and the module. If any
one of these is known then the others, if
required, can be determined by simple
calculation.
CIRCULAR PITCH
The circular pitch of a gear is the OgCULA.R PlTc..H /
distance from a point on one tooth to a OF ""E.AR
corresponding point on the next tooth
measured around the pitch circle
diameter. Fig. 28 illustrates this. The
circular pitch is usually quoted as some
round figure such as V4in., V2in., 3f4in., FIG '28 S140WI"-lG HO",", CI!ZCULA-R
etc., however, using a round number for PITC.H 15 MEA5UI<.ED

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figure divided by 3.1416 will in itself be P.C.D. of 2in. diameter and has 40 teeth
awkward. It can be argued that in the then it is said to be 20 D.P. Ifthe number
workshop one size is just as easy to were to be 40 on a P.C.D. of 1 in.
measure as any other and that diameter then the D.P. would be 40. D.Ps
measuring by a vernier caliper gauge to are usually whole numbers and, more
3.017 is just as easy as measuring 3.000. often than not, even numbers. It is not
This may be so but it certainly helps the usual to encounter an odd D.P. number
designer, particularly when setting out a after 10 D.P. has been reached and gears
train of gears, to be able to use round below 10 D.P. will in the main be larger
figures for the wheel centres. The than the amateur will want to cut. This
problem is largely academic because arrangement makes the setting out of
the relatively small gears that the gear train centres easy. For example,
amateur will encounter will not be based should it be decided to produce two
on the circular pitch notation. The gears to give a ratio of 3:1 and 20 D.P.
exception to this could be in things like was chosen for the tooth size, two gears
downfeed pinions for drilling and - one with 20 teeth and one with 60 teeth
milling machines. - would appear to be satisfactory. The
P.C.D. of the 20 tooth would be 1 in.
DIAMETRAL PITCH while the P.C.D. ofthe 60 tooth would be
This is certainly by farthe most common 3 in. This would mean that the gear
and the most useful method of notation centre would be 2in., or half of the
for small gears and the definition of a addition of the two P.C.Ds.
small gear in this case is any gear that
the model engineer or backyard MODULE
amateur is likely to handle. The Older text books quote the module as
diametral pitch is simply the number of being the reciprocal of the D.P. but more
teeth a wheel has per inch of pitch recently it has become the 'metric' way
diameter. For example, if a gear has a of quoting the size of the teeth. The

D+S -~

f
;1/ 1<''0
(~'
/
t) TOOTH THICKNE.SS ON Pile ~\ lJ"-lE. Y2 C.l12.C.ULA.R PITCH.
S, ADDE.NDUM ' '1DP OR 3183" CII2CuLAR. PilCH
D, WORKING, DEPTH OF TOOTH = 2/DP
D~:\. WHOLE DE.?IH OF TOOTH
" ·G,8Go<o, CIRcuLAR. PITCJ-\

FIe:, 29 TOOTH "PeOPOIlTIONS

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module can be said to be the pitch teeth the only control the operator has
diameter in millimetres divided by the over tooth proportion is the depth to
number of teeth, or to put it the other which he cuts the teeth. Provided the
way round, the p.e.D. in millimetres is teeth are cut to the correct depth the
the module number multiplied by the shape of the cutter will determine the
number of teeth in the gear. As there are proportion of the teeth. The whole
25.4 millimetres to one inch then a depth, or the cutting depth ofthe teeth is
number 1 module is equal to 25.4 D.P., a shown by the symbol D+f. This is the
number 2 module would be 12.7 D.P. international symbol and for the benefit
whilst a .5 module would be 50.4 D.P. of the operator is usually quoted on all
commercial cutters. Fig. 29 also shows
the thickness ofthe tooth atthe pitch line
TOOTH PROPORTIONS to be the same as the tooth space at the
As yet nothing has been said about the pitch line. While this is theoretically
proportions of the teeth, that is the correct, in practice the tooth space is
amount the teeth project above or below usually made a little wider than the tooth
the pitch circle and the width of the teeth thickness. Some text books quote the
at the pitch circle. These proportions are tooth thickness as being .48 of the
shown in Fig. 29 but this is really for circular pitch, thus making the tooth
academic interest only as when cutting space .52 of the circular pitch.

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CHAPTER 4

Rack & Pinion Gears

Rack and pinion gears are not usually revolutions. In the case of case of a rack
thought of as being two ordinary and pinion the rack has a predetermined
rotating spur gears but, in actual fact, travel and once the pinion reaches the
that is basically what they are. A rack is end ofthe rack, motion has to cease and
only a small part of a very large spur further movement has to be in the
gear wheel. If the diameter of a gear opposite direction so that at the end of
were to be increased in size to infinity each cycle of operation both rack and
then its pitch circle diameter would pinion return to their original starting
become a straight line. A rack is only a position. One consequence of this is that
small section cut out of this gear of the same tooth on the pinion always
infinite diameter. engages with the same tooth on the
Rack and pinions only differ in rack. This condition only applies to
operation from a pair of spur gears in the rotating gears when both driven and
specific duties they perform. Two spur driver gears have the same number of
gears, because they are circular, could teeth. A rack and pinion is a means of
keep rotating for an indefinite number of converting linear motion from rotary

PITCH CIRCLE.
OF PINION ________

PITCH LI>-IE.
OF RAC.K.

A
PITCH POI~T ~
FIG 30 SloWIt-jE, wow TwE. P12.I"-lCIPLE OF
"THE. PITC.1-4 C\~e. I::' ....\>PLlE.D TO />.. 12N:.K
AND PIr-.)IOl-J.

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motion or, when the rack is the driver, satisfaction where the teeth are correctly
rotary motion from linear motion. designed and made.
The two gears are set out and
planned in accordance with the same
principle already outlined for designing THE INVOLUTE FORM OF RACK AND
a pair of spur gears. In Fig. 30 the pinion PINION
P is represented by its pitch circle If the involute form has been employed
diameter and the rack by a straight line, for a rack and pinion then both the rack
this being a portion of a P.C.D. of infinite or the pinion can be used
diameter. The two pitch lines contact indiscriminately as the driver or driven
each other at point A. In practice just component and either configuration will
consider the P.C.D. as a disc rolling perform equally well. The involute
along the straight pitch line. The length shape of the teeth on the pinion will be
of the rack required will naturally exactly the same as that used on a spur
depend upon the diameter of the P.C.D. gear, in fact any spur gear of the same
of the pinion. Every revolution of the pitch and pressure angle as the rack will
pinion will require a rack with an mesh correctly with it, which is not
effective length equal to the surprising because it has already been
circumferential length of the pinion. A established that the rack is only a part of
pinion with a P.C.D. of, say, 2in. will a large spur gear. The rack teeth will
require about 6V2in. length of rack for differ slightly from the pinion teeth
each revolution the pinion has to make owing to the P.C.D. of the rack being of
to fulfil its design requirements. infinite size. The shape of the resulting
All the aspects of tooth shape that involute will be a straight line. The rack
were discussed with regard to spur teeth will therefore be straight-sided
gears must also be applied to rack and throughout their entire working length.
pinion teeth if the constant velocity of The teeth will not be perpendicular to
the mating pitch line is maintained. The the pitch line but inclined atthe pressure
gear tooth form can be either involute or angle and so the rack will have a form as
cycloidal, either standard giving shown in Fig. 31. The pitch of the rack

Pt2ESSURE. Ai'JCSl.e. ~
/

PilCH U"-.IE..

FIe:, 31 Ii'..)VOLLlTE. F~ OF £AC.K...

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teeth is measured from any point on one teeth. The rack teeth will be a shape
tooth to a similar point on the next tooth different from any previously described.
- in Fig. 31 the centre line of the tooth The P.C.D. of the rack is a straight line
has been chosen. Usually the circular and the generating circle rolling upon it
pitch method of denoting the size of the will produce a true cycloid as shown in
tooth is used as this gives a nominal figs. 13 and 14. The tooth shape above
round figure for the pitch of the rack and the pitch line, or the face, will therefore
although this results in the pinion be a cycloid and not an epicycloid as
having an awkward P.C.D., that is they have been on other occasions. The
generally preferred to a non-standard curve produced by rolling the same
rack pitch. If a rack is used to provide a generating circle underneath the pitch
feed for a machine tool such as the line will again be a cycloid, in fact it will
downfeed of a vertical milling machine, be a mirror image of the first one, so the
it becomes easier to calibrate a dial for a tooth below the pitch line will also be a
pitch .200 than it would be if a 16 D.P. cycloid and not a hypocycloid. The final
standard had been used which would tooth shape will be a combination of two
resu It ina rack pitch of .1963. similar but 'opposite hand' cycloids
blending together at the pitch line. Fig.
RACK & PINIONS WITH 32 shows the shape of both pinion and
CYCLOIDAL TEETH rack.
The cycloidal tooth form can be applied
to a rack and pinion in just the same way PIN TEETH APPLIED TO RACK
as was used in spur gearing. Should the & PINIONS
design requirements demand a rack and The teeth of the rack or pinion may be of
pinion where either could be called upon the circular or pin form employing the
to be the driver, then the system of same principle used in the lantern pinion
epicycloidal faces and hypocycloidal and wheels shown in chapter 2 and
flanks should be used for the pinion illustrated in fig. 22. In this case the

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PITCH !>.NO GEl'JE.e.t>.\II-lG /
C.12.C.I...E. OF PIN "looTH
\
PII-lION \
PINION oelVEN

PINS AS
HYPOC.YCI...OIDS ~

FIG 33 l2/ICK WITH LA.NTE..~t-..l PII...)ION


THE. !<ACK. 15 THE. PIi<..IVER

duties of the two components cannot be The arrangement whereby the pinion
interchanged. The pin teeth must always becomes a pin wheel is shown in fig. 33.
be on the driven component and if the The pins represent the hypocycloid
pin wheel is used as a pinion then the produced by using a generating circle
rack must be the driver. Should the pin whose diameter is the same as the pitch
teeth be on the rack then the pinion must circle diameter of the pinion. The teeth
be arranged to drive the rack. on the rack will have a true cycloidal face

PITCH CII2LLE:-y/
I PINION

I DR.I\JER

IIJVOl...un
>'A.c.e. - - _

PIItH UNe. - "


~++~-+~r-~~~-~~~;~~-Y~-

~/~-------+--'--'---=~=-=-'-=--­
PINS A" I-IYPOC"fC.I...CIC

FIG 31+. ~CJ( AND PI>-..\IOi--l. WITI-4 Plio.l TOOi\-l


--- F02."" I>.I'PWEO To RA.C-I<..

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above the pitch line, the cycloid being affect the validity of the pins being
formed by rolling the p.e.D. ofthe pinion hypocycloids - the theory of the pins
along the straight pitch line of the rack. holds good for any p.e.D. and
The radial spaces below the pitch line generating circle that are the same size
are only to allow a clearance for the irrespective of what, or how great, that
passage of the pins and take no part in size may be. What is affected is the teeth
tooth engagement. All tooth engage- on the pinion which will have only faces
ment takes place after they have passed and no flanks since, of course, the faces
the centre line and are in the low friction are formed by a generating circle that is
area of contact but this applies only so a straight line. This straight line, rotating
long as the rack is the driver. The actual or rocking on the p.e.D. of the pinion,
width ofthe rack will have to be less than will in fact behave exactly as the
the distance between the two end plates "flexible inextendable cord" used in the
ofthe lantern pinion. This is necessary in definition of the involute curve, and the
order to provide a clearance for the end resultant shape of the epicycloid will be
plates whose diameter for practical an involute curve. We have therefore the
reasons must be greater than the p.e.D. strange situation of the faces on the
of the pinion and so will extend well pinion teeth being of involute form yet
below the surface of the rack. they are engaging quite correctly with
In cases where it is desirable to have the hypocycloidal pins on the rack. Fig.
the pinion as the driver, the pin teeth 34 illustrates this situation. The end
must be applied to the rack and this plates supporting the pin teeth of the
leads to a curious situation. The pin rack will naturally encroach over the
teeth represent a hypocycloid and, as pitch circle of the pinion. The face width
before, the generating circle must be ofthe pinion must therefore be less than
equal in diameter to the p.e.D., BUT, the the distance between the end plates of
p.e.D. of the rack is of infinite diameter, the rack to allow for a working clearance.
which is a straight line! This does not

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CHAPTER5

Bevel Wheels

Should the occasion arise where it to as mitre wheels: a cone type


becomes necessary to transmit power representation of this arrangement is
from one shaft to another and where the shown in Fig. 35. If we consider the
two shafts are not parallel to each other largest diameters of the two cones CC
then the use of bevel wheels will provide and DD we find they will be identical in
a satisfactory solution. From the size owing to the two cones being
amateur constructional point of view, identical and it follows that one
the teeth on bevel wheels - unlike spur revolution of diameter CC will result in
gears - are not easy to cut. The shape of one revolution of diameter DD and so
the teeth is such that without specialised both diameters will rotate at the same
equipment, not usually found in the speed. Any other two diameters of the
normal home workshop, the correctly cones, such as EE and FF, or GG and HH,
formed bevel tooth cannot be produced. will be in the same proportion to each
However, there are ways whereby a other as the base diameter and so their
compromise on tooth form can be speeds of rotation will be exactly the
achieved and bevel gears produced that same as the base diameters. No matter
may satisfy the constructor's where a section of cone A is taken, so
requirements, although the actual tooth long as it is parallel to the base and at
form will be an approximation rather right-angles to the centre line, its
than the correct theoretical shape. The diameter will be the same as the
problems involved will be better respective section of cone B. From this it
understood by considering the action of can be seen that the entire surfaces of
a pair of bevel wheels in a similar way to the two cones will roll together without
that used with spur gearing, that is as a slip. Any two touching diameters, such
friction drive without the teeth. In this as EE and FF, could be chosen for the
case the rotating disc will have to be pitch ci rcles of the gear without affecti ng
replaced by rotating cones. Where the the relative speeds of the two shafts.
two shafts are at right-angles to one In the case of spur gears it was seen
another and rotate at the same speed the that if the two shafts joined by a pair of
resultant gears are sometimes referred gears had to rotate at different speeds

37

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-FOLLOWER
_____ ____-L_-
D

DRIVER-

1=1," 35 A. C.ONE. REPRE.Sb.)TATIO"-l


OF A. pA.le OF MITi?.e. 5EAJ2S

OIA. EE

DIA. GG

then the ratio of the respective gear pitch still give touching circles that have
circle diameter must be similar to the precisely the same velocity ratio as the
speed ratio required. Similar conditions base circles of the cones. So once again
apply to bevel wheels; if the two shafts the condition is met whereby the
joined by the bevels are to rotate at surfaces of the two cones will roll
different speeds, then the diameters of together perfectly without any slip
the cone bases must be proportional to taking place. It will be seen from both
the speeds required. This condition is Figs. 35 and 36 that a line joining the two
shown in Fig. 36, where the shaft of cone cone centre lines is one continuous
A is to make two revolutions whilst the straight line. This will always be so with
shaft of cone B only makes one shafts at right-angles irrespective of the
revolution. To achieve this the base of gear ratios chosen. All the above
cone B has a diameter equal to that of comments are only true where the two
twice the diameter of cone A. Although axes of the cones and shafts intersect
the two cones are of different diameters but this is the condition that applies to
and face angles, sections taken at any the majority of bevel gears encountered
point upthe cone, such as EE and FF, will in general engineering practice.

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D

Dlt>.. FF - _______
IF
I
i

FIG 3/0 B~VE.L I,./I-IEELS, 120TATIt-.lG.

A.T OIFFE.eENT 5f>E.ED5 BuT

WITH 5HA.FTS A.T glE,~\"-A.NG,LES

FIG 37 A. PAI~ OF 5\V\ILA.e


SIZE. B~VEL W\-\~L'S WITH

SHt>..FTS A. T A"-l t>..CI..lTE. "'N5LE.

39

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/

C.ON. /CSHI>.FT t>.NG.Ll;.

/
7
SHt>.FT ANGLE:: CO"-lE ~"-l\SU:5
11-41515 Tt<>.lE ;ooe
A-+B
I>o.>.:,y T"-lO Be.~EI..

WI-lE.EL5 WHOSE. APE(E':o AeE. COI"-lC.'DE."-lT


FIE. "3e. 5 .. 0WINE> A. P""~ 01' DISSIIV\ILA.R.
SI"Z.E BE.VE-L WH~L~ WI-l05E SHI>.m />..i?f.
A.T AN OBTuSE A~L.E

CO"-lE. OF PINIO"l eOT....TING.


ON I~DE. 5U~FA.c..E. OF
'1riE. WH!O.U. c..OIJE

APE)( POlt-.lT

FIG. 39 THE. PRINClPLE. OF THE. I>':'~~NA.L


8E.\J~ c:.EA\?,

40

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T)-IE: WHOLE. TOOTH
P20F'I..E 0,,,,,,,,,1''01-11:0:.
1"-1 S,Le. TO~"~O _-!
THE APE" ~

-PITCH ueCLE

~ ILLLlSTRATI1.J6 \-lOW

ThE. Fo~ OF '" BE.\JE.L TooTH


15 CONTlN\lOIJSLY c:.l-I""-l6INc:.

Shafts not at right-angles can also be the cone surface of the pinion will roll in
joined together by bevel gears and the contact with the internal surface of a
principles outlined above still apply. Fig. larger wheel. This arrangement, even in
37 depicts two shafts at an angle of less the modern technological age where
than 90 0 joined together by a pair of sophisticated gear cutting machinery is
bevel cones. Should the required angle available, is avoided if at all possible as
be greater than 90 0 then the cone the problems involved in cutting the
configuration will be as shown in Fig. 38. teeth on the internal cone are
If the two shafts are to rotate at the same considerable. Fig. 39 illustrates this
speed then the cones will be of similar arrangement.
size, as shown in Fig. 37. Ifthe shafts are
to rotate at different speeds then one BEVEL GEAR TEETH
cone will be larger than the other, see All the conditions that were discussed
Fig. 38. The base circles of the cones are about maintaining constant velocity of
arranged in the same proportion to the the two mating discs when applying
respective speed ratio required, just the teeth to them to form spur gears also
same way as was described for the right- applies to bevel gears. When the teeth
angle shaft. are added the resultant bevel gears must
In theory it is possible to have internal continue to roll together as though they
bevel gears, that is, where the outside of were still smooth conical surfaces. This

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introduces a problem as both teeth and total length of the cone surface, Fig. 41.
spaces must be conical and follow the In order to give the correct rolling
shape of the pitch surface of the cones. contact and maintain constant velocity
All the surfaces of the teeth, if carried on between the two cones, the teeth on
towards the cone apex, must meet there bevel wheels are formed using the same
and so form a point. The size ofthe tooth principle describe for spur gear teeth.
in all its aspects is not constant: the There is, however, one considerable
whole of the tooth form is continuously difference; with spur gears the teeth are
changing and diminishes as the cone formed on the actual pitch circle
centre is approached. This is shown in diameter, but this is not so with bevel
Fig. 40. Every aspect of the surface ofthe gears. Referring to Fig. 40 it can be seen
teeth,faces, flank, as well as top and that the teeth are not in a plane parallel
bottom - must be conical. Bevel gear to the base of the pitch cone but are, in
teeth are almost always of involute form fact, perpendicular to the conical pitch
and so the actual involute shape will also surface. It would therefore be quite
alter as the tooth profile moves along wrong to develop the teeth on the
the conical surface. This means that the circumference of the pitch circle of the
normal type of form cutter will not give cone as this circle is perpendicular to the
the correct tooth profile as the cutter cone's axis. The involute curve has to be
would only be of the correct shape at developed from a circle perpendicularto
one point along the length of the tooth. the conical surface of the cone. Again
Should teeth of uniform section be used, referring to Fig. 40, the shape ofthe teeth
similar to spur gears, or even ifthe incor- shown in the end view is not the true
rect cone angle were used so that the shape of the teeth but the shape that is
teeth did not terminate at a point at the seen by looking square with the cone's
intersection line of the two pitch cones, axis rather than square with the cone
then the gears would not work together surface. This may be better understood
correctly. It may not even be possible to by referring to Fig. 41 where the teeth
assemble the gears at their correct posi- have been added to the cone. The pitch
tions as the teeth would interfere with circle of the cone is shown by the line BB
each other rather than dropping into cor- and the apex is point A. The length of the
rect mesh. Should power be applied to pitch cone is the line BA, to which teeth
rotate this type of gear then the teeth have been added and are shown shaded
would rapidly break up under the high on the drawing, the face of the tooth
stress imposed upon them. being above the pitch line whilst the
In practice the teeth are not carried on flank is below. Both the top and the
up to the apex point because as the bottom of the tooth, if projected, would
centre is approached the teeth become meet at the apex point. The teeth are
smaller until they finally disappear formed looking in the direction of arrow
altogether. Only a portion of the length F which is looking up the surface of the
of the tooth is of practical value for pitch cone. If a line is drawn at right-
transmitting power and this is naturally angles to the pitch cone and projected
at the large end of the cone. There is no back until it meets the cone centre line,
definite fixed standard for tooth length point C will be established. The length of
but it is usually about one-third of the the line BC is the radius of the true pitch

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- APPRO)(. LE.t-..I5TH OF TOOTH

'l.\'?
;

/\ -\

O.,~",-\,. J
TeIJE P.e.. O. ~ ~~ ~ -
iEE.TH I>.eE DE'JELOPe.O

>'1(, 1+-1 51-l0WI'-lE. I>-1E TI2.UE. PITCJ-I CJe.c.LE


Dli'.""ETE£. OF THE. T~Tl-\.

circle diameter on which teeth are become apparent that the line Be, Figs.
developed. Similar radii, such as ED, can 41 and 42, will never intersect with the
be established for any point along the centre line of the cone, which means that
length of the tooth. the true pitch circle is of infinite
diameter. The crown wheel is, therefore,
CROWN WHEEL & PINION the bevel wheel's equivalent of the rack.
The term crown wheel and pinion is In the case of the rack, the straight line
often used to describe a pair of bevel
wheels where the pinion is small B
compared to the wheel; a gear ratio of
around 4:1 would result in the wheel
appearing large when placed at the side
of its mating pinion and may merit the
term crown wheel and pinion. This is,
however, not strictly correct. A crown
wheel is a special type of bevel wheel
where the pitch angle has been
increased to 90°. By following the
method already described to determine
the diameter ofthe true pitch circle it will FIE. 4.-'2 THE. c.120Wt-J Wf-1E.E,\...

43

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pitch circle resulted in the involute teeth of both gears have been removed,
becoming a straight line and the same the wheel being represented by a flat
applies to the crown wheel, the teeth disc and the pinion by a cylinder. The
have straight sided faces and flanks but pinion is of constant diameter and as its
all features ofthe tooth must still meet at end is in contact with the wheel at
the centre line ofthe wheel even though diameter A it must move at the same
there is no cone. Fig. 42 shows a crown speed as the other end in contact with
wheel and how the teeth still taper diameter B on the wheel. The pinion will
towards the centre. The crown wheel, or try to drive the wheel at diameter A at a
to be more correct, the theory behind it, speed greater than it can at diameter B.
is used in industry as the basis of the This condition is true at any diameter of
generating system used in bevel gear the wheel between A and B that is in
production. contact with the pinion. Since all
Occasionally, and particularly in diameters of the wheel must rotate at
clockwork mechanisms or other low the same speed, a slipping action must
power transmissions, the 'crown wheel take place between the two surfaces in
and pinion' configuration shown in Fig. contact. As this slip could not occur
43 may be used. The teeth of both wheel when the teeth are added to the two
and pinion are not conical but parallel components, the whole arrangement is
over their entire length. This is impractical and can only be made to
theoretically quite incorrect and only work by reducing the tooth length (L in
works in practice where the length ofthe Fig. 43) to little more than a raised ridge.
tooth on the so-called crown wheel is at The wheel is only then able to transmit
a minimum and the ratio between the small amounts of power otherwise the
two gears is large thus resulting in large teeth would rapidly wear and totally fail.
wheel and very small pinion. To
understand the basic error in the LA YING OUT A PAIR OF BEVEL WHEELS
arrangement refer to Fig. 44. Here the It is certainly true that the setting or

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laying out of a pair of bevel wheels is not the actual shape and size for a pair of
so simple a process as laying out a pair bevel wheels is to work through an
of spur gears, but nevertheless it is not example.
particularly difficult if the correct Supposing therefore that a pair of
procedure is followed. In the case of shafts at right-angles are to be
spur gears which connect parallel connected by a pair of gears. The shafts
shafts, the size of the wheels is limited are to have a speed ratio of 2: 1 and 20
by the distance between the two shaft D.P. teeth are to be employed. There is a
centres. When the shafts are angled this wide choice available in determining the
limiting factor does not occur so the size of the gears as any two gears that
bevel wheels may, in theory, be any size have numbers ofteeth in the ratio of 2: 1
thus giving the designer considerable will meet the speed requirement of the
latitude in choosing both the size of the two shafts. For this example we will
wheels and also the number of teeth to choose a 60-tooth gear and a 30-tooth
be used. A large pair can naturally gear. The layout is shown in fig. 45. First
employ bigger and stronger teeth than a draw in the two shaft centres at right-
pair chosen further up the surface ofthe angles, these are the lines AA for the
generating cones. Probably the best way gear and BB for the pinion. Next, draw
to illustrate the method of determining lines for the cone base or pitch diameter;

Cl20I;JW YJ\-1E..E..L RE.PeE5E.NTEO

BY A DISC
PINIOW RE.PRESENTE.u
BY A c..YUWOE..\2. -

/"
//
,---\---+--r ---I
/1

THE.. OIST.... I-.K.E.. AROU"-lD 01 .... B IS Ge£ATE..e


..... "W I\.IE DI~TA.NCE. A.~U"-lO DIA.·"" BuT BOTH
MLlST 2OTA.TE. AT T\-IE 'SA.""'~ S\-1 .....FT 'SPE.E.D.
HOWE.VE2, THE. ?INIO"-.) 01 ..... ·C.' 1<.:, C.0"-l'S T""NT

FI Go 4-4- 5~OWlNE, WI-lY THE. EtE.M~. DE.PlC-TaD


l>-.l FI"o4-3 I'S 1;,)(OI2.I2.EC...T

45

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D
A

" H
B--~~~r-~----------~~--

TeUE. P.CD
O~ PIlJIOt-.J -

E E

I
A C

right-angles to the pitch lines are drawn


next, these lines passing through the
intersection points of the pitch lines and
cone base lines and continuing until
they intersect the cone centre lines at Z
and Y. These lines are sometimes
referred to as the back cone lines and
FIG, t..'7 SHO\NIN(;, \-lDW TO represent the back ofthe teeth. The teeth
LA.YOUT A. PA.Ii2 OF BE.Vf".l..S can now be drawn in. The height of the
y addendum is 1 divided by the D.P., in
this case '/20 or .050, the whole depth of
the tooth being twice this amount -
in the case of the wheel the diameter will although this is not strictly correct as no
be 3in. - this is found by dividing the clearance has been shown but it is
number ofteeth, which is 60, by the D.P. nevertheless satisfactory for layout
A similar calculation on the pinion will purposes. The lines representing the
give 30 divided by 20 which is 1 V2in. teeth should, of course, continue until
These lines are shown as CC and DD for they all meet at the apex point X. The
the gear and EE and FF for the pinion. length of the teeth will be influenced by
The pitch lines can now be drawn, these the load they have to carry and is a
pass through the intersecting points of matter of general designing, as is the
the cone base lines and also pass rest of the outline of the gears. The
through the centre point X. The pitch outline shown in the illustration
lines are shown as GG and HH. Lines at represents a typical bevel gear shape.

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CHAPTER6

Worm Gears

There are occasions when a large gear reductions of that magnitude so some
reduction is required and to obtain this other form of gearing must be found and
by means of spur gearing would the solution is to use a system known as
necessitate quite a large number of worm gearing. With a worm gear a ratio
shafts and gears which together with of 60:1, or much larger if required, can
their attendant bearings may result in a be achieved with just two gears, one
cumbersome and heavy gear box. being a worm and the other a worm
Although in theory there is no upper wheel. With spur gears either wheel of a
limit to the ratio that can be obtained by pair will look similar to the other, the
a spur gear and pinion, in practice the only difference being in physical size
wheel soon becomes too large to be and it is possible for either gear to drive
accommodated in the space that can be or be driven by the other one. With
made available for the complete gear worm gears the two components are in
box. It is not usual to have a pinion with no way similar in appearance, and
much less than 20 teeth and so to obtain although the worm can always be the
even a modest gear ratio of 5:1 would driver, in most cases the worm cannot
require a wheel having 100 teeth and be driven by the worm wheel.
this could well be too large to be A worm and wheel are shown
acceptable. In this case a further shaft diagrammatically in Fig. 46. The worm,
would have to be introduced and two which is the driver, is basically a screw
more gears employed, one pairto obtain thread engaging into teeth on the
a ratio of, say, 2V2: 1 and the other pair to periphery of the wheel. The wheel
provide a 2: 1 reduction. The gear train therefore is a gear and resembles a spur
would have to be compounded with two wheel in appearance. If the wheel were
of the gears secured to one shaft - to be fixed so that it cou Id not rotate,
compounding will be explained later then as the worm rotated it would move
when dealing with lathe change wheels. along its line of axis in a similar way to a
This shows that considerable problems screw being turned into a nut. In fact the
would arise should spur gears be used teeth ofthe worm wheel would be acting
to provide a high gear ratio of, say, 60: 1. in a similar way to the threads of a
Spur gears are not suitable for nut. The worm would move either

47

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backwards or forwards depending on worm gears but with one big difference:
whether it was being rotated clockwise the pitch circles or pitch surfaces of spur
or anti-clockwise. Should the worm be gears will roll together and theoretically
prevented from axial movement and the drive each other by means of friction,
wheel made free to rotate on its bearings but this is not so with worm gearing. Fig.
then as the worm rotates, since it cannot 47 depicts a worm and wheel as
now move axially, the movement would touching pitch surfaces. If the worm is
be imparted to the wheel and so the rotated there will be no turning effect
wheel would now rotate. If the direction imparted on the wheel at all. The worm
of rotation of the worm were to be will try to move over the surface of the
reversed then the direction of the wheel wheel parallel to the axis of the wheel
would also be reversed. The rotation of but since this movement will be
the worm and its shaft would be prevented by the bearings of the worm,
transmitted to the wheel and so onto the the two touching surfaces will rub or
shaft of the wheel, Fig. 46. grind together and give rise to excessive
In understanding and designing a friction. Conversely, if the wheel disc is
pair of spur gears it can be seen that they rotated all the energy will be expended
must be thought of as a pair of rotating in the line of the worm shaft and again
pitch circles. It is precisely the same with no turning effect will be produced or

-WOR.""".

PCD -

1/
.+\

48

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W012M

FIG 47

ROT/>.TION OF THE \NaI2M CYUi'JDEI< WILL


TRY TO MQ\JE. THe. WHE.EL l"-l n-1E DI~ECT\Ot-J
01= "'-1<120"'"' '1\ A-t-JD "-10 TU~It-J6 EFFORT
WILL B'E.. PRODUc..E.D

transmitted to the worm. It can be seen the teeth on the worm wheel having to
from this why it is always necessary to be made larger as it is essential that the
provide a worm with good thrust form of the thread on the worm should
bearings as most of the effort put into be similar to the tooth shape of the
turning the worm will not be transmitted worm wheel. Increasing the pitch does
to the wheel but will have to be absorbed not therefore alter the gear ratio
by the thrust bearings. between the worm and wheel, the wheel
In orderto obtain rotary motion, teeth will still only move one tooth for each
will have to be applied to both worm and revolution ofthe worm. So it can be seen
wheel and these teeth must be placed at that the gear ratio of the worm and
an angle to the axis of the shafts so they wheel is determined by the number of
can slide against each other. The teeth teeth on the wheel. If the worm wheel
on the worm are obtained by providing has 40 teeth then the worm will have to
the surface of the worm with a screw make 40 revolutions to drive the wheel
thread and the teeth of the worm wheel, round once. It can now be seen from the
which must be of the same form as the above that the diameter of the worm has
screw thread, will have to be angled on no bearing upon the gear ratio as the
the wheel at the thread helix angle pitch of the screw thread is not a
otherwise when the correct engagement function of its diameter. Increasing the
of the thread and tooth is obtained the diameter of the worm will only reduce
two gear shafts will not be at right- the helix angle of the thread and its only
angles to each other. effect on the wheel will be to reduce the
The amount of rotation given to the angle of the teeth in relation to the axis
worm wheel for each revolution of the of the wheel.
worm will depend upon the pitch of the It is possible to alter the gear ratio by
screw thread; the coarser the pitch the putting more than one thread on the
more movement given to the worm worm. For instance, if the pitch of the
wheel. The coarse pitch will necessitate screw is Vain. and the wheel has a pitch

49

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circle circumference of 3in., the wheel thread and the next will give the pitch of
would have 24 teeth at Va" circular pitch the thread but this does not mean that
resulting in a gear ratio of 24:1. If the this is the amount that the thread will
pitch of the screw were to be increased move in making one revolution. Should
to '/4in. and the pitch circumference of the thread be two-start then the axial
the wheel remained the same, there displacement made in one turn of the
would only be 12 teeth on the wheel and screw will be twice the pitch; if a three-
so the gear ratio would now be 12:1. start then the advance will be three
Supposing the number of teeth on the times the pitch, and so on. When
wheel had not been altered but had discussing multistart threads it is
remained at 24, then at a '/4" pitch the desirable to use the correct
worm would not engage in each tooth of nomenclature. The pitch is the distance
the worm wheel but in alternate teeth between a point on one thread and a
and so, using the same gear the ratio has similar point on the next thread but the
been halved from 24:1 to 12:1. In distance moved during one complete
practice the result of this arrangement revolution of the screw is called the lead.
would mean that only a half of the teeth The lead is therefore the pitch multiplied
on the wheel were being used and as by the number of starts on the thread.
only the pitch, and not the size of the
thread, has been altered, there would be WORM AND WHEEL TOOTH SHAPES
a space between each thread on the It was seen when discussing spur gears
worm. Now, if this space were to be used that the shape of the teeth was of great
to provide another thread in all respects importance; this is true of all forms of
similar to the original thread, this gearing and the worm and wheel is no
second thread would be a halfturn out of exception. Fig. 48 shows in section a
phase with the first thread and if the worm and wheel with the section being
resultant worm were to be looked at on taken through the centre of the worm.
the end, the threads would have two The teeth of the worm and wheel can be
starting positions, one diametrically regarded as the teeth of a rack and
opposite the other. This type ofthread is pinion and the rules governing the
referred to as a two-start thread and this shapes of the teeth of a rack and pinion
second thread will now engage into the will apply to the teeth of the worm and
gear teeth that the first thread is not wheel. If the involute system is being
using and so all 24 teeth ofthe wheel are employed then the screw thread of the
now fully employed. As each thread worm will have straight sides angled at
engages into alternate teeth the gear the pressure an~lle. The cycloidal system
ratio will be 12:1 and not 24:1. It is may also be used but the curved shape
possible for a worm thread to have more of the cycloidal rack will have to be
than two starts - for instance, again reproduced to the shape of the screw
using the original 24-tooth worm wheel, thread of the worm. The involute system
if the pitch of the worm were to be is invariably used as it is much easier to
increased to '/2" it would have 4 starts produce a worm with straight-sided
and the gear ratio would now be 6: 1. teeth. The worm and wheel will also
When looking at a multistart thread, work satisfactorily if the worm is in the
measuring the distance between one form of an ordinary screw thread as

50

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CIRCULAR PJ"'Tc..rl 01= \
TE.ETH O"-l WOR..i"\ ,o..12E.
WOl<.."" w~E.E.\...
OF~~

.~ \ - PITCH OIA.. OF
" WOI2i"\.

, - PITG-I OIA OF
WO'2.MWH~1..

w012.M 0:1 PC 0

I-WHEEL PCP

f\\

FIG 4-9 TI-lE SHA.PE 0': i'.WE.I..L PROPol?TIONED


W00VIi'."-lD WHEE.\'"

51

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PITCH 011>..
OF WOR.M

TEE TH ON THE WHE.'=O'_


INC.LIN~D A.T HE.LI 'X O~

woRM
,
peo. - \
!

FIG 50_ SI--lOVVI"-J(' A SI~P'~I"'Ie.D "'-Ogt-'l


VVHEEL WITH i=LA.T TOPPE.D TE.ETH C~T
TO MATC.~ TI--lE. HS-L\X ANCoLE OF lI-\~ WOl2.t-'I.

used for nuts and bolts. Of course, the they may not accurately fit the worm.
worm wheel must be made with teeth to The corners are therefore removed by
match the thread chosen. This is very means of a chamfer. This chamfer is
useful for amateur constructors as the shown in Fig. 49 as an angle of 60° and
most difficult operation in making a this angle is usually referred to as the
worm and wheel in the home workshop face angle. 60° has been found to give
is the production of the hob that actually satisfactory results although it is not a
cuts the teeth in the wheel. If a standard mandatory figure and may be varied. A
th read is used then an ordinary tap that worm and wheel made to the above
is normally used for forming the thread configuration will be capable of long life
in a nut can in fact be utilised as a hob; and high duties and is the preferred
this method will be explained in more profile when the required power
detail later. transmission is high. Its one
A correctly shaped worm wheel will disadvantage is that it is not easy to
have its circumferential face 'hollowed produce as the wheels have to be
out' to suit the radius of the worm, this is individually hobbed and the hob itself is
shown in Fig. 49. A wheel shaped this also a complicated shape that has to be
way follows the true form of the worm made with specialised tooling.
screw thread over the entire width of the Where the power transmission is not
worm wheel. In practice the whole width so taxing, or where the duties to be
of the wheel is not used as the corners performed are intermittent, the profile of
have a tendency to be weak and also the worm wheel may be simplified.

52

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HELIX ANG.L'='

FIG ;'1 USING, A 5TI2AISHT TboTH


5Plle. c::.E .....R.. AS A. Woe.M W\-\~~L

I nstead of the cu rved tooth form the face surface of the table, and thus unre-
of the wheel may be flat, similar to that stricted movement for the workpiece.
of a spur gear. In order to maintain the Worm gears do not generally have a
axis of the two components at right- high efficiency as much of the effort put
angles the teeth of the wheel must be into the worm shaft is lost in friction and
angled, or cut on the slant. This angle, in producing a high end load. For this
which is part of an helix, must naturally reason, when worm gears are used for
match the helix angle of the worm and power transmissions a ball thrust
this arrangement is shown in Fig. 50. It bearing has to be used and the whole
can be seen from this illustration that the unit enclosed in an oil bath. This notonly
teeth of the wheel do not follow the provides the necessary constant
worm profile and consequently do not lubrication but also helps dissipate the
possess the same strength and wear heat that the friction causes. The power
characteristics as the profiled or losses due to friction are diminished as
throated worm wheel. the pitch of the worm increases and so
Should it not be an essential feature multistart worms are more efficient than
of the design that the axis of both worm the single start worms. Unfortunately
and wheel be at right-angles then it is the multistart units generally have a
possible to use an ordinary straight- lower gear ratio than the single start
tooth spur gear as a worm wheel. The version and so the price for a high gear
axis of the worm must be angled until ratio will be a low mechanical efficiency.
the thread of the worm is in line with the The diameter of the worm also affects
teeth on the wheel. The angle of the overall efficiency: the larger the
inclination will be the helix angle of the diameter ofthe worm the smaller will be
worm at its pitch line. This is shown in its helix angle and so the greater will be
Fig. 51. There are occasions, particularly the frictional forces, resulting in a lower
for the amateur tool designer and efficiency. The diameter of the worm
constructor, when this feature can be must therefore be kept as small as is
used to advantage, for instance in the practical taking into account the loading
design of a dividing head or rotary table. on both the worm and its bearing. All
If the worm is angled away from the engineering design is a compromise
table top it will allow the handwheel on and a worm gear box is certainly no
the end of the worm to fall below the top exception to that rule.

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As al ready stated worm gearing is not the mating teeth). Height outside pitch
usually reciprocal, that is, although the line is .3P whilst the depth below pitch
worm will always drive the worm wheel line should be AP. There is considerable
it is not often that the wheel can be made latitude for the length of the worm but
to drive the worm. If the lead is small so about 4P will result in a well
will be the helix angle and any attempt to proportioned worm. The face width of
drive the worm by the wheel would the wheel may vary between about 1.5P
result in the destruction of the unit. to 2.5P. It is not essential to keep to these
Generally speaking it is only when the figures but doing so will lead to a well
lead is increased to the point where it proportioned unit and a sense of
becomes a necessity to use a multistart proportion is vital for any engineering
worm that it becomes possible to use designer.
the wheel as a driver; the greater the As worm gearing does suffer,
lead of the worm the greater will be the unfortunately, from high friction forces
likelihood that the gear can be made that can lead to rapid wear, it is
reversible. The reversibility is of little advisable to use suitable materials for
consequence as it is only in special the components. The following is
applications that it is a desirable feature intended to act as a guide.
and then the gear ratio required is
1. A soft steel worm and a cast iron
usually relatively small.
wheel
Although the actual proportions of
2. A soft steel worm and a phosphor-
worm gearing may vary a little it is best
bronze wheel
to keep fairly close to the technical text
3. A case hardened steel worm and a
books on the subject as these have been
phosphor-bronze wheel
based upon years of practical
experience. The proportions are usually The ideal is probably a hardened and
given in terms of the letter P, where Pis ground steel worm and wheel although
the circumferential pitch of the worm it is unlikely that the amateur
wheel teeth. The tooth thickness at the constructor will have the necessary
pitch line is quoted as .48P (this allows facilities to produce the components in
for a small working clearance between this material.

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CHAPTER 7

Definitions and
Formulae
Before the actual cutting of gears can as it will represent the actual gear in the
commence it is necessary to design the layout design stage.
gear required to perform the task in
mind and then complete the attendant Pitch Diameter
calculations. As stated at the beginning The pitch diameter of a gear is the
of this book, the mathematics involved diameter of the pitch circle.
can be kept down to basic arithmetic and
so no 'non-technical' constructor should Root Diameter
have any fears about his ability to The root diameter of a gear is the
successfully undertake the design stage. diameter at the bottom of the tooth
From time to time in the preceding spaces. (The root diameter is not usually
pages, certain terms have been used used in the production of a gear as the
and it may be an advantage to define all diameter that is required in the
the terms collectively and also list the workshop is the total depth of the cut,
equations that may be needed to set out usually shown as D+f on commercial
a train of gears successfully. If all the gear cutters. If this is applied from the
information is shown together time may correct outside diameter of the gear
be saved as it will not be necessary to blank, then the correct root diameter will
look through the body of the book be automatically produced.)
seeking that elusive formula needed to
arrive at a particular size. Circular Pitch
The circular pitch is the distance from a
Pitch Circle point on one tooth to a corresponding
The pitch circles of a pair of gears are point on the next tooth. It is measured
those circles co-axial with the gear teeth around the pitch circle diameter and is
and bearings that are in peripheral not a straight line between the two
contact and which will roll together chosen points.
without slip. The pitch circles are
imaginary smooth rollers or friction Diametral Pitch
discs. The pitch circle is most important The diametral pitch (nearly a/ways

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referred to as the D.P.) is the number of circles which passes through the pitch
teeth per inch of pitch diameter. E.g. if a point of a pair of mating gears.
gear has 40 teeth and the pitch circle
diameter is 2in. then the teeth are said to Path of Contact
be of 20 D.P. The path of contact of an involute gear is
that portion ofthe line of action at which
Module the tooth contact takes place.
The module of a gear is the reciprocal of
the D.P. but the pitch circle diameter is Pressure Angle
expressed in millimetres instead of The pressure angle of an involute gear is
inches. The module is, therefore, the the acute angle formed between the line
pitch diameter in millimetres divided by of action and the common tangent to the
the number of teeth in the gear. two pitch circles which passes through
the pitch point.
Thickness of Tooth On Pitch Line
The thickness oftooth on pitch line is the Arc of Approach
length of arc on the pitch line between The arc of approach of a cycloidal gear is
opposite faces of the same tooth. that point of the generating circle
through which the tooth travels from the
Chordal Thickness time it is in contact with a mating tooth
The chordal thickness of a tooth is the until it is in contact at the line passing
length of the chord subtended by the between the gear centres.
tooth thickness arc. It is in fact the
straight line between the same two Arc of Recess
points used in determining the tooth The arc of recess of a cycloidal gear is
thickness. the arc of the generating circle through
which the tooth travels from the time it is
Clearance in contact with its mating tooth on the
The clearance is the distance between line passing between the gear centres
the top of a tooth and the bottom of its until the contact with its mating tooth
mating space. The clearance is ceases.
incorporated to prevent contact
between the top and bottom of mating THEORETICAL EQUATIONS
teeth and is usually denoted by the OR FORMULAE FOR GEARS AND
symbol T. TOOTH PROPORTIONS
Letters used in the following equations
Base Circle are listed below:
This is only applicable to involute teeth
and is the diameter of the circle from P.D. = Pitch Circle Diameter in inches
which the involute that determines the P.D.M. = Pitch Circle Diameter in
tooth profile is generated. millimetres
C.P. = Circular Pitch
Line of Action D.P. = Diametral Pitch
The line of action of an involute gear is M. = Module
the common tangent to the two base N. = Number of teeth in gear

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O.D. = Outside Diameter of Gear
(Blank sizes) A number ofthe above formulae have
T. = Thickness of Tooth on Pitch been included for the sake of interest
Line only as it is unlikely that the amateur
C.T. = Chordal Thickness producing his own gears will, in
f. = Clearance practice, ever have a use for all of them.
D+ = Whole Depth of tooth This is because given the correct form
(Depth to set cutter, other than the number of teeth
cutter) required the only dimension that is
Centre Distance between two gears = needed by the gea r cutter is the depth of
cut - the form tool will see to the rest!
PD of 1st gear + PD of 2nd gear The list may appear to be formidable but
2 in actual fact once a few examples have
been followed through no problems
Sum of PDs of two mating gears should arise. The principles involved
= 2 x Centre Distance between Gears can be quickly understood by following
= PD x TT: or,.JL : or,
a detailed example step-by-step and so
CP we will now look at a typical hypothetical
N DP
OD x TT : or, 2 x T problem.
N+2 Supposing it is necessary to produce
=.J:i. : or, N + 2: or,...JL: or, 25.4 a pair of gears to reduce the speed of an
DP input shaft from 700rpm to an output
PD OD CP M
: or, TT shaft speed of 200rpm and that the
2xT maximum available space for the gears
is 6in. x 4in. The first ste!,> is to find the
gear ratio required, and since 700rpm
M has to be reduced to 200rpm then the
required ratio must be in the proportion
N : or N x CP : or, OD x N : of 700/2 00 or 3V2: 1. This means that the
PD = DP --TT- N +2 pitch circle diameter of the large gear
must be 3V2 times greater than the pitch
_ N + 2 : or, CP (N + 2) circle diameter of the small gear.
OD -~ Although in theory pinions with very few
TT
teeth can be used, in practice there is a
_ CP: or, TT
limit as with small numbers the teeth
T -2 become deformed and weak; there is
2x DP
also the problem of providing sufficient
material to allow for an adequate bore
CT = PDxSin(~O) that is needed to secure the pinion onto
its shaft. For general purposes 16 teeth
_ T can be considered as the smallest
f -10 number to place upon a gear although
the author prefers, wherever possible, to
_ 2.157 : or, .6866xCP increase the number to 20.
D+f -or
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If, in our example, a 20-tooth pinion is tooth size for the 70-tooth gear can be
chosen then the mating wheel must found - 4 =72;bp or 18DP. This would
have 20 x 3'/2, or 70, teeth. We have completely occupy the 41n. space but as it
therefore to place a 20- and a 70-tooth would be an advantage to have a working
gear in a space no greater than 6in. x4in. clearance 20DP would seem to be the
and so the two gears, when running largest practical tooth size that can be
together in mesh, must not measure used. We can now obtain some definite
more than 6in. in length and 4in. in figures for the two gears. The pinion
width. This means that the two pitch would be 20-teeth--20DP; from the list of
circles when added together must be formulae we see that the PD =%p, in this
less than 6in. because the outside case 20/20, resulting in a pitch circle
diameters of the gears are greater than diameter of 1in. The outside diameter of
their respective P.C.Ds. In order to the gear blank would be OD = N+2;bp or 22120
determine the maximum size of tooth resulting in a figure of 1.1 in. By applying
that can be accommodated in the the above to the 70-tooth wheel we get 70
permitted space the two gear teeth teeth, 20DP, P.C.D. 3.5in. and outside
numbers must be added together and diameter of blank 3.6in.
one gear of 90-teeth considered. This The centre distance of the two gears
principle is correct for any number of can be obtained by adding together the
gears whose centres are on the same two pitch circle diameters and dividing by
straight line; for instant a train of gears 2 - hence, 3.5+1 = 4V2 or 2%in. The
-2- -2-
with 20-, 25-, 22- and 23-teeth will have
the same overall length as one gear of overall length of the two gears in mesh
90-teeth. Referring to the formulae we will give a figure of 4.6in., well within the
see that OD = N + 2. Therefore, we original 6in. allowed but, as was shown
DP above, the limiting factor was the width
apply our figures to this equation we can restriction.
determine the maximum DP that can be In an engineering design office, the
accommodated in the permitted space, calculations would be considerably
viz: 6 = 90+2;bp or DP = 9216 which is 15.3. extended to take into account the stress
The nearest standard DP that could be loading of the gear teeth, etc., and from
used is 16, which means that the these figures the minimum size of gear
maximum size of gear that can be would be chosen, but one that would be
accommodated in the 6in. length capable of transmitting the power
restriction is 16DP. Of course, any smaller needed. Any serious engineering student
tooth size could be used as this would should follow this line of procedure. In
lead to smaller gears. By using the same model engineering and work generally
equation again the outside diameter of a undertaken in the home workshop, not
70-tooth 16DP gear can be calculated, viz: only gears but most components are not
highly stressed parts so if the designer or
OD = 70 ,15 2 which is 4V2in. This is
constructor has a sense of proportion and
greater than the 4in. permitted and so we also applies the old adage that "if it looks
see that the limiting factor is not the 6in. right it most likely is alright" then in the
length but the 4in. width. By using the majority of cases satisfactory results will
same formula once again the maximum be achieved.

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CHAPTERS

Dividing Heads

One of the main components in the all the same. They consist of a headstock
tooling system required for cutting into which a spindle is mounted and one
gears is a method of indexing the teeth end ofthe spindle will have some means
correctly. There is little point in being of securely holding the workpiece while
able to cut the gear teeth to the profile at the other end there will be a method
needed to give a smooth and even which permits the spindle to be moved
power transmission if the gear teeth through a definite and predetermined
themselves are not correctly spaced. angle and then locked in that position.
The tool used to give the correct spacing Dividing heads can be separated into
is the dividing head. A dividing head can two types, the simple direct division
be a very simple device or it may be a head and the more complex worm and
sophisticated one but basically they are wheel head. A simple direct division

INDE.Y.ING
De.iE.I"-JT-~

\ WORKPIECE.

5PI"-lDLE

Fib 52 SIIV\PLE. DII2EC-T DIVISION DIVIDING HEAD.

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head is shown in fig. 52. Here we have a gears and as these come in a set a wide
headstock that consists of an angle, one choice is available. The 60 tooth gear is
leg of which is bolted onto the work- very useful as this will give divisions
table ofthe milling machine or lathe, the of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20 or 30.
other - or vertical - leg carrying the Even though a large selection of
spindle. The gear to be cut is secured to changewheels may be to hand, there are
the spindle by means of a clamping nut severe limitations to the numbers that
and on the other end, again securely they can index as this type of gear is
mounted, is a master gear and detent. usually supplied in increments of five
The master gear is used to copy or space teeth only. If the detent is made so that it
the teeth into the workpiece. The detent, can index over the teeth as well as
which consists of a spring-loaded between them it will double the number
plunger with a conical or v-shaped point, from which factors can be obtained (the
drops into the gap between two teeth of 60-tooth gear has 120 divisions and so
the master gear, thus positively locating on) but the increase in the range will be
the spindle which is then locked to negligible.
prevent any load being placed upon the Another drawback to the direct
detent whilst a tooth is cut on the division head is that the accuracy of the
workpiece. After cutting, the spindle is workpiece will depend upon the
then freed and moved until the detent accuracy of the master gear: any errors
drops into the next gap, this process in pitch that are present in the master
being repeated until all the teeth have will be passed on to the workpiece. This
been cut. drawback is more theoretical than
One drawback with this method is practical as most lathe changewheels
that there must be a suitable gear are now produced by one of the
available to use as a master gear; generating processes, such as hobbing,
however, the master gear need not have resulting in a gear far more accurate
the same tooth size as that required on than can be achieved by the 'one tooth at
the workpiece. A 20DP gear could be a time' method used by the amateur.
used as a master yet the gear being cut The direct division head can be made
could be 32DP, or any other size within more sophisticated than the example
reason. Nor is it necessaryforthe master outlined above and fig.53 shows such a
gear to have the same number of teeth unit. This is provided with a screwed
as the workpiece but there must be mandrel nose and also a morse taper.
some common factor between them. The spindle locking is obtained by
For instance, if it is required to cut a 20 clamping a split bearing instead of the
tooth gear, the master could have 20 clamp or pinchscrews. This head also
teeth and the detent would then have to has a secondary detent arm so that the
be engaged into every tooth space, but a gears may be compounded in order to
master may be used having 40 teeth in increase the range of divisions available.
which case the detent would then be It is, however, still a direct division head
engaged into alternate teeth, or a 60- and as such has its limitations. One
tooth gear could be used to produce 20 advantage the direct head possesses,
teeth and indexed one tooth in three. other than its simplicity, is that within its
Lathe changewheels make good master operating range indexing is quickerthan

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Fig. 53 The M.E.S. Direct Division
Dividing Head. This is only
supplied as a kit of parts
suitable for home construction.

the worm and wheel type and there is wormwheel one tooth. It is usual general
less chance of making an error. engineering practice for the ratio of the
worm and wheel to be 40: 1. The Myford
WORM AND WHEEL TYPE HEAD dividing head, fig. 54, is, in fact, a 60: 1
The worm and wheel dividing head is ratio and the author has found this an
basically a direct division head with one advantage for the model engineer and
important addition. The master gear home workshops as the factors of 60 are
mounted on the spindle or mandrel is a more commonly used than the factors of
fixture and is not changeable. The gear 40. One turn of the handle of the Myford
is in fact a wormwheel and is driven head will rotate the spindle and
round by means of a second shaft workpiece 1/60th of a turn, 10 turns of
carrying a worm. The wormshaft is the handle will give a rotation 1/6 turn
extended upwards and firmly secured to and so on. By moving the handle a part
its outer end is a crank-handle, thus of a turn it is possible to rotate the
providing a means of rotating the worm. spindle through any desired angle and
The worm is a single start so that one therefore an infinite range of divisions is
rotation of the handle will advance the theoretically possible. Some form of

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Fig. 54 The Myford Worm and Wheel Dividing Head with one of the additional Division Plates.

position indicatorto register the amount of holes which enable most divisions
of turn is needed and this is called the between 1 and 100 to be obtained. The
division plate. The division plate is few that are not available are mostly
mounted concentric to the worm but is prime numbers and are unlikely to be
fixed to the head itself and does not needed but if they are, two more plates
rotate with the worm. A series of holes is are available as an extra and they will fill
drilled into the plate concentric to the in the few missing numbers. The chart
bore and the handle is provided with a supplied with the dividing head lists all
spring-loaded plunger so that the the combinations of divisions available
locating pin on the plunger can be and quotes the number of complete
placed into any hole as desired. In order turns required for each division, plus,
to get maximum use out of one division where necessary, the number of holes
plate a set or series of holes is drilled needed in a specific division plate.
each on a different pitch circle diameter Counting the holes can become
and the arm that houses the plunger is confusing; if 28 holes were required in a
slotted so that the plunger can be 49-hole division plate then this counting
aligned over the requisite circle of holes. would have to be performed for every
The Myford head is supplied with two division and so an error could easily
division plates that contain in al115 sets arise. To help overcome this problem an

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aid is provided which consists of two of a turn can be achieved by using 27
blades that can be rotated around the holes in a 33- hole circle of the division
wormshaft and just above the division plate.
plate. The blades can be moved If a 33-hole circle is available then the
independently of each other and then problem is solved but it is unlikely that a
locked together at any desired position 33-hole circle will be on the division
so that they then move as a unit. They plate so the next step is to look at the
can therefore be set to embrace the fraction 27/33 and see if it can be
number of holes required - 28 in the 49- factorised. And the answer is, yes it can
hole in the above example - and so as both top and bottom are divisible by
indicate the hole the plunger has to enter 3, resulting in a new fraction ofthe same
to achieve the correct spacing. After value 9/11 . If the division plate does not
each movement of the crank-handle the have a 33-hole circle then it certainly will
blades are rotated as a pair until one of not have an 11-hole one but it is most
blades makes contact and rests against likely to have a circle that is a multiple of
the plunger, the next hole for the 11 and this will in all probability be a 77-
plunger then being indicated by the hole circle. If we now return to our 9/"
other blade. fraction and multiply both top and
The author never likes to have to rely bottom by 7 we wilL arrive at 63/77. The
solely on tables or data charts for division for producing a 33-tooth gear is
information as they usually get torn or therefore one complete turn of the
covered with oil and dirt, making them handle plus 63 holes on a 77-hole circle
difficult to read. It is always prudent to of the division plate. Once this example
be able to work things out for oneself. is understood it is a simple matter to
There is nothing magical about substitute any division as required.
determining the number of holes or The occasion may arise when the
which circle to use in the dividing plate, division plate does not possess a circle
as the following example shows. with the requisite number of holes. This
Supposing that one wishes to cut a is a most unlikely occurrence as the
gear having 33 teeth using a dividing plates are carefully planned to give a
head with a worm and wheel ratio of very wide range of divisions but, if a
60:1. The first step is to divide the makeshift division plate has to be made
number of divisions required into the do not worry about positioning the holes
worm and wheel ratio - in this case 60 to very fine limits as any error in the
divided by 33. This gives an answer of division plate is not passed on directly to
12 7/33, which indicates that each division the workpiece but is divided by the
is one complete turn ofthe handle plus a wormwheel ratio and so the actual error
further addition of 27/33 of a turn. The 27/33 becomes very tiny indeed.

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CHAPTER 9

Cutting Spur Gears

A friend of the author was so pleased which the involute is formed is related to
when he got his new lathe working for the P.C.D. of the gear and so, as the
the first time that he felt he must show it number of teeth in the gear alters, so
to someone. The only person on hand does the diameter of the base circle and
was his wife and although he knew she this is reflected in the shape of the
had no idea what a lathe was or what it involute curve. From this it follows that
did, he invited her into the workshop for the shape of the tooth for any given D.P.
a demonstration. He put on a cut, set the varies according to the number of teeth
machine in motion and stood back with in the gear. It would appear from this
pride, "What do you think of that?" he that a different cutter is needed to suit
asked. His wife thought for a moment every size of gear that may be required
then said to him "Very nice, darling, but and this would represent a lot of cutters!
tell me, what do you do with those curly The involute curve changes quite
things when you have made them?". markedly between gears that have only
Now that lady had observed something a small number of teeth but the rate of
that many of us are apt to forget, and change slows down and becomes less
that is, no matter what machine we are apparent as the gears get larger, and
using, be it a lathe, milling machine, once the number of teeth passes the 120
drilling machine, shaping machine or mark then the change in shape is
any other machine tool, they all produce negligible. A slight discrepancy in tooth
the same thing - swarf, and it is the bits shape can be tolerated in general
that are left behind that matter. Gears purpose gears without any noticeable
are no exception and although we have effect in the gears' performance. These
gone to great trouble to determine the two facts are recognised by the gear
shape of the teeth we do not cut them, cutter manufacturers and so it has been
only the spaces between them, and so a possible to reduce the number of cutters
gear cutter is a form cutter - that form required for each D.P. to eight. Only a
being the space between two adjacent few gears can be cut with a cutter from
teeth. the lower end of the range but as the
It was seen when discussing the gears get larger, with a corresponding
involute shape that the base circle from rise in the number of teeth, then the

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range ofthe cutter also increases. In fact will be influenced by the depth of cut. It
the No. 1 cutter will produce any gear will therefore be prudent to measure the
possessing over 134 teeth and this outside diameter of the blank and check
includes the rack. it against the theoretical size to see if any
All disc-type of gear cutters that cut discrepancy has arisen. If it has then this
only one tooth at a time are usually must be taken into account when setting
referred to as Brown & Sharpe cutters, the cutter to depth. If, for example, the
this being the name ofthe company that gear to be cut is a 40-tooth 20DP then the
developed this type of cutter many years outside diameter of the blank should be
ago. They are now made by cutter 42/20 or 2.100 but if, on measuring, it is
manufacturers allover the world but all found to be 2.090 then this .010 error on
meet the international standard based diameter must be taken into account and
on the work done by Brown & Sharpe. the depth of cut set on the machine
Each cutter in the range is given a reduced from the normal depth by .005.
number which will clearly be marked on In this instance, instead of setting to .108
the cutter together with the number of the amended cutting would be .103.
teeth for which that particular cutter is The method used for setting the
designed. The table of cutters is listed depth is to bring the blank up to the
below: cutter until it just touches, set the
micrometer dial of the relevant
Cutter No.8 will cut gears of 12 and 13
machine-slide to zero and then, using
teeth
the micrometer dial, put on the correct
Cutter No.7 wi II cut gears of 14-16 teeth
cut and securely lock the slide in that
Cutter No.6 will cut gears of 17-20 teeth
position. It may not be particularly easy
Cutter No.5 will cut gears of 21-25 teeth
to determine just when the cutter is
Cutter No.4 will cut gears of 26-34 teeth
touching the workpiece and if one goes
Cutter No.3 will cut gears of 35-54 teeth
too deep the datum is lost. This would
Cutter No.2 will cut gears of 55-134 teeth
mean indexing to the next tooth and
Cutter No.1 will cut gears of 135 teeth to
trying again! The author has found that
a rack.
it is a great help to place a piece of thin
Once having selected the correct wet tissue paper on the blank then, with
cutter the next problem is to set the the machine running, carefully bring the
cutter so that it will produce the tooth to cutter and workpiece together until the
the correct depth. The datum for setting cutter removes the paper. When this
the depth of cut must be the outside happens the setting can be regarded as
diameter of the gear blank as there is no being correct.
other datum from which to measure. It The depth of cut will normally be
was shown in Chapter 7 that the determined by the DP or CP and the
. diameter of the gear blank must be formulae for calculating these is shown
N+2;bp. From the practical point of view in Chapter 7. The figure is also usually
the outside diameter of the finished gear quoted on the actual cutter although it
is not highly critical and a reasonable does not say depth of cut as such but is
machining tolerance, particularly in the prefixed by the term D+f. In order to
minus direction, is permissible, but what save time calculating the depth each
is critical is the size of the P.C.D. and this time it is required the following tables

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have been compiled. The depth is
shown in both imperial and metric sizes, Depth Depth
thus enabling the depth to be set directly of Tooth ~fTooth
depending on the graduations of the
micrometer dials. Module in in
Inches M/m
Depth Depth 1 .085 2.16
of Tooth of Tooth 0.8 .070 1.73
D.P. in in 0.7 .059 1.51
Inches M/m 0.5 .042 1.08
6 .360 9.13 0.4 .034 .86
8 .270 6.85 0.3 .025 .65
10 .216 5.48
12 .180 4.56
14 .154 3.91
16 .135 3.42 Depth Depth
18 .120 3.04 of Tooth fofTooth
20 .108 2.74 in in
Module
22 .098 2.49 Inches M/m
24 .090 2.28
4 .340 8.63
3 .255 6.47
Depth Depth 2.5 .212 5.39
of Tooth of Tooth 2.0 .170 4.31
D.P. in in
1.5 .127 3.24
Inches M/m
1.25 .106 2.70
26 .083 2.11
28 .077 1.96
30 .072 1.83 Always try to cut to the correct depth
with one cut; nibbling away with a
32 .067 1.71 succession of small cuts is not
36 .060 1.52 recommended. Commercial gear cutters
40 .054 1.37 are expensive items and naturally the
48 .045 1.14 amateur wants them to last as long as
possible between re-grinds. It is a fallacy
64 .034 .. 86 to think that you are being kind to the
72 .030 .76 cutters by making numerous light passes.
80 .027 .68 Set the cutter to the correct depth and
regulate the feed to suit the machine,

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naturally a heavy robust machine will be correspond to the figures quoted in the
capable of a faster feed rate than a small table, this is of little consequence, try the
lighter one. When cutting large teeth such speed nearest to the figure quoted and
as those found on traction engine models, see what happens! This may sound
the equipment available may not be man rather haphazard but there are so many
enough to produce the tooth at one pass unknown factors in the amateur set-up
in which case it may be an advantage to that quoting firm optimum speeds is, to
'gash' the teeth first with either a slitting say the least, an exercise fraught with
saw or a side-and-face cutter. This will danger. Most commercial cutters of the
remove the bulk of the material and Brown & Sharpe type that the amateur is
lighten the load on the machine when the likely to have will be around 2_3/8" dia.
form cutter is used. with a 1" dia. bore as this is a standard
In industry time is an important factor size. The cutters will be high speed steel
and speeds and feeds are designed to correctly heat-treated and ground and
give the maximum swarf removal rate will, naturally, be capable of a heavier
commensurate with overall costs. work load than a home-made cutter.
Production machines are specially built Home-made cutters will be of carbon
to reduce machining times to as little as steel, such as silver steel, with "the heat
possible so it follows that speeds and treatment carried out without the
feeds published in industrial text books advantages of temperature controlled
are of little use to the amateur as the equipment. The first column in the table
machine tools at his disposal may be no is for the commercial cutters whilst the
more than a lathe and a milling machine remainder are for differing diameters of
and both of these will be flimsy when home-made cutters.
compared to the production machines. The back garden workshop will not
Very few machines in the home normally possess any specialist
workshop will be equipped with a full machinery so the gear cutting will have
flow cooling system, in fact the majority to be performed on either a lathe or a
will have no cooling system at all other milling machine. If a miller is available
than a 'can and brush' or possibly a drip then this will normally be first choice but
can. The table shown below has taken all if not, then the lathe can be successfully
this into consideration but even so adapted for the task.
regard the figures as a guide only and do A gear cutting device has two main
not be tempted to run the cutter too elements, one is to hold and index the
quickly. It is most unlikely that the speed blank and the other one is to provide a
range of the machine available will

Brown & Sharpe Home-made Silver Steel Cutter


Material Commercial HSS
2%" dia. 1%" dia. 11h" dia. 2" dia.
Steel 60 rpm 75rpm 62rpm 48 rpm
Brass 100 rpm 120 rpm 100 rpm 75rpm
Light Alloy 140 rpm 170 rpm 140 rpm 100 rpm

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means of holding and rotating the cutter fashion and was a cumbersome affair
at the correct speed. The lathe can be with open flat belts and pulleys whirling
adapted in two ways to fulfil the above around in all directions and standing in
requirement. Firstly, the cutter can be the middle of all this activity could be, by
held in some holder or arbor secured to modern standards, a little alarming.
the lathe mandrel, with the gear blank However, the system had its
together with its dividing head secured advantages, particularly when it came to
to the cross-slide of the machine. In the auxiliary drives, although the most vivid
second method the roles are reversed memories are of continually trying to
and the blank is fastened to the lathe solve the problem of joining flat belts in
mandrel while the cutter, with some such a way that they would not clatter,
form of auxiliary drive, is attached to the break or give the hand a nasty cut each
lathe cross-slide. This second method time the speed was changed which,
used to find considerable favour but its unless the whole workshop was
popularity has very much declined in immobilised, had to be done while the
recent years owing to the changes in the machine and its belts were running.
design of the lathe itself. Nearly all The advent of the Myford ML7, and
modern small lathes are self-contained similar types of lathe, in the late forties
units and not only are they motorised brought about a complete revolution not
but even the drive belts are now only in the author's workshop but in
completely guarded, making access to home workshops in general and now
the belts and pulley difficult, particularly almost all machine tools are self-
when the lathe is running. The reason contained and so very few overhead
for this, of course, is to safeguard the drives remain. As there are no handy
operator and protect him from the belt, rotating shafts to provide a supply of
pulleys and gears which are potentially power to a cutter mounted on the lathe
dangerous. cross- slide and as all self-contained
In the early days of the small model motorised units can be heavy bulky
engineering lathe, particularly between lumps to adorn a cross-slide, this
the wars and even up to the fifties, many method of cutting gears in the lathe is
lathes were driven by flat belts from an not now often used. On the occasions
overhead counter- or line-shaft. This that it is favoured it is generally confined
shaft would be driven by the workshop's to small light gears, such as instrument
only motor and often ran the entire or clock gears, where the cutter speed
length of the workshop to be used as can be high and so eliminate the need
a power take-off for all the machinery for a reduction gear box in the drive to
that the workshop possessed. The the cutter.
overhead countershaft was a handy The first method quoted, where the
place for supplying power to auxiliary cutter is driven by the lathe mandrel, has
cutting heads that could be mounted several features to commend it. The
onto the lathe bed or cross-slide, and whole speed range of the lathe is
many attachments, not only for gear available to the cutter and speeds can be
cutting but also for milling in general, chosen to suit the size and type of cutter
were powered in this way. The author's as well as the nature of the gear blank
first workshop was arranged in this material. The full power of the lathe is

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also available so that speeds and feeds 55 shows diagrammatically how the
can be regulated to suit the work rather various units are arranged for cutting a
than to suit the power available from a gear.
small auxiliary motor. There is also The dividing head is mounted on a
much greater inherent rigidity with this vertical slide in such a way as to ensure
arrangement as the cutter arbor is that the spindle is parallel and in line
rotating in the lathe mandrel bearings with the lathe cross-slide. If both the
which are much more robust than those dividing head and the vertical slide are
that could be fitted into a convenient Myford units then the correct alignment
drive mounted on the cross- slide. Fig. will automatically be ensured as the

..~ VE.RTlCAL Sl..lOE

- DI\lIDIi'JG. H~

LATHE C e.055 SUDE.


oI!!!!.
DIeEC.TIO"-l OF FE.ED _ /

FIE. 55 DI""G.~All( A~NGE.MENT S,HOWI"-lc" THE.


cuTTI!'Je:, OF RE.I-A.TIVEl-Y S""""l..l.. GEAeS I>.) TI-lE LATHE

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Fig. 56 Showing the
Myford Dividing Head
fitted onto a vertical
slide and mounted on a
raising block.

dividing head is fitted with a locating key that unless the vertical slide is
which registers in the tee-slots of the abnormally long it is not possible to lift
vertical slide. If other types of vertical the centre line of the dividing head high
slides and dividing heads are being enough to allow a moderate size gearto
used, check the alignment very carefully be cut. This can be overcome to some
because if the spindle of the dividing extent by the use of a raising block, the
head is not parallel with the cross-slide block being positioned between the
then neither will be the arbor carrying cross-slide and the vertical slide. Ideally
the gear blank and the resultant gear the raising block should perform a dual
teeth will be deeper at one end of the role, that of lifting the dividing head and
gear than at the other. Likewise, if the also displacing it towards the tail stock.
spindle and arbor are not in line with the This will have the effect of moving the
cross-slide or square with the lathe bed, dividing head away from the close
the teeth will not be parallel to the bore proximity of the headstock, thus
of the gear but at an angle to it. Both providing more space forthe operator to
these faults must be avoided as either crank the handle. The photographs figs.
could seriously affect the performance 56 and 57 illustrate this point and also
of the finished gear. show the complete rig. The cutter is, of
One disadvantage of using this course, mounted on an arbor and is
particular arrangement to cut gears is driven by the lathe mandrel. The arbor

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will have to be lengthy to provide a holding device such as a chuck, which
working space for the dividing head and will not only get in the way but will
it will also have to be supported at the reduce the overall rigidity. It is also
outer end by the tailstock centre. The recommended that both the arbors are
arbor and mandrel upon which the gear secured by means of drawbolts passing
blank is secured must be firmly located through the hollow mandrels of the
and held in the dividing head and it is lathe and dividing head.
also an advantage to provide an outer In the rig under discussion the cutter
support for this shaft; the illustration will revolve towards the dividing head
shows how this is accomplished by and so the forces created by the cutting
using an overarm which is a feature of action will be passed on to the thrust
this particular dividing head. The author bearings of the dividing head which
always prefers both cutter and have been designed to absorb them. It
workpiece arbors to be provided with a would be bad practice to cut towards the
morse taper shank so that they may be tail support as this is not intended to take
fitted directly into their respective the thrust loads. In view of the above it
spindle noses. Although this may add a may seem unnecessary to use a
complication to their manufacture the drawbolt but not only are thrust loads
extra work is well worthwhile. They can created by the cutting action, so also are
be used time and time again without any shock loads and these are the ideal loads
need to set them up to run truly; they to withdraw 'stuck' tapers. It is not a
also eliminate the need for any further good idea to run the cutter between

Fig. 57 Another view of


the arrangement shown
opposite. Even by using
a raising block height
limitations restrict the
size of gear that can be
cut.

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centres as the load on the cutter, found that the quickest and most reliable
particularly when starting a cut, is method is to position the cutter by eye.
intermittent and the rapid change To do this remove the arbor from the
between load and no-load will cause the dividing head and replace it with a lathe
cutter to rotate in a series of jerks and centre. Then line up this centre with the
give rise to unpleasant vibrations. The centre line of one of the cutter's teeth.
load conditions are still the same when Naturally the cutter line is not indicated
the cutter is mounted in the morse taper on the tooth and has to be estimated but
of the lathe spindle but the mass of the by using a good magnifying glass the
whole lathe drive has a dampening correct setting can be obtained within
effect and the cutter rotates more fine limits. After setting, the lathe saddle
evenly. is securely locked in place, the centre
The cut is applied by means of the removed and the arbor replaced. The
vertical slide feed- screw handwheel and photograph Fig. 58 shows this centering
the feed to the cutter is supplied by the being carried out.
cross-slide screw. If the lathe is fitted Before starting to cut the first tooth,
with a power cross-feed this may be set the length of the crank handle on the
used providing that the rate of feed is dividing head so that the detent pin
suitable. It is important that the centre engages into the correct circle of holes. If
line of the form tooth shape must be the number of teeth being cut will divide
coincident with the centre line of the directly into the number of teeth on the
arbor onto which the gear blank is wormwheel then any circle of holes may
secured. If this condition is not met the be used because only one hole will be
teeth produced on the gear will not be used, the division always being a
truly radial but will lean overto one side complete number of turns of the crank
with disastrous results to the correct handle. No matter how many circles of
meshing of the finished gear. There are holes there are in the division plate the
ways of obtaining the correct setting by first or datum hole of each circle will be
measurement and one method is to on the same radial line. It is
remove the gear blank from the arbor recommended that the datum hole is
and then by by careful manipulation of used as a starting point although a start
the lathe handwheel position the arbor can be made from any hole; however, it
until its side just touches the side of the is a good idea to use an easily
cutter and then note the reading on the recognised hole as a starting point
leadscrew handwheel. If, after lifting the because after one complete revolution
arbor upwards from the cutter, the lathe of the dividing head the detent pin
carriage is moved a distance equal to a should finish in the starting hole. If it
half of the arbor diameter plus a half of does then all is well, if not then an error
the cutter width, the centre of the arbor has been made somewhere in the
should be directly over the centre line of divisions. It is also an advantage to make
the cutter. The leadscrew's micrometer a habit of always rotating the crank
dial should be used to obtain the setting handle in the same direction as this will
as accurately as possible. eliminate any accidental backlash
This method, and variations of it, errors. If the chosen direction is
have been tried by the author but he has clockwise then approach the first datum

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Fig. 58 Positioning the
cutter by using a lathe
centre as a temporary
arbor replacement.

hole in a clockwise direction and if an This distance has to accommodate not


over-run occurs go back about a quarter only the radius of the gear blank but also
turn and try again; never go back to the the radius of the actual cutter. The two
hole. This also applies to any overshoot radii together must not exceed the
during the complete indexing process. distance between the two centre lines. A
Once the correct setting has been smaller diameter cutter will allow a
established lock the dividing head by larger gear to be cut, a point worth
means of the pinch-screws provided, considering ifthe cutters are to be 'home
lock the lathe saddle in position and also made'. The cutter shown in Figs. 56, 57 &
the vertical slide. The only free 58 is a standard Brown & Sharpe cutter
movement during the actual cutting of 23/8" in. dia., and using this the 25-
should be the slide that is feeding the tooth 20DP gear being cut is well within
cut. the range of the rig, but when the rig's
As mentioned earlier there is a limitto limit has been reached some other
the size of gear that can be cut by this arrangement of tooling is needed and
arrangement owing to the height this is shown in Fig. 59.
restrictions imposed by the vertical The equipment is basically the same
slide. Even with a raising block only as was used in the previous method
moderate sized gears can be except that this time the vertical slide
accommodated. When determining the must be of the swivelling type whereas
largest gear that can be cut the before a fixed 90° type was actually
governing factor is the distance between used. A swivelling type would have been
the lathe centre and the centre line ofthe perfectly satisfactory but it would have
dividing head when the dividing head is had to be locked into the 90° position.
set as high as the vertical slide will allow. The cutter is mounted in exactly the

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same way as in the previous method, in depth across the face of the gear will
fact the same arbor can be used for both vary throughout its length. When
arrangements. The swivelling vertical centralising the cutter to the workpiece it
slide is attached to the raising block at an may not be possible to lower the
angle as shown in Fig. 59 with the dividing head far enough to allow a
feedscrew handwheel pointing centre to meet the cutter. If th is is the
downwards, which has the effect of case then swing the swivelling vertical
elevating the spindle nose of the slide over until contact can be made.
dividing head and providing more Make the adjustments and then firmly
headroom. The angle of inclination is lock the lathe saddle in position. The
not important but it could be influenced vertical slide can then be swung back to
by the size of the gear to be cut, a larger get the dividing head to the required
gear calling for a greater angle than a angle. This will not alter the setting as
relatively smaller one. The vertical slide the movement will be in the plane of the
has three tee-slots and anyone of them setting. The photograph Fig. 61 shows
may be chosen as a mounting point for this centralising being performed.
the dividing head. Both this and the The methods of applying both the
actual position along the tee-slot chosen depth of cut and the feed are totally
as the mounting point influence the size different from those used previously.
of gear that can be cut. Once again it is The feed in this case is applied by the
imperative to set the centre line of the handle or handwheel ofthe vertical slide
dividing head parallel to the centre line and this is made possible because the
of the vertical slide, otherwise the tooth spindle of the dividing head is in a plane

VE~TICAL SLIDE -

eLI ...... A.POUE.D '''-.j T~\I S "


[)IeEe "TIOI'J --

CI(,59 DIA.,-=',t'AM}o,I\/\'I( "\2).2~~-J::-L~~~"-.)T ':)I-lO"'-.)\I--j:; T\-IE ~\C, K1K


C',-,ITI"'-.,C- T~E LARC.EK T"1 Pc: OF" ~E:.i\2 IN THE. L;:...T\-H~.

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Fig. 60 This shows how
the swivelling vertical
slide is used to provide
more headroom for the
accommodation of
larger gears.

parallel to the slideway of the vertical apply the feed accordingly.


slide. It does, of course, prohibit the use Obtaining the correct depth of cut
of a power feed but this is unimportant does present a problem as there is no
and should not present any problems. means of feeding the cut at right angles
There are times, in fact, when feeding by to the axial centre line of the workpiece.
hand is an advantage because it is The feed has to be applied by the cross-
possible to get the 'feel' of the cutter and slide screw which is at an angle to the

Fig. 61 Centralising the


cutter. The vertical slide
has been set at a low
angle to allow the centre
access to the cutter.

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Fig. 62 This large gear
precludes the use of a
tail support. A short
arbor is used to obtain
maximum rigidity.

DIVIDING HEAD
DIRECT 0''''';,'0''-' TYPE
SHOW~

, - GEAR CGTTE.e. 5E.T ()>j

<:=C:::> OIV,OI",'" >-<EAD <t

DleECT,O>..l 0"" FE.E.D

-,
MILUWG MA.CH11>.JE. TA.BLE- 0

C.UT A.PPU~ oy Cl20SS


SLIDE HA..NDW\-\E:.EL
00o --

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movement desired. It has already been dividing head spindle makes with the
explained how important it is to cut the vertical plane, the result will be the
teeth to the correct depth, so some distance the cross-slide needs moving.
means must be found of determining A 60° angle is a convenient angle to use
the depth of cut. It may be possible to because the cosine of 60° is .5, so the
obtain this by cutting a tooth amount the cross-slide is moved is
deliberately shallow and then testing the simply twice the depth of cut required.
depth of cut by means of a depth gauge, Unfortunately, it may not always be
adding a little to the cut and then convenient to set the vertical slide to 60°.
repeating the operation until the correct The angle of inclination chosen will
depth is reached. All the teeth can then most likely fall somewhere between 30°
be cut to this settin~. The author, and 65° and so the following table has
however, is not keen on this method as been compiled in increments of 5°. The
obtaining an accurate depth reading is figures shown are the amount the cross-
somewhat haphazard. This is a case slide screw needs advancing after
where a knowledge of elementary contact has been established between
trigonometry is a good tool to have in the cutter and the workpiece.
our possession. If the angle of The photograph Fig. 60 shows a 63-
inclination of the dividing head is known tooth gear being Gut; the gear arbor is
then it is a simple calculation to shown with a tail support, this support
determine the distance the cross-slide being provided by the overarm in the
has to move to arrive at the required dividing head. With the dividing head
depth of cut.lfthe desired tooth depth is shown the overarm support can be used
divided by the cosine of the angle the on gears up to about 5314" in. dia., for
ANGLE OF INCLINATION
DP
of 30° 35° 40° 45° 50° 55° 60° 65°
GEAR
CROSS SLIDE IN-FEED
6 .416 .439 .470 .509 .560 .628 .720 .852
8 .312 .330 .352 .382 .420 .471 .540 .639
10 .249 .264 .282 .305 .336 .377 .432 .511
12 .208 .220 .235 .256 .280 .314 .360 .426
14 .178 .188 .201 .218 .240 .268 .308 .364
16 .156 .165 .176 .191 .210 .235 .270 .319
18 .139 .146 .157 .170 .187 .209 .240 .284
20 .125 .132 .141 .153 .168 .188 .216 .256
22 .113 .120 .128 .139 .152 .171 .196 .232
24 .104 .110 .117 .127 .140 .157 .180 .213
26 .096 .101 .108 .117 .129 .145 .166 .196
28 .089 .094 .101 .109 .120 .134 .154 .182
30 .083 .088 .094 .102 .112 .126 .144 .170
32 .077 .082 .087 .095 .104 .117 .134 .159

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gears larger than this the overarm must supported. If the machine has a geared
be removed otherwise it would foul the drive then the full speed range right
gear. This is a pity because as the gears down to 30 or 40rpm is readily available
get larger the greater is the benefit to the cutter. The downfeed movement
derived from the support. However, in of the milling machine quill will be fitted
order to combat the lack of a supportthe with a fine feed mechanism enabling the
gear arbor should be made as short as cutter to be positioned at any height
possible so as to place the gear blank as required and then locked into that
close to the dividing head front bearing position thus preventing further
as possible. Fig. 62 shows such an arbor. movement. The large flat tee-slotted
table that most milling machines
CUTTING SPUR GEARS IN THE possess provides an ideal surface for
VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE mounting the dividing head. The
In recent years more and more home majority of dividing heads are designed
workshops are being equipped with a around a headstock providing both a
vertical milling machine. The model good centre height and also a large flat
engineer always expects his machine mounting surface and so no problems
tools to perform tasks other than their should arise in securing the dividing
purely nominal duties. Basically a lathe head of this type to the table. A worm
is a turning machine but with a little and wheel dividing head is an expensive
ingenuity and some accessories the piece of equipment and so maximum
lathe is capable of being adapted into versatility will be a consideration when
performing operations far removed deciding which one to either purchase or
from plain turning. Not so far behind in construct. A dividing head is also a very
versatility is the vertical milling useful lathe accessory and has many
machine, so it is not surprising that as its uses other than indexing gear blanks;
potential is discovered this type of however, when intended for use on a
machine tool is increasingly being lathe it is usually designed for mounting
introduced into the home workshop. onto a vertical slide and so does not
Some manufacturers of small vertical possess either a large flat base for direct
milling machines, recognising the needs mounting onto a machine table or a
of the amateur, are producing machines serviceable centre height. The Myford
with a geared or slow speed drive, and a head is a typical example ofthis type and
machine of this type is ideally suited for although it is perfectly satisfactory for
use as a gear cutter. use on a milling machine it does need a
Fig. 63 shows diagrammatically how raising block inserting between the head
a vertical milling machine is set up to and the milling machine table.
produce spur gears. The cutter is In cutting spur gears it is essential to
mounted onto a short stub arbor which align the dividing head spindle parallel
fits into the main spindle of the machine to the table slideways otherwise the
and is held in place by means of a resulting gear teeth will not be square to
drawbolt which passes through the the face of the gear. The photograph Fig.
hollow spindle. The cutter is therefore 64 shows the milling machine set up for
mounted in close proximity of the main cutting a spur gear; the milling machine
spindle bottom bearing and so is well shown has a locating slot or keyway in

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Fig. 64 Cutting a spur
gear on the vertical
miller. The dividing
head is mounted on a
raising block.

the table (this keyway was cut using the available arbor in the dividing head
milling machine itself so as to guarantee spindle and then, by operating the
the keyway being parallel to the feedscrew handwheel, bring the cutter
slideways ofthe table). The raising block arbor into a position close to, but not
is also keyed on both top and bottom touching, the long arbor and then lock
surfaces so that whenever the dividing the cutter arbor in position by means of
head and raising block are fastened to the quill clamping device. Now, by
the machinetablethey are automatically moving the table to and fro and
aligned correctly. It may be noticed that watching the gap between the two
only one fixing bolt is used to secure the arbors widen and narrow, it will be
dividing head, this is perfectly obvious which way to move the dividing
satisfactory as both the raising block and head to obtain the correct setting. Fig. 65
head are located by keys and all the bolt shows this operation being done.
has to do is provide a closing pressure. The gear blank should be mounted
If no automatic aligning system is onto a suitable arbor and this arbor also
incorporated in the clamping system needs to be secured to the dividing head
then the dividing head will have to be set by means of a drawbar passing through
parallel each time it is fastened onto the the hollow spindle. Providing that the
table. The dividing head base may be blank is positioned close to the dividing
provided with a datum face in which head main bearing and that there is little
case it is a simple matter of using a overhang then the arbor will not need a
square between the datum edge and the tail support. If, owing to some reason of
table edge. If no setting datum is design, the blank has a considerable
available then other methods will have overhang then it may be better to
to be used to obtain correct alignment. provide a tail support. A commercially
One method is to place the longest produced dividing head of the type for

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Fig. 65 Aligning a Direct
Dividing Head parallel
to the table.

direct mounting onto a machine's table is completely independent of the head


is usually supplied with a tailstock that and can be positioned at any convenient
has been specially matched to the head. distance from the head. The photograph
This is to ensure that the centre heights Fig. 66 shows a home-made direct
of both units are identical and that any division head with the cutter arbor
workpiece placed between the two will supported by a tailstock. If a Myford-
be parallel to the table. The tail support type of dividing head is being used then

Fig. 66 Supporting the


cutter arbor by an
independent but
matching tailstock.

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the support will be supplied by the movement of the quill during the cutting
overarm centre. This is not as rigid as the operation would certainly spoil the gear.
table-mounted support but it does By bringing the whole head down to the
provide some assistance. However, if approximate setting position very little
this proves to be insufficient then the tail quill extension will be needed resulting
of the overarm may be clamped to the in maximum support forthe cutter- Fig.
table providing that a suitable packing is 68 is a photograph showing the
placed between the table and the centralising being carried out.
support - refer to Fig. 67. Arranging for the cutter to cut
To centralise the cutter with the towards the dividing head rather than
blank, withdraw the blank arborfrom the away from it means that the cutter will
dividing head and insert a lathe centre in be operating on the back side of the
its place, then lower the head of the blank, i.e. the side away from the
milling machine, or raise the table - operator, and between the blank and the
depending on the type of milling milling machine column. This is not a
machine being used - to within about a disadvantage as it will still be in view
half-inch or so of the correct setting and if the machine has a variable throat
position, then lock the head firmly in depth similar to the machine shown in
position. Centralise the cutter by means the photograph this depth will be set to
of the fine adjustment downfeed the minimum overhang, allowing the
mechanism. The whole process is cutting to take place as close to the
similar to that described when dealing column as possible. The depth of cut is
with centralising in the lathe. Once the applied by means of the cross-slide
correct position has been obtained lock screw and, once again, it is best to cut
the quill very firmly, giving an extra the full depth of the tooth at one pass.
tweak over the normal clamping as any The feed is applied by the table

Fig. 67 Clamping the tail


of the overarm to
improve rigidity.

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Fig. 68 Centralising the
cutter on a vertical
milling machine.

handwheel and if the machine is fitted vertical milling machine. Gear cutting is
with a power feed this may be used. one operation, however, that is suited to
the horizontal miller if it has the inherent
CUTTING SPUR GEARS IN A stability and a suitable speed range to
HORIZONTAL MILLING MACHINE the spindle.
All machine tools are designed primarily As the table of the horizontal miller is
to perform some specfic function and similar in size and shape to the table of a
when the machine can be adapted to vertical machine, the arrangements of
include other functions then the dividing head, work arbor and tailstock
machine's versatility is increased. It is are fitted to it in precisely the same way.
well-known that the lathe designed for The main difference between the two
model eingineering heads the versatility millers when used for gear cutting is the
list and so provides the backbone of the attitude of the cutter. In a vertical
amateur workshop. A machine's general machine the cutter revolves in the
useful ness is reflected in its popularity horizontal plane whilst in the case of the
and that is why the basic horizontal horizontal miller the cutter rotates in the
milling machine, or one without a vertical plane. This means that on the
vertical attachment, does not usually horizontal machine the cutter is set to
appear high on the amateur's list. machine the tooth on the top vertical
A horizontal miller is basically a centre line of the blank and so the short
production machine and is normally stub arbor that was used in the vertical
equipped with a long table traverse but machine will not provide sufficient
usually it has a limited cross-travel. It is overhang to allow this position to be
ideal for workpieces that require reached. In orderto reach the centre line
machining along one axis only but in the of the dividing head and also allow a
main it has far less potential than the working clearance between the edge of

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CUTTEK SUPPcCTED BY Tl-<E OVE,,-"'RM

MI\-.L\WC., MAO-H\>.JE
TABLE. ,
~---~~---~------------------~_ _ _ _L -
...

DII?ECTIOW or- ~E.E.D


\ 7
DIEECTION o~ C.uT ~

the table and the head of the machine, a horizontal, is preferable to cutting in the
reasonably long cutter arbor will be lathe - after all gear cutting is a milling
required. This will necessitate the use of operation and the milling machine is
a tail support for the arbor which can be designed to withstand the type of forces
provided by the overarm ofthe machine. involved. Also with the milling machine
On horizontal millers the head is usually the path between the cutter and the
fixed so the cutter will have to be workpiece is much shorter and requires
centralised by using the cross-slide less components which should be
feedscrew and the cut applied by raising reflected in greater rigidity. The
the table. Both of these movements are emphasis on rigidity is important as the
then firmly locked and the feed applied length of cut involved is the distance
by means of the table handwheel or around the profile of two adjacent teeth
table power feed unit. Once again and this can be considerable,
arrange the complete set-up so that the particularly when compared with the
cutter rotates and is cutting towards the length of cut experienced in general
dividing head and not towards the machine work. So no matter which
tailstock support, Fig. 69 shows the method or which machine is being used
arrangement diagrammatically. always try to obtain maximum support
Generally speaking gear cutting in a for both the cutter and the workpiece
milling machine, either vertical or and always cut towards the fixture that

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can best resist the thrusts developed. constructing the arbors. Once made
It is also of great importance that both they can be used many times and any
the cutter and the blank are correctly differences in the bores of blank and
mounted, so therefore it pays to spend cutters can to some extent be
some time in both designing and accommodated by providing a bush or
~ sleeve to increase the arbor's mounting
r;' diameter. Such a bush should be
'"'"
~
machined all over at the one setting and
~
0:
f 4 the hole produced by single-point
I(C
2
x
- : - til boring as it is imperative to have both
",4' cutter and workpiece mounted without
,- !
- any eccentricity. As a matter of interest

Db-
r the arbors shown in the accompanying
,j

'" L V/
, '
/ ~/
~'" I photographs have been drawn out and
< I are shown in Fig. 70.
is
3 :~'011
if

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84

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CHAPTER 10

CUTTING WORMS &


WORMWHEELS

As stated in Chapter 6, a worm is machine tool that may otherwise be


basically a screw thread and so the outside his workshop budget. Not only
machining of a worm is similar in are the Vee sides ofthe cutter important,
principle to cutting a screw thread. This the lip ofthe tool is also. Obviously it will
is done in the lathe with the cutter held in not come to a point like a normal
the toolrest in the normal way and the screwcutting tool but will have a flat end,
lead or helix angle of the worm is then and the width ofthis flat is important. If a
generated by means of the leadscrew tool and cutter grinder is not available
driven by a train of suitable then the tool can be ground to a suitable
changewheels. gauge by the 'free hand' method but
The tool used is naturally a form tool great care will be necessary in order to
and, as previously stated, the tooth obtain both the correct profile and
shape of the worm is basically similar to clearance angles. Fig. 71 illustrates a
the rack form of the intended mating suitable tool. It is recommended that the
gear. If the mating gear is of involute tool should be produced from round
form - as it most likely will be - then the section, high speed steel; a 114" dia. will
cutter will be of a Vee shape with the be satisfactory for all but the larger D.Ps
included angle of the Vee being twice when it may be necessary to increase
the pressure angle of the tooth profile the tool diameter to 3/8 in. The width of
used. As only two pressure angles are in the tip is important, if it is too wide then
general use the included angle will be not enough clearance will be provided
40° in the case of the popular 20° between the top of the gear tooth and
pressure angle, or 29° forthe 14V2° angle. the bottom of the worm and the tooth
It is essential to grind the form tool to would rub on the bottom ofthe worm, or
the correct profile and this is best done could even prevent assembly of the
on a tool and cutter grinder. Tool and components. If the tip is too narrow then
cutter grinders are becoming more this in itself will not be a great detriment
popular in the amateur workshop as as it will only produce more clearance
quite a number of designs are now between the gear tooth and the bottom
available in kit form enabling the of the worm. However, should the tip be
amateur, at modest cost, to make a narrow then the depth of cut or infeed

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-~/~
!, -------- -

5ETTlwG FLAT ~
I
2. x PEE""U~ "'WElLE. --__ "
---t-
,/

,Y-
TIP WIDTH -

FIG 71. FOICCIV\ TOOL >=OE CuTTn·1G A


WOeM - EIGHi H""ND SHOWN

will have to be increased in order to disposal and will have to do his best with
produce the correct P.C.D. on the worm. the normal measuring equipment
This can often be used to advantage with available. It is possible to measure the
the one tool used to cut more than one width of the tip with a micrometer and
D.P., for instance, a tool made for, say, although the degree of accuracy may be
20DP could also be used for 18DP or open to question nevertheless it will be
even 16DP provided that the correct within the limits required for most
infeed is used. In most cases the extra general needs. The micrometer used
clearance provided will be of no must be in good condition, or at least it
consequence. must have anvils with good sharp
It is not easy to produce the correct tip corners. If the corners of the anvils are at
width as there is nothing tangible to all rounded it will not be possible to
measure. Well-equipped tool rooms obtain a reasonable reading. In order to
would be provided with special measure the tip width first close the
equipment such as a 'Shadowgraph' anvils of the micrometer until the tip of
that would enable the tip to be the tool will just, and only just, enter the
compared to some known standard. the gap, then apply a gentle force so as to
amateur will have nothing like this at his push the tool into the gap. The lip of the

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TOOL NOT SST avE.g A.T IHE TOOL SET ro I-1ELI)(
HI:.LIX ANGLE WILL NOT cur A.NCi,LE WILL CuT
BUT !CUB 0"-1 THE SIDE OF" (O~ECTl-Y
TI-IE G"OOVE.

FIG 72 St-10Wlt06 THE. EFFE.CT OF" THE


HE.LI\( ANSLE 0>-.) THI;. T=L

tool will be lightly held and a resistance and the side of the tool will rub on the
to rotary motion in either direction will side of the groove, see Fig. 72. The
just be felt. Close the gap between the reason for recommending that the tool
two micrometer anvils by .001 and try be made from round material is now
again. If the first setting was the correct apparent - it can be ground in the
reading then the tip of the tool will not normal way and then rotated in its
enter the gap and the slight resistance to holder until the required helix angle has
rotary motion will have gone. The been obtained. By referring to Fig. 71, it
process may sound somewhat will be seen that a setting flat is
hazardous but with a little practice a recommended on the side of the tool. If
delicate sense of feel can be quickly this flat is produced normal to the tool
acquired and surprisingly good gauging vertical axis it can be used as a datum
results achieved. face and so simplify the setting process.
The worm, being a screw, will A protractor set to the required angle
naturally have a helix angle and this and placed upon the flat top of the cross-
angle will in most cases be far greater slide will indicate how far to rotate the
than those normally encountered in cutter in order to obtain the correct
general screwcutting operations. In setting.
order for the tool to cut correctly it must The following tables, listing a wide
be set over in its holder at the helix range of both D.P. and modular pitches,
angle, or at a close approximation to the show the tip width for both 14V2° and 20°
angle. Failure to do this will prevent the pressure angles, the depth of cut to be
tool from cutting as the clearance and applied and also how to arrive at the
rake angles will be adversely affected outside diameter of the worm blank

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Tooth Tip Width Depth
D.P. of 0.0.= Linear
14W 20° Cut PCD+ Pitch

6 .162 .121 .360 .333 .5236


8 .122 .091 .270 .250 .3927
10 .097 .073 .216 .200 .3142
12 .081 .061 .180 .167 .2618
14 .069 .052 .154 .143 .2244
16 .061 .046 .135 .125 .1963
18 .054 .040 .120 .111 .1745
20 .049 .036 .108 .100 .1571
22 .044 .033 .098 .091 .1428
24 .041 .030 .090 .083 .1309
26 .037 .028 .083 .077 .1208
28 .035 .026 .077 .071 .1122
30 .032 .024 .072 .067 .1047
32 .030 .023 .067 .062 .0982
36 .027 .020 .060 .056 .0873
40 .024 .018 .054 .050 .0785
given the p.e.D. The p.e.D. will have It is not possible to list the helix
been determined by the design angles in these charts as this will depend
requirements. The last column shows upon the diameter of the worm. It has
the linear pitch, which will be needed in already been said that the diameter of
order to calculate the correct train of the worm has no effect on the gear ratio
changewheels to apply to the banjo and and so the p.e.D. of the worm can be
so drive the lathe leadscrew. chosen to suit the design requirements.

Tool Tip Width Outside


Depth of Cut Diameter = Linear Pitch
Module 141hoPA 20 PA0
PCD+
Inches M/M Inches M/M Inches M/M Inches M/M Inches M/M
4 .153 3.89 .115 2.91 .340 8.63 .315 8.00 .4947 12.57
3 .115 2.92 .086 2.19 .255 6.47 .236 6.00 .3711 9.42
2.5 .096 2.43 .072 1.82 .212 5.39 .197 5.00 .3092 7.85
2 .077 1.94 .057 1.46 .170 4.31 .157 4.00 .2474 6.28
1.5 .057 1.46 .043 1.09 .127 3.23 .118 3.00 .1855 4.71
1.25 .048 1.22 .036 .91 .106 2.70 .098 2.50 .1546 3.93
1 .038 .97 .029 .73 .085 2.16 .079 2.00 .1237 3.14
0.8 .031 .78 .023 .58 .068 1.73 .063 1.60 .0989 2.51
0.7 .027 .68 .020 .51 .059 1.51 .055 1.40 .0866 2.20
0.5 .019 .49 .014 .36 .042 1.08 .039 1.00 .0618 1.57
0.4 .015 .39 .011 .29 .034 .86 .031 .80 .0495 1.26
0.3 .011 .29 .009 .21 .025 .65 .024 .60 .0371 .94

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However, it is not difficult to determine
the helix angle as it is only a case of L: LE. .... D OF WQE)t\
dividing the lead by the circumferential pc P.C.D'" n:
length of the pitch circle and then
reading the angle from a set of tangent
tables. The mathematical method is p
shown in Fig. 73.
The form tool must be held in a TAN Q : !:.
p
suitable tool holder, the basic shape of
which may be square or rectangular, its
actual shape depending upon the type of L
tool box with which the lathe is
equipped. The holder must have a hole, FIG 73 HOW TO CA.LC.UU~TE..
preferably reamed to fit the tool bit, and
also a means of firmly securing the tool
in the holder after it has been set to the banjo so that the amount the tool
helix angle. Securing the cutter by advances for each revolution of the
means of a clamp screw passing workpiece can be predetermined. Most
through the side of the holder and lathes are equipped with a screwcutting
making contact with the cutter is not chart listing the changewheels needed
recommended as this does not provide a for most standard pitches and, knowing
firm or secure hold. The screw would what pitch is required, it is then a simple
merely push the tool over to one side of matter of looking at the chart and fitting
the hole, thus providing a clearance on the gears accordingly. Selecting the
the screw side and so allowing the tool gears required to cut a worm may not be
to rock under load. It is far better to split so simple as it is most unlikely that the
the holder across the centre line and pitch required will be shown on the list.
then position the clamp screw so that Working through an example is possibly
when it is tightened the hole will close the best way of illustrating and solving
completely around the tool thus making the problems involved.
the whole unit rigid. Another advantage Supposing we have a 40-tooth spur
with this method is that there are no gear and that we wish to cut a worm in
rotating forces placed upon the tool order to construct a dividing head or
during the clamping process so once the rotary table. Fig. 51 shows how this can
tool is set to the helix angle it will not be done by setting over the worm to suit
rotate as the clamp screw is tightened. its helix angle. The first stage is to
identify the gear positively and the only
DETERMINING THE CHANGEWHEELS information that can be obtained by
TO PRODUCE THE HELIX ANGLE examination is the number of teeth and
When screwcutting in the lathe the helix also its outside diameter. However, from
angle of the thread is generated by this we can determine the circular pitch
gearing the leadscrew to the lathe which will then give us the correct lead
mandrel. The ratio of the gears that drive of the worm. It is most probable that the
the leadscrew can be adjusted by gear will be a standard D.P. gear and we
altering the changewheels on the lathe know from previous discussion that the

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D.P. of a gear is the number ofteeth plus same value as the ratio between the
two divided by the outside diameter of two pitches. This ratio is .125/025 or 5: 1, so
the gear. If, on measuring, we find that this must be the speed ratio between the
the outside diameter is 1.400 then by two shafts. The lathe mandrel will have
applying the equation we get:- to rotate five times for every single turn
DP = 40+2 = A2.. which gives us the of the leadscrew. In operation this will
1.4 1.4 produce five threads on the workpiece
figure 30 for the D.P. However, in order over a distance of .125 in. sothe pitch of
to cut the worm we require the circular eachthreadis.025in.
pitch so, again referring to previous We know now that the ratio of the
discussion, we know that the C.P. is %P gear to be placed on the banjo must be
so that the C.P. for our gear will be rr/3o 5:1. The smallest gear in a set of
which is .1047. We now know that we changewheels is usually the 20-tooth
have to cut a worm with a pitch of .1047. gear so multiplying both top and bottom
Imperial screwcutting or changewheel of the ratio by 20 gives us 5/1 x 20/20 = 100/20.
charts rarely give the pitch but quote the If these two gears, together with an idler
threads-per-inch. If we wish we can to bridge the gap, could be used the 20-
change the pitch to threads-per-inch by tooth would fit on the lathe mandrel and
dividing the .1047 into 1 to give 9.551 the 100-tooth on the leadscrew and the
threads-per-inch. It is useless looking at desired pitch would be generated. The
the lathe chart for a train of snag here is that a 1OO-tooth gear is not
changewheels to cut this number as it often included in a standard set of
will not be listed! We are, therefore, on changewheels so an alternative may
our own and must start with first have to be found.
principles. It will be better if, before The ratio of 5:1 can be subdivided
trying to solve this non-standard pitch into two, one being 21/2: 1 and the other
problem we examine how to deal with a 2:1 thesetwotogetherwould result in an
standard pitch. overall reduction of 5: 1. There are quite
One of the most popular pitches used a few ways of obtaining the 2:1 from a
in model or small work is 40 t.p.i. so we set of changewheels as follows:
will work out a set of changewheels for (40Vj20) or (50Vj25) or (60Vj30) or (70Vj35). The
this pitch. Most small lathes are fitted 2V2: 1 ratio can be obtained by the gear
with an 8 t.p.i. leadscrew and this will (50Vj20). By using four different sized gears
have a pitch of Va or .125 in. This means a suggested train could be 50/20 x 60/30
that when the half-nuts are engaged the which, if multiplied out gives 3000/600 or 5/1.
lathe saddle, and hence the tool, will The gears shown on the upper line
move a distance of .125 in. for every would be the driven gears whilst the
revolution of the leadscrew. A 40 t.p.i. gears shown below would be the
screw has a pitch of 1140 in. or .025 in. and drivers.
so the leadscrew will only have to rotate It has been stated earllerthat In a train
a part of a turn in order to produce this of gears only the first and last gear have
movement. It follows from this that the any effect on the overall ratio, and this is
leadscrew will have to rotate at a slower so, but only if all the gears are on
speed than the mandrel and that the separate shafts. In the ratio shown
ratio between these speeds must be the above all the gears would not be on

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separate shafts; two of them would be ..__- 20 TOoTH
on one shaft or compounded, and the
sketch Fig. 74 shows how this is
arranged. The 20-tooth gear drives the __ - 50 TOOTH
50-tooth gear which is fastened onto a
common shaft with the 30-tooth gear so
~o TOOTH
they revolve as a unit and musttherefore
rotate at the same speed. In this way all
four gears affect the overall gear ratio.
There are other ways in which the four
gears can be arranged and still maintain
the 5: 1 ratio and so long as the 20- and _- CoO TooTI-1
30-tooth gears are used as drivers with
the 50- and 60-tooth gears as the driven,
the overall ratio will not be affected. Fig.
75 shows three more ways of arranging
the four gears. Sometimes, although it is
theoretically possible to arrange the so TOOTH E\ 30 TOOTH A.eE
gears in a particular way, there may be K.E.Y~D 0"-1 '.IE SA.ME
practical difficulties owing to a large
S\-1"-FT' Ole COMPOuI'-JDI':D
gear interfering with the securing nut of
a smaller gear. However, re-arranging FIG 74-
the train usually overcomes this

- 20 TOOTI-1 -'30TDOTH . - - , 0 TOOTH

- (oCJTOOTH ~ - '70 TOOT'\-1

1OTOOTH -2.0 TOOTH .; -ZO Toom

50 TOOTH -'70 TCOTH

;:'11; 75 S~vJING lHetE MOEE \,JAYS OF


A~t>.NG\"-IE> THE FOU2. G,E ....e.s SHOWN IN >=1(, 74-
W\"T\-IouT ,6,.FH".C.TI>-')E> n'E GE""\< I2A,IO

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problem. Generally speaking it is broader this band, the easier it will be to
advantageous forthe smallest gear to be comply with the specified tolerance. The
used as the first driver and the largest size of the tolerance band is usually
gear to be the last driven gear but this is a compromise between what is ideally
not mandatory. required and what can be satisfac-
Going back to our original problem of torily produced. The designer and
the .1047 pitch, it is dealt with in the drawing offices will decide on the
same way as the standard pitch compromise, fix the tolerance band and
discussed above. The first stage is to then the component will be produced
determine the gear ratio, and this is accordingly.
done by dividing the required pitch into The amateur cannot work this way as
the leadscrew pitch. Ratio =125/1047 = it is pointless deciding on a tolerance if
1.194: 1 or 1/1.194. But is is only possible to the equipment available cannot produce
work in whole numbers when dealing the component within the limits fixed.
with the number of teeth in a gear, so What the amateur has to do is determine
therefore the top and bottom lines must what can be made and then decide if this
be multiplied by 1000:- is acceptable. In our example we know
1 x 1000/1, 194x1 000 = 1000/1194 . we cannot set a train of wheels to give
It follows from the previous example the exact pitch required so we have to
that two gears, one having 1000 teeth find how close we can get to the
and one having 1194 teeth, will give us theoretical pitch and then ask ourselves
the pitch we require. Naturally two such if this is good enough?
gears are completely impractical but is is We know we cannot use the fractions
possible to simplify the fraction to 500/597 1000/1194 or 500/597 , so some other fraction
and although the 500 looks promising, that can be of use must be found and the
the 597 after reducing to 3x199 cannot closer the value of the new fraction to
be made any simpler as 199 is a prime the original the smaller will be the error
number and so to obtain the pitch introduced. There is a mathematical way
required we must have a gear with 199 of finding the new fraction, a process
teeth. It would appear that it is not called continuous fractions. Since the
possible to cut a worm that will mate author set out to produce a book for the
exactly with a 30D.P, gear and this is practical enthusiast and to keep
correct. However, the operative word in mathematics down to a minimum he is
the above statement is 'exactly'. not going to describe here how or why
Fortunately, although mathematics is an the method works. Should any reader
exact science, engineering practice is wish to study the subject in detail he
not and if it were so nothing could ever must refer to the relevant mathematical
be made! An engineering drawing may textbook, but provided the method set
call for a component to be 1 in. diameter out below is followed step- by-step with
but it is not a practical proposition to no questions asked as to why this or that
product it to 1 in. exactly, and even if it is done, then it is a matter of simple
were it would only be exactly 1 in. at one arithmetic! Although we are using one
specific temperature. There is, however, set of numbers in the following exercise
always a tolerance band within which it is the method that is important and if
the component is acceptable and the this is followed then any other numbers

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can be substituted and a satisfactory 1000)1194(1
result obtained. 1000
The first stage in finding a suitable 194)1000(5
approximate fraction is to perform a 970
series of divisions starting from our ~) 194(6
original fraction 1000/1194• The slightly 180
simpler 500/597 could be used, and 14)30(2
normally would be, but as the main idea 28
here is to demonstrate the method we 2)14(7
will use the 1000/1194 fraction. As it 14
happens this fraction could be cancelled o
down but other sets of figures may not In our example we have arrived atthe
do so. However, it does not matter which zero remainder with only five divisions,
fraction is used, the original or .' ,d with other figures it may take more,
reduced, the end result will be exactly seven divisions seeming to be an
the same. average number, but it may take as
Start by dividing the top line (1000 in many as nine or so. The only
this case) into the bottom line setting it information we require from the
out in a similar way to normal long divisions is the series of successive
division: quotients, viz:- 1,5,6,2,7.
1000) 1194 If the reader now repeats the process
1000 but this time using the simplified 500/597
194 fraction he will arrive at exactly the same
series of quotients.
The 1000 is divided into the 1194 giving From this series of quotients we are
an answer of 1 with a remainder of 194. going to produce a series of fractions
Now the similarity with long division and the first one is always the same
ends because the next stage is to divide regardless of how many quotients there
the remainder into the previous divisor, are or what they may be, the first fraction
so we divide the 194 into the 1000 and must be 0;" This is followed in sequence
the example now looks like this: by 1 divided by the first quotient in the
1000) 1194 ( 1 series, which in our example is also 1. So
1000 our first two fractions are 0/1 and 1/1. Now
-194) 1000 5 for the tricky part! Multiply the
970 numerator (top line) of the last fraction
30 (Vl) by the next quotient in the series (5)
The 194 is divided into the 1000 giving and add the numerator of the previous
an answer of 5 with a remainder of 30. fraction (0/1), which gives us 1 x 5 + 0 = 5.
The next stage is to repeat this process Do exactly the same with the
dividing the remainder, 30, into the denominators (bottom line), multiply
previous divisor, 194, which will give an the denominator of the last fraction (Vl)
answer of 6 with a remainder of 14 and by the quotient just used (5) and add the
then keep on repeating this division denominator of the previous fraction
process until the remainder becomes (0/1), giving 1 x 5 + 1 = 6. Thisthen gives
zero. us the next fraction in the series 516.

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Repeating this procedure until all the Ignoring the first two fractions which are
quotients have been used we get:- only used to start the process, we get %
which is .8333; the original V1194 has a
value of .8375 so the error is only just
over .004. The next fraction in the series
0:1:5:(5x6+1) = 31: (31x2+5) if 3V37 showing an error of just over
1:1:6:(6x6+1) 37: (37x2+6) .0003, whilst in the case of 67/80 the fifth
place of decimals is reached before any
_ 67: (67x7+31) _ 500 error is found. It can be seen from this
- 80: (80x7+37) - 597 that if we can use one of the fractions
towards the end of the series to
determine the changewheels then the
pitch error generated is going to be very
Our series of fractions is therefore: small indeed. Looking along the line the
% is attractive because the two gears 50/
o 1 5 31 67 500 60 or 25/30 combinations are the
1 1 6 37 80 597 obvious choice. If we were to use this
combination to drive the leadscrew the
pitch cut would be 5%0 x .125 (Ieadscrew
pitch) which is .10416. This shows a
and it can be seen that the final fraction pitch error over the theoretical .1047 of
in the series is the same as the fraction only half-a-thou or so which may be
that initiated the whole process, and this considered adequate if no further
is as it should be, for no matter what the improvement can be achieved. But by
starting fraction may be, the final using one of the other fractions we know
fraction in the completed series will this can be improved upon and ifthetwo
always be of the same value as the wheels 67 and 80 were available this
original fraction. This is fortunate and would be ideal as the pitch cut would be
gives us a check on our calculations as .1046875, giving an error of only
well as proving that all the intermediate .0000125 which is less than the pitch
fractions are also correct. If the final error of the leadscrew! UnfortunatelY,
fraction is not the same as the original changewheels are usually supplied with
starting fraction, or a reduced version of teeth in multiples of five and so wheels
it, then a mistake has been made in such as 31, 61 and 67 will not normally
which case it is pointless to proceed be available. In fact 31, 61 and 67 are all
further until the error has been rectified. prime numbers so these fractions
cannot be transposed into change-
What we have in fact produced is a wheels and it would therefore appear
series of fractions starting with a rough certain that the best we can obtain is the
approximation of the original and with 50/60 combination. However, fractions
each consecutive fraction becoming have one useful property as far as our
increasingly closer to the value of the problem is concerned and that is, if we
original until, finally, we actually reach add together - or subtract from each
the original. It is surprising just how other - the top and bottom lines of two
soon a close approximation is reached. fractions of similar value we then obtain

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a third fraction of the same value. For changewheels. The pitch such a train
example, ~ and .Q. are both equal to..l wou Id generate is 2§. x 1!l. x .125 =
18 12 2 45 x 65
and if we add the top lines together and .1047008 giving an error of .0000008
also the bottom lines together we get.l§.. which is very much smaller than the
30 error obtained by using the 67/80
which equalsl. Subtracting the same combination. The reason for this is that
2 the error in each successive fraction of
numbers gives usl..which again is equal the original series alternates between a
6 plus and a minus value so that when the
to 1. From this it follows that if we treat two are added together the error tends
"2 to be cancelled out. It may not always be
two fractions of nearly the same value in possible to arrive at a solution with an
a similar way the new fraction obtained error as small as this using only
will have a value close to the original two standard changewheels but it is
- in fact its value will lie between the nevertheless surprising just what can be
values of the two fractions used. achieved by a little manipulation of the
Using this knowledge then we can figures. Should a special changewheel
supplement our series of fractions still be needed then it may be worthwhile
further. Although 31 and 67 are prime producing one as it will increase the
numbers, if two prime numbers are available rangeforfuture requirements.
added together the result must be a The above method of selecting
number that has factors. Therefore we changewheels for irregular pitches has
can obtain a new fraction from 31 and been explained in depth because it can
37 be used in solving any pitch problem
67 which gives us 98. Now this looks where other methods have been found
80 .,.,-y- unsuitable.
more promising as both top and bottom In cutting worms to mesh with a D.P.
figures will factorise thus:- gear the irregular function in the
calculation is the factor 1T. A close
2 x 7 x 7 or, using four numbers only, approximation of 1T in fraction form is 22
3x3x13 "7
14x7; then by multiplyingthe7 and 9 by so if both top and bottom ofthis fraction
9Xi3 are multiplied by 5 we arrive at 110
10, and the 14 and 13 by 5, we get the ---"35
equation 70 x 70. This would necessitate which can be expressed in terms of
90x65 changewheels as 55 x 2. Going back to
using two 70-tooth wheels and a 90- 35 x 1
tooth wheel if available. Only our original example of the 30DP worm,
one 70-tooth wheel would be available if this fraction is used in the calculation
in a standard set of changewheels but rather than a more exact decimal
both the 70 and the 90 can be divided by equivalent we can arrive at a set of
two giving a final gear train of 35 x 70 changewheels directly without having
45 x 65 to use the continuous fraction method,
and these are all standard although the pitch error may be greater.

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CP =
Tr, CP = 55 x 2, so for the 30DP we D.P. GEAR TRAIN D.P. GEAR TRAIN
DP 35 x DP
55x8Q 55x40
we get 55 x 2 . 6 35x30 22 35x55
35 x 30·
55x60 55x40
8 35x30 24 35x60
The required ratio =

55x40 55x40
Leadscrew pitch x35x30 : 1, 10 35x25 26 35x65
55x2
55x40 55x40
12 35x30 28 35x70
or 55x2
.125x35x30 55x4Q 55x40
14 35x35 30 35x75
Removing the decimal we get
!i!=!xidler 55x30
16 35 32 35x60
55000x2
125x35x30 55x4Q 55x20
18 35x45 36 35x45

and simplifying this gives 55x40 55x20


440 x 2 or 55 x 16 20 35x50 40 35x50
35 x 30 35 x 30
So the suggested train becomes 55 x 40
35x75 In all the foregoing no account has
and if we multiply this train by the 35 x 75 been taken of the effect on the worm
lead-screw pitch we get a figure of pitch of setting the worm over to the
.1047619. Comparing this with the pitch helix angle in order to obtain a mesh
generated by the train of wheels with the spur gear, Fig. 51. Theoretically
suggested by the continuous fraction this set-over affects the pitch as an
method, we see that the error, although examination of Fig. 76 will show. The
greater, is nevertheless correct to the pitch we have been cutting is the
fourth place of decimals and for most distance marked 'P' which is the circular
applications this may be considered pitch of the gear. To be correct the pitch
satisfactory. of the worm is the distance marked 'A'
The following table has been measured along the centre line of the
prepared suggesting the train of wheels worm. In the illustration the helix angle
that can be used to produce worms to has been exaggerated in order to
suit the D.Ps listed. The trains have been illustrate the point. In practice, if the
calculated using the Tr= 22 method and helix angle is kept down to about 3° or so
7" then for most applications a correction
as can be seen all the trains incorporate factor need not be applied as its effect
the two gears 55 and 35, this being the Tr will be very small. For instance, going
factor. All the gear trains are calculated back to our example, if the helix angle of
for a lathe fitted with an 8-tpi leadscrew. the worm had been 3° the effect on the
The top numbers are the drivers and the pitch of the worm would have been
low numbers the driven wheels. .00014 which is less than most model or

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ct OF woeM

FI>CE. OF G~~ -I I - ' x


P,
/' ---HE.LlX "'NGI.'iO
----~-.--_._+_r--~~----~\

~IG 7(0 SHOvJI'-lG i\-lE EFFEc..T ON THe P ITCH OF TI-l'=


WOeM BY SETTI'-lG OVE.12 ""T THE. HEU')( I'>.N5LI;

amateur engineers care to worry about. withdrawing the tool at the end of each
Should the design requirement pass then, after winding the saddle back,
necessitate the introduction of a returning the tool to its original position
correction factor then it is simply a before applying the next cut. A
matter of dividing the circular pitch by combination of the two methods can be
the cosine ofthe helix angle ofthe worm used, juggling with the two handwheels
to obtain the new pitch. The resulting until the correct depth of cut has been
gear train would then have to be achieved. The first method is quite
calculated by the continuous fraction satisfactory if the pitch of the screw is
method. If the wormwheel is a helical fine and the depth ofthe cut shallow but
gear and not a spur gear then the axis of it is not recommended for cutting
the worm will be at right-angles to the worms where it is unlikely that either of
axis of the gear, but the pitch correction these conditions will apply. The method
factor still applies to the worm, the only favoured by the author, and used with
difference being that in this case it will satisfaction when cutting deep coarse
be the teeth of the wormwheel that will pitch threads, is to set the top slide over
be inclined and not the axis ofthe worm. but not to the 'correct' half-thread form
In producing a worm the actual angle - just slightly finer. The cut is
screwcutting procedure is basically applied by the top- slide with the cross-
similar to any other single-point slide used in the normal way for
screwcutting process. Some people withdrawing and repositioning the tool.
prefer to use the cross-slide only for This method allows the leading edge of
both applying the cut and withdrawing the tool, which has positive rake, to
the tool in which case the tool becomes remove the bulk of the material but still
a true form cutter and it will cut all the leaves a fi ne shaving for the other side of
way round its profile. Another method is the tool. This method was advocated
to set the top slide over to a half of the and described in the Model Engineer by
thread-angle and apply the cut by means Mr. G. H. Thomas.
of the top slide, using the cross-slide for The depth of the cut is obviously

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important as this wil! determine the size series 7 and 10 lathes. For the really
of the P.C.D. Using the suggested coarse pitches it is better to actually fit a
cutting method will make it difficult to handle directly onto the end of the
obtain the depth by use of the leadscrew as this will lower the stress in
handwheel micrometer dials so some the gears and make for easier turning.
other method may have to be employed. The best place to fix this handle is on the
Perhaps the simplest and most positive headstock end of the leadscrew and not
way is to provide the worm blank with a tailstock end as this will then eliminate a
short extension turned to the root tendency for the leadscrew to wind.
diameter of the thread; it will then be
obvious when the correct diameter has PRODUCING WORMWHEELS
been reached. Reference back to Chapter 6 will show
It will not be possible to use the that three types of wormwheel were
thread dial indicator to engage the described, the first of these being a
leadscrew for the start of each cut as, simple spur gear suitable for slow-
owing to the awkward pitch, a correct moving or low-power transmissions.
pick-up would not be shown on the dial. The cutting of this type of wheel has
Once the half-nuts are engaged they already been described. The second
must remain closed until the screwing type of wheel is basically similar to the
operations have been completed. This spur wheel but the teeth are angled at
will mean stopping the lathe at the end the helix angle of the mating worm.
of each cut and rotating everything in From a power transmission point of
the reverse direction until the starting view this wheel has little advantage over
position has been reached. The tool the spur gear although the angling of the
must be withdrawn first, however, as to teeth does allow for a simpler design of
try and reverse the lathe with the tool gear box as the axes of both the
still in cut would result in disaster owing components are at right-angles.
to that old enemy backlash. The pitch of Producing this type of gear in the home
all D.P. based worms up to and including workshop is not easy and it may not be
24DP will be coarser than the pitch of the possible without producing some
lathe leadscrew (assuming an 8-tpi additional tooling. It is not simply a
leadscrew) and this means that to matter of cutting the teeth at an angle
generate the desired pitch the leadscrew because the teeth do not follow a
will have to rotate faster than the lathe straight line but are part of a helical
mandrel. This in turn will lead to high curve. The wheel is in fact a thin slice of
stresses being generatecl. particularly in a long lead multi-start worm. It follows
the changewheels, so the speed of from this that to cut this type of
rotation must be set on the slowest wormwheel the helical form will have to
possible speed. In fact it is a good idea be generated in a similar way to that
not to use power at all but to rotate the described for cutting worms. The helix
mandrel by means of a handle fitted into angle will be very large, being in fact 90 0
its outer end, which will give greater minus the helix angle of the mating
control over the operation and also add worm, which will result in only a small
a sense of feel. Myfords actually supply radial movement of the workpiece as the
such a handle which will fit all their cutting form tool passes over it. The

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leadscrew will have to make a good cutter. The method of producing the
many revolutions for each turn of the helix will be similar to the method just
lathe mandrel and in order to obtain the described but the cutter will have to be
required gear reduction at least six mounted and driven by an auxiliary
changewheels will have to be used cutting head mounted on the cross-
although in many cases this may not slide. The teeth can then be cut to depth
prove sufficient. It is quite possible that at one pass but it will be necessary to
some modification will have to be made withdraw the cutter at the end of each
to the changewheel banjo to allow a pass and after winding back and
sufficiently large gear train to be indexing, reset the cutter to the correct
mounted. Alternatively, it may be better depth before cutting the next tooth.
to incorporate a worm drive in the As was the case with the spur gear,
reduction gearing. Some form of the milling machine is superior to the
indexing device will have to be lathe for cutting helical gears but again
incorporated in the arrangement but it is the difficulty is in generating the helix
difficult to arrange this on the lathe angle. This is done in industry by means
mandrel in any of the ways normally of a special dividing head called a
employed when dividing in the lathe, as spiralling head. This is a special form of
the mandrel is already being used to dividing head in which the worm spindle
generate the helix. Possibly the simplest is extended so that a gear can be keyed
method of dividing is some form of onto it. This gear is then connected to
direct division device on the arbor the milling machine table screw by
carrying the blank. This arbor could be a means of a train of changewheels so that
two-piece unit, the main part being a as the feedscrew ofthe table is rotated to
mandrel secured to the lathe spindle provide movement to the table, the
either on the screwed nose or in the worm of the dividing head also rotates
morse taper. Securely fastened to this which in turn rotates the main spindle of
would be some form of division plate the dividing head and also the
which could be either a spur gear with workpiece. The result is the cutting of a
the appropriate number ofteeth or else a spiral or helix. The lead of this spiral is
plate into which a circle of holes has determined by the ratio of the
been drilled. A sleeve free to rotate on changewheels used. The dividing head
this mandrel would carry the workpiece is also provided with a device that
and also some form of detent to engage permits its normal indexing function to
with the division plate. The cutting be used without interfering with the
action will be basically similar to a spiralling drive. It is uncommon to find
shaping or planing machine rather than this type of dividing head, or the milling
a turning operation and as only light cuts machine that is capable of accepting it,
can be taken, and as it will not be in an amateur's workshop but should
possible to open the half nuts for the any reader possess one then it is almost
return stroke, the whole operation will certain he will know how to use it. A
be lengthy and prolonged. detailed description of the head and its
A far quicker method of producing uses would be lengthy and involved and
the teeth is to mill them using the so is outside the scope of this book.
standard Brown and Sharpe type of When producing blanks for helical

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I

j L I~

FIG 77 5HOWI'-lC~ \NHY TH~ Po I~ND O.D.


OF A \-\E. LlCAL GE.,,,R AEE. LI'-..RC~ER THAN
A. COR.eESPONDINC~ SPuR. GEI>--R

gears the formula PD=Njop is not correct cannot be cut using the normal type of
as the helical gear has a greater P.O. and gear cutter as the bottom ofthe teeth are
outside diameter than its equivalent not straight but curved to suit the worm
spur gear. To understand the reason for and it has to be produced by a process
this refer to Fig. 77. The 'normal' pitch is known as hobbing. The cutting tool, or
shown as C.P., this being the distance hob as it is called, is similar in profile to
between two teeth at right-angles to the the worm but has gashes cut into it to
teeth but, owing to the angularity of the form cutting edges or teeth. If both this
teeth, the equivalent distance round the hob and the wormwheel blank are
face of the wheel is the distance marked positioned on a fixture in their normal
'L'. To arrive at the p.o. for a helical gear, working attitude and both rotate at the
divide the P.O. for a similar spur gear by same relative speed as if they were in
the cosine of the angle shown as 'A' on mesh, then as the wheel is fed into the
the drawing. hob it will start to cut teeth into the
This description of cutting helical wheel. The cutting action will be
gears has been condensed because not continuous because the wheel is
many amateurs have the necessary rotating and so all the teeth will be cut at
equipment, nor the desire to make the the same time. The hob is fed into the
equipment to produce these accurately. wormwheel until the required depth of
However, if the problems outlined have tooth has been obtained, the cutting
been understood then at least it will be a action is then complete. Commercially a
starting point for anyone wishing to special machine called a hobbing
pursue the matter further. machine would be used and with this
A wormwheel intended for power type of machine it is possible to rotate
transmission, or one where it will be in both cutters and the mandrel holding
operation for long periods of time, will the blank at any predetermined speed
have to have a long arc of contact similar needed to suit the characteristics of the
to the example shown in Fig. 49. The wormwheel being cut. Once again this is
wormwheel is hollowed out to fit over or not a simple operation to carry out in the
wrap around the worm for a sixth or so back-garden workshop but it can be
of its diameter. This type of wormwheel done on the lathe providing a suitable

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cl OF LI'..T\-1E 7

- tv10Ui'.!TI~G PLI'..TE:

,
,
CIC.OSS SLlDE-
WORM SHA-FT-
WOE'M "-lOT ;:,HOW"-I

FIG 78 FIXTuRE. FOR HOBBli'.!G, WOt'l<) WHEEL IN THe. LI'..\HE

attachment is made. Rotating the cutter one of the changewheels on the banjo
or hob is simple as this can be mounted and the stud on which the changewheel
either between centres or held in a chuck is mounted must be hollow so that the
and supported at the outer end by the spindle to which the changewheel is
tailstock centre. The gear blank is keyed can pass through it. The outer end
mounted on a fixture secured to the of this shaft is provided with a simple
lathe cross-slide, the main component coupling similar to the one shown in Fig.
of this fixture being a vertical shaft. The 78 and the drive shaft between the two
height of the shaft is such that when the couplings is simply a piece of tube
blank is fastened onto it the centre ofthe whose inside diameter will pass overthe
tooth face is coincident with the lathe spherical ends of the couplings. Both
centre. The vertical shaft must be geared ends of the driver shaft are slotted to
to the main lathe mandrel in such a way provide a drive from the cross pins. If the
as to produce speeds relative to the drive shaft is made telescopic then it will
speeds at which the worm and wheel be possible to adjust the position of the
will eventually operate. This means that fixtures by moving the lathe saddle
if the ratio of the worm and wheel is along the bed, thus allowing hobs of
20:1, then the lathe mandrel must rotate varying lengths to be used. The ratio
twenty times to the gear blank's once. To between the worm and wheel on the
achieve this a wormwheel is secured to fixutre is not important so long as it is
the vertical shaft which is driven by a possible, with the changewheels
worm arranged in such a way that its available, to gear up the blank to the
drive shaft is parallel to the lathe bed and cutter at the ratio required. For instance,
pointing towards the lathe headstock. if the fixture has a wormwheel ratio of
Fig. 78 shows how this can be arranged. 20:1 and it is desired to cut a wheel with
This particular wormshaft is driven from 30 teeth, then the changewheel ratio will

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Fig. 79 "Free"
Hobbing a worm in the
lathe. The blank has
first been 'gashed'to
remove most of the
material and to
correctly space the
teeth.

be 2:3, so any wheel that will produce correctly cut. It is a simple matter to
this ratio will be satisfactory, such as 20 apply reliefto a single-pointtool such as
and 30, or 30 and 45. a flycutter but in the case of a hob the
To anyone wishing to produce a relief will have to be produced by hand
worm and wheel it may seem rather filing. This is quite tiresome and calls for
strange to read that the first stage in considerable patience but unless it is
their production is to acquire a pair! done the hob will only rub and generate
However, the worm and wheel used for heat - naturally, this must be done
the fixtures need not be any special size before the hob is hardened. The hob will
or ratio, in fact a worm and spur gear cut better if the gashes are in spiral form
could be used. This would have a limited as this will always ensure that itwill be in
life but it could still hob many contact with the workpiece during the
wormwheels before it needed replacing complete cutting operation. In industry
- it could even hob its own replacement hobs are form-relieved in a form-
which would be far superior to the relieving lathe but it may be too much to
original gear! suggest that the constructor shou Id
The hob should be made of carbon make such an attachment for his lathe,
tool steel such as silver steel, or drill rod although it is quite feasible to do so.
as it is sometimes called. This material is
easy to obtain but, more importantly, it FREE HOB BING
is simple to heat treat. It has already Mechanical rotation of the gear blank, as
been mentioned that the hob is a just described, is a highly desirable
facsimile of the worm albeit suitably feature and the attachment is well worth
gashed to provide teeth, but like all constructing if any serious attempt at
cutting tools rake and clearance angles wormwheel cutting is contemplated.
must be provided if the teeth are to be 'Free wheel' hobbing, that is where the

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blank is not driven round under power preferably of a spiral tooth form. For this
but is free to rotate on its mounting reason it is not recommended that an
spindle, is sometimes suggested. The ordinary straight fluted tap be used as a
idea is that as the cutting action is at an hob because as soon as the trailing edge
angle the blank will automatically of the tooth leaves the blank, the blank
revolve under the influence ofthe cutter. will stop rotating and so the next cutting
This is quite true and reasonable results edge will not pick up the tooth and the
can sometimes be obtained by this process fails. Acceptable results can be
method, but it can be fraught with obtained with spiral fluted taps but it is
danger! recommended that the final centre
The author has carried out various distance between the worm and wheel is
tests using the free hobbing method and determined by direct measurement
has produced some reasonable results from the actual component after the
but the main problem is that there is a hobbing has been completed.
'drag' on the workpiece which tends to If the worm tooth form is large
make the hob cut more on one side of enough then it is better to gash the blank
the cutter than on the other, resulting in first; this can be done with a slitting saw
a continuous widening of the space set at the approximate helix angle, the
between the teeth as the work proceeds. spacing being obtained by means of a
I n some cases the resu It has been to lose dividing head. The hob does not then
a complete tooth and the wheel has have to generate its own tooth space
finished with one tooth less than the and, since much ofthe material has been
required number! removed, the 'drag' is greatly reduced
For the method to work at all the hob and the tendency to increase the tooth
must at all times be engaged with the width is minimised. The wheel being cut
wheel blank. This means that the teeth in the photograph, Fig. 79, was gashed
on the hob must be closely spaced or in this way.

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CHAPTER 11

Cutting Bevel Gears

"It is not possible to cut a correctly one cut as its width tapers inwards
formed bevel gear with a form-cutter as towards the centre of the gear, so the
the shape of a tooth is constantly usual method used when cutting bevels
changing along its length." That was a on a milling machine is to base all the
statement made in Chapter 5 and it is, of necessary calculations on the large end
course, correct, as is also the remark and try to produce the large end of the
made earlier that all engineering design tooth to the correct theoretical profile.
is a compromise. Is it possible therefore The cutter used must be a special one, it
to arrive at a compromise with regard to cannot be the full width to suit the large
bevel gears and produce, if not a perfect, end as it must be capable of passing
at least a serviceable profile using a through the small end of the tooth which
form-cutter and a milling machine? The is naturally narrower than the large end.
answer is 'yes', providing it is realised The cutter, therefore, must be thin
that it will not be a precision gear. The enough to pass through the small end
amateur's needs seldom call for high without endangering its width. In order
precision which is fortunate as it is to obtain the correct tooth width at the
usually a case of doing one's best with large end the cutter must make two
the limited amount of equipment passes, one down each side ofthe tooth.
available. However, such is the The involute profile of the special cutter
ingenuity of the model engineer that is correct for the large end so that after
more often than not the final result is the second pass the tooth form at the
more than just satisfactory! large end is correct. Movement of both
For many years bevels have been blank and cutter in between the two
produced on milling machines. In fact passes ensures that the width of the
before the development of generating small end of the tooth is also correct, the
methods, milling was the only snag being that the cutter has produced
machining process available and with the same involute profile for the small
the aid of a skilled fitter remarkable end as it did for the large end. As the
degrees of accuracy can be achieved. It depth of the tooth is also less the net
is not possible to produce the tooth at result is that the small end of the tooth

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will be 'full', particularly on its face. This the cutter will leave a metal-on
is where the fitter is employed. The teeth condition. Further cuts, using the same
at the small end have to be dressed by cutter but with both blank and cutter
hand filing in order to attain a repositioned, will remove this metal-on
serviceable shape and eliminate any and open the tooth out to its correct
tendency to bind, as would happen ifthe width. This will produce a tooth with its
teeth were not dressed. correct curvature at the small end but as
This method can be followed in the the tooth progresses towards the large
home workshop if the special cutters are end the curvature actually cut will be
available. A bevel gear of sorts can be slightly smaller than the theoretical
made or 'fudged' following the above ideal. This will mean that the contact
method but using a standard cutter that area between two teeth will become
is a compromise for either end of the narrower at the large end but the teeth
tooth. After making various experiments will roll together without any need for
the author is convinced that the best filing. In fact it is not a great detriment to
method to follow is to ignore the normal have this condition and it is sometimes
varying depth bevel and produce gears deliberately introduced into power
with parallel depth teeth. transmissions to promote smoother
running. The profile of the tooth at the
PARALLEL DEPTH BEVELS large end will not be standard but of stub
Parallel depth bevels are in fact a form and, again, this is a perfectly
legitimate gear and were extensively satisfactory profile and one used on
used in the past, particularly during the certain special forms of gearing.
1914-18 war, as they could be easily Bevel gears produced by this
produced in jobbing shops on standard constant depth method do run together
milling machines. With the advent of smoothly and require no additional
modern generating machine tools they dressing of any kind - such as running in
no longer seem to be in favour but the with an abrasive to remove the 'high
fact that they can readily be produced on spots'.
simple milling machines makes them an In order to describe the actual
attractive proposition for the amateur. method of cutting such a gear in detail
As the name suggests, parallel depth the procedure adopted previously will
bevels have a depth of tooth that is be followed with a typical example
constant throughout its entire length but worked through. The method is the
all other aspects of the tooth are similar same for all sizes and types so if the
to the standard gear form and meet at figures required are substituted for the
the apex point. All calculations are made figures quoted then a successful
from the small end of the tooth and not conclusion should be reached.
from the large end as was the case The example here is to produce a pair
previously. A standard spurwheel cutter of mitre gears of 20DP with 20 teeth and
can be chosen to produce the small end the first step is to accurately draw out the
shape at one pass and it is quite safe to blank, as shown in Fig. 80. With mitre
traverse the cutter completely through gears we know that the pitch cone angle
the tooth because as the finished tooth must be 45° from the centre line and so
becomes wider towards the outer edge, this is drawn in first. The next stage is to

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Ct>..LCULt>..TIONS.

Plic..H DIA.-SMt....LL E."-lC:- lfp


~ ~ 0 1-000

O/DIA. St-1ALL E:WD: PD -+ 2 A.OO'"


• 1·000 -+ (E;" 51-.J 4-".> \(2)
- 1000 + (to ~ ·707~ t) . 1·071

O/DI I>. LAe.G c. E. t-..l C


< [(-"350+ '707)" ~IIJ 4-?~2}- 071
1·;'(, (.,

LA£GE Et-lD DP· t:l. . ~ • 12'77


Po I'~

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PO (FoP C\.lTTEI? 5ELEC.T"\O'-l)
I
. SI"45 ,,20 - 26·2.B
USE 28ToolH C.UTTel?,\..lHICH 15 IJ°,+

OFFSET FOe. 5ECOt-lD c.uT


FIe:, BO - A 20 TOOTH. 20D.P PARALLEL . i" CI'CI?D/.\\. i\\1C.OJE'SS • ~. PD. 51" ~
DE.P~ t-1ITRE. C..,EAR , i)< 1x ·07B • ·039

BL"''-lK. t:QLL ~ ~"II0DE>'ltJG, A\JcSl..E.


OR to' ~ . ~o "!E\I!:>
determine the P.C.D. and, as already accurate to determine all sizes by direct
stated, with this method all calculations calculation. In this instance it is half the
are based on the small end. Our teeth P.C.D. divided by the sine of the pitch
will therefore be 20DP at the smaller or cone angle, which gives us a length of
inner face and the P.C.D., which is NAlp, .707. The length of the tooth face is
will be 20/20 or 1.000 diameter. This can simply a matter of good proportion and
now be marked on the drawing as can a face width of about one-third of the
the line representing the inner face pitch cone length would suggest a figure
which will be perpendicular to the pitch of .350 which seems reasonable. This
cone. The distance from this face to the then fixes the back face of the teeth and
apex point can be found, as can any also the large end P.C.D. but as this is not
other profile dimension, by scaling the required either for further calculations
drawing. Reasonably accurate results or in the machining processes, the
can be obtained this way, particularly if actual figure need not be determined.
the drawing is made four or five times Next, draw on the addendum which we
full-size. However, it is quicker and more know from previous discussion is 1,tbP,

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Fig. 81 Ready to cut a
bevel gear on a vertical
milling machine. Note
angle of dividing head.

which will give us a figure of .050. It is milling machine. As with any other type
now possible to determine the blank of gear cutting it is important to select
diameters for both large and small ends the correct cutter. Our bevel has 20 teeth
and the value of these, and the method and although the cutter to be used is a
used to calculate them, are shown on the standard spur gear cutter it will not be
drawing Fig. 80. The rest of the blank the No.6 cutter that would be used for a
profile can be drawn to suit the 20-tooth spur gear. The reason for this
individual requirements ofthe designer. was illustrated when discussing bevel
The length of the back face is shown as gear teeth in Chapter 5. The dotted lines
3/16 but there is no fixed method of in Fig. 80 show the bevel gear teeth
determining this dimension as it has 'applied' to a standard spur gear and it
no bearing on the performance of the can be seen from this that the equivalent
gear. It does however need to be greater spur gear is larger in diameter than the
than the tooth depth, which in this case bevel and would therefore have to have
is .108. This figure can be obtained from more teeth. The cutter we require for the
the tables as the depth of a 200P tooth. bevel is the cutter that would be chosen
No detailed instructions for machining to cut this equivalent spur gear. The
the gear blank need be given here as this method of calculating this number is
is purely a turning exercise. shown in Fig. 80 and comes out at just
The vertical milling machine is the over 28; the correct cutter to use for this
best type of machine on which to cut number is therefore the fourth cutter in
bevels as it is far easier to set the the series which covers the range of 26-
dividing head at the required angle on 34 teeth.
this type of machine than on either the The cutter is mounted on a short stub
lathe or horizontal miller and so the arbor and held in place in the miller
description will feature the vertical spindle by means of a drawbolt, in

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exactly the same way described for spur placed on the arbor and secured by
gears. The same dividing head can also means of a clamp nut. Manipulate the
be used but instead of being set parallel table and cross-slide handwheels until
to the table slideways it must be set over the cutter is just touching the blank then
to the pitch cone angle which in the case set the table micrometer to zero.
of this example is 45°; see the Traverse the cross-slide inwards
photograph Fig. 81 showing the set-up towards the back of the machine until
ready for the cutting to commence. the cutter clears the workpiece then by
Before the gear blank arbor is inserted means ofthe table handwheel put on the
into the dividing head put a lathe centre cutto the full depth of .108 using the dial
into it to centralise the cutter. Wind the to obtain the correct setting, then lock
cutter down to the central position by the table very firmly in position.
means of the downfeed handwheel; if Set the dividing head detent to the
any overshoot takes place wind the datum hole in any ring of holes that is
cutter back upwards sufficiently to divisible by four and cutting can then
remove any backlash in the system then commence. The cutter will enter the
wind down again. Do not approach the blank by the small end and leave at the
centre position by 'backing off', it must large end, which will give the machinist
be approached on the downward a good view of the cutting process. If a
movement. When the correct position 60-tooth dividing head is being used,
has been reached lock the quill firmly in then in order to cut 20 teeth three turns
position and set the micrometer dial to of the handwheel will be needed to cut
zero. The gear blank arbor can now be each tooth; carryon until all 20 teeth
placed in position in the dividing head have been cut. This stage is shown in
spindle and firmly secured by means of Fig. 82. The tooth form will now be
a drawbolt. Finally the gear blank can be parallel throughout its length, being the

Fig. 82 The bevel wheel


shown in the last
photograph after the
first pass of the cutter
through all the teeth.

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Fig. 83 Two bevel
gears, the one on
the left after the
first pass, the one
on the right
completed, having
had three passes.

shape required at the small end but still Obviously if a cut were to be taken
needing further cuts to widen the large through the blank after this cutter
end. Any additional movement to widen movement it would widen the tooth gap
the large end of the tooth must not over its complete length and ruin the
interfere with the small end profile; in small end profile, but as the line AA is
other words, the position of the small now a radial line, the whole blank can be
end relative to the cutter must not be
changed. The condition of each tooth
will be as shown in the diagram, Fig. 84,
and we will leave matters there while we
consider a little theory.
The lines representing the chordal
thickness on the pitch circle are parallel -CI-IO~"'L
to each other but in order forthe gears to n..11CJ(.t-li'i. ss
mesh correctly these lines must follow
the dotted path shown in Fig. 84. They
must be radial lines meeting at the apex
point and passing through the chordal
thickness points XX on the inner profile
produced by the first, or gashing, cut.
Looking at the line AA, this is not a "
radial line as it does not pass through the
apex point, but if we were to move the i,
cutter over to the right by a distance I,
equal to one-half of the chordal
thickness then the line would move with
the cutter and occupy the position
previously held by the centre line and so , I
FI(;' 84- BEVEL WI-1EEL.
would then pass through the apex point APE.X
POI>.lT~ AFTS.12 FII2.ST P .... SS
- it has in fact become a radial line.

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will now be as shown in Fig. 86, with
both sides ofthe teeth being truly radial.
Emphasis has been made about not
c. U TT£o.e OFFSET
removing any further material from the
small end profile left by the first pass of
the cutter, and the second and third cuts
should pass through the tooth at this
point without removing any further
material. Theoretically this is impossible
because the cutter in the second and
third pass is at a slight angle to the
original cut which will result in a small
shaving being removed from the top
part of the involute curve. However, the
amount of material actually removed
will be barely detectable and have no
FIG 87 BEVEL.. W H1:E.L significant effect on the performance of
A.FTEe 5EC.O"-JQ P ....'SS I the finished gear.
Where a vertical milling machine is
being used the points just discussed can
be applied in a practical way. As the

rotated clockwise about its centre until


the two dots XX return to their original
position relative to the cutter. The inner
end of the tooth is now in such a position
as will allow the cutter to pass through it - METt>.c. eEMQV ED
without removing any more material I,
and since the cutter is positioned on a
true radial line it will produce one side of
the tooth to the correct radial profile as it
progresses through the cut. This second
pass is now taken through all the teeth
on the blank, after which each tooth will
be the shape shown in Fig. 85 . A third
and final pass is needed to remove the
FIG 80
surplus material from the other side of
the tooth so that this also follows a true & \J EL WHI:E.L
radial line. This is accomplished by first t>.F TE. '" THIIi!!) 4
FI Ni'.L PASS
returning both cutter and blank to their
original starting position and then by t>.PE.,)(
displacing them an equal amount in the POlt-.lT-
opposite directions. The final tooth form

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cutter on this type of machine rotates in
a horizonal attitude the displacement of
the cutter will be up and down rather
than left and right. (Referring back to
earlier text, this is the reason why it is
important when centralising the cutter
to zero the micrometer dial with all the
backlash eliminated.) So the first of the
two movements needed to obtain the
correct setting for the second cut for the
20-tooth bevel is to move the cutter
down a distance of .039, using the fine
feed mechanism of the quill, this
dimension being obtained from the
calculations shown in Fig. 80. The FIG 87 SHO'WINE. WHY THe BLA.NK.
calculation is always the same and ~IS Y... OF I>-JOE.XING ANGLe
consists simply of multiplying half the approached in the same direction of
pitch diameter by the sine of the angle, rotation as used in the initial indexing.
90 In order to obtain the correct settings
number of teeth for the third and final cut, return both
It is important to remember to lock the cutter and dividing head back to their
quill securely after resetting as any original or starting positions and then
accidental movement during cutting apply both off-set and blank roll but this
would be disastrous. time in opposite directions. The quill
The second, or radial, movement is movement will be in the upwards
obtained by rotating the dividing head, direction and therefore to achieve the
and the amount of rotation required is correct micrometer dial reading, the .039
equal to half of the tooth thickness on will have to be taken away from the full
the pitch line. As a linear distance this scale reading ofthe dial.
would be an awkward measurement but The tooth can, of course, be cut in just
as an angular displacement it is simply two passes, one down either side of the
one-quarter of the tooth indexing angle tooth, but it is recommended that three
- see Fig. 87. The gear being used as an passes be used. The advantage is that if
example has 20 teeth, therefore the a mistake is made in any of the offsets it
rotation ofthe dividing head will be one- is apparent, as only a small amount of
quarter ofthis, or one-eightieth of a turn. material is removed on the last two cuts,
On a 60: 1 ratio dividing head this but a faulty setting when using only two
represents three-quarters of one turn, cuts may not be so noticeable.
hence the need for a division plate A direct division dividing head may
capable of being divided by four. Once be used but if so then it must be capable
again, do not forget the eternal enemy of of providing a number of divisions equal
machinists - backlash, and when setting to four times the number of teeth being.
the dividing head back by three-quarters cut. This will allow for the quarter of the
of a turn, go back at least one complete tooth setting needed for the blank roll
turn so that the desired hole is movements ofthe second and third cuts.

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CHAPTER 12

Making Gear Cutters

Without doubt the greatest problem the expensive and purchasing even a few
amateur gear cutter has to face is the may be considered impractical so the
cost of the gear cutters. There are eight answer is to make your own! The
cutters in a complete set and as a set is satisfaction of producing a train of gears
needed for each D.P., C.P. or module oneself is very rewarding and even more
pitch, the number of cutters needed to so if the cutters are also home-made.
cover all eventualities is, to say the least, In order to understand the problems
considerable. The cost of such a large involved in producing one's own cutters
number of cutters is far beyond the refer to Fig. 88, where it will be seen that
budget available to the vast majority of the difficulties fall into two distinct
hobby workshops but fortunately when elements; firstly to produce the actual
gears are required for a project they are profile of the cutter which must be the
often all the same D.P. and if very small same shape as the space between two
pinions can be avoided then maybe two adjacent gear teeth, and secondly to
or three cutters will be adequate to cut back off the tooth and so provide the
all the gears required. Gear cutters, necessary clearance around the cutting
owing to their specialised shape, are edge.
INVOLUTE. cu,,"VE _', E.CCE..,,-\-'-~\,: CEt-..\TE..i:.. 01=-
- TO::YTt-1 P20\=\LE.

TE£n.. SH""""-Nl~ BY-


Gk?It.JDII-...)G ow II--IESE
FN:.E'" 0>-) ~y

FIG 66 A TYPICA.L GEA.i? CUT,""g S\-IOWIWE,


THt:O IWvO~UTE. SH"PE Awe FO,"'" eELll!:,," 0'-'
e.AO-\ TOO"i\-\

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n~uE I>JVOl..uTE

PITCH POII,]T -

I.:-,-. / MO\V\E"-lTl'.ey EI\DluS

_
/\T PITC!-I POINT
PITCH CJ12CLE - ,
····1
B"''5E eleeLE: -" -- - - -----------

,~~
~. - T""-lGE",T PoI>')T IS

CEWTICl:. 0" ~OIUS

FIG 89 HOW To DE.TE.IO!Y1'wE.1>N APP"Oxl\Y\ATE.


ARC. FOOR. A BuTTa,,", TYPE C.UTTER.

Dealing first with the tooth profile, it is very small, in fact much less than the
is symmetrical about the centre line and error readily accepted by using one
each side consists of a curve, this curve cutter only to produce a range of teeth.
being the correct involute for the tooth Being able to substitute a true radius for
profile required. Referring back to Fig. 24 an involute makes it possible for the
in Chapter 2, it can be seen that the amateur to make cutters that are capable
involute curve is not one that can be of cutting gears to the standard normally
readily produced by normal machining accepted in the absence of gear hobbing
methods as it is not an arc struck from or other generating machinery.
any specific centre, indeed its 'radius' is The method showing how to obtain
continually changing, starting with a the size of the true radius, and also how
pronounced curve and then flattening to locate its centre, is shown in Fig. 89.
out to follow a rough annular path The diagram shows that at the 'pitch
around its base circle. It can also be seen point' both the true involute curve and
that only a very small section, right at the the substituting radius are coincident
start of the curve, is used to form the and that the actual error in curvature at
tooth profile. This small section of the the outer face of the tooth is very small
curve can in fact be substituted by a true indeed. Since both sides of a gear tooth
radius with very little detriment to the are similar in profile then the forming
gear shape, provided that the correct tool to make the gear cutter can consist
radius is chosen and that its centre is of two circular hardened cutter bits or
correctly located. The actual error buttons of appropriate diameter
between the radius and the true involute mounted at some predetermined centre

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C.UTTc.2
peOOUCED _. ~F-IJG.i .
~ ,
buttons and also the infeed required for
six cutters covering the range from a 17-
APPlaOltl'-'lA.TE ' tooth pinion upwards to a rack. This
I>JI!OLUTE.<;' ---~ table is for a pressure angle of 20° and is
for wheels for one diametral pitch. For
other pitches simply divide the value
given by the corresponding diametral
pitch required. The width 'W' is a
suggested minimum width of the cutter
and this of course may vary to suit the
material available.

FIG 90 5HOW\\o.J6 'THE P21>,lCIPU:


o. THE BUTTO\o.J TOOL

distance on a soft steel holder. Such a


cutter would produce two similar
segments of circles on a cutter blank and PRESSURE ANGLE 20°
these segments of circles, when applied CUTTER GEAR Oia. CenDis. In Feed Width
to the gear blank, would produce the
desired curved surface ofthe tooth. The No. Teeth "0" Ins "C" Ins "E" Ins "W" Ins
diagram Fig. 90 and the photograph Fig.
1 135-R 51.30 49.60 17.79 4
91 show such tools and how they 2 55-134 32.15 31.60 11.47 4
produce the form required on the gear 3 35-54 15.07 15.52 5.87 4
cutter. 4 26-34 10.26 11.03 4.27 4
5 21-25 8.55 9.40 3.71 4
The following table lists the button
6 17-20 7.80 8.70 3.44 4
sizes, the centre distance between the

6;
Fig. 91 This shows two
button cutters and a
"topping tool". The
cutters with the pins in
their shanks are for use
with the 'Eureka' form
relieving device. The
buttons in the top of the
photograph have been
hardened and are ready
for grinding.

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One advantage of producing one's PRESSURE ANGLE 30°
own cutters is that non-standard forms
can be employed, and once the CUTTER GEAR Oia. Cen.Ois. In Feed Width
principles involved have been
No. Teeth "0" Ins "C"lns "E"lns "W" Ins
understood then cutters of any pressure
angle or pitch may be produced. It is not 1 135-R 67.50 59.5 17.74 4
suggested that non-standard forms be 2 55-134 27.5 25.00 7.72 4
deliberately adopted but the option is 3 35-54 17.5 16.30 5.20 4
4 26-34 13.00 12.40 4.08 4
open should any special contingency
5 21-25 10.50 10.25 3.44 4
arise. For instance, if it is an essential 6 17-20 8.50 8.50 2.95 4
element of a design that the pinions 7 14-16 7.00 7.20 2.57 4
must have as few teeth as possible, then 8 12 & 13 6.00 6.36 2.30 4
9 10& 11 5.00 5.60 2.11 4
the problem can be eased by increasing
the pressure angle. Pinions with as few
as 10 or 11 teeth become practical if the manufacture will be basically similar for
pressure angle is increased to 30°; all sizes.
naturally all the mating gears must also The shank of the form cutter can be
have the same angle. The following made from ordinary mild steel bar
table, similar in concept to the previous section, the actual section depending
one, may be of assistance in producing upon the size and type of the too Ipost
30° pressure angle cutters. fitted to the lathe and also on the centre
The drawing Fig. 92 shows a typical distance between the two hardened
form tool for producing gear cutters. The steel cutting buttons. The shank must be
actual size of the various dimensions wide enough to provide adequate
will naturally depend upon the range support for the buttons as the cutting
and D.P. of the gear cutter required but load upon them is high owing to the long
the general method of construction and length of cut.
- OgESS S .... "'N\(.
TO ",,\lE CL8'.el>\NCE
BuTTO"-lS c C"'-~.
TOOL STE..EL_

00'''-. -

- LOCn TE rut PI..:I5


INTD n4E. SlIW(

\,\11...0 SnEL

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After cutting the shank from the bar any additional measuring equipment.
material the first operation is to produce Gripthe cutter shank in a machine vice at
the angled face upon which the buttons the required angle of 5°; a protractor
are mounted. All cutting tools need rake may be used but the angle can be
and clearance angles around the actual obtained quite easily and more
cutting edge. In the case of the buttons accurately by using the machine itself
these angles could be provided by for measuring the angular setting. Place
turning them to a taper, giving them a a lathe centre or similar pointed device
part-conical section. Although this may in the mandrel ofthe machine and bring
appear to be the simplest way of it down onto the 'high' end of the shank
providing the clearance, it has its then set the micrometer dial to zero.
drawbacks as any metal removed from Move the table two inches - this will be
the top surfaces of the buttons for 20 tu rns on a .100 pitch leadscrew - and
sharpening purposes would naturally then, by means of the quill fine feed,
reduce the diameter and the correct lower the marker until it once again just
form would be lost. It is far better to use touches the cutter shank. When the
a parallel button and mount it into the difference between the dial readings is
shank at an angle. The actual angle is not .175 then the shank will be set at an
critical, between 4° and 5° will be angle of 5° to the milling machine table.
satisfactory. Ideally the milling of the With either an endmill or a flycutter face
angle-face and the drilling of the button sufficient from the shank to provide a
mounting holes should all be done atthe seat for the button. It may be necessary
same setting in order to guarantee the to actually form a recess on the shank,
holes being square to the face. The otherwise when the buttons are placed
vertical milling machine is ideal for this in position they may be too high and
operation as a high degree of accuracy unable to be set at the lathe centre
can be achieved without the need for height. This point needs to be checked
before any cutting takes place. The
drawing shows a recess because the
author uses a 'Dixon'-type tool holder in
his Myford lathe and the recess
becomes necessary when using shanks
made from 3/8 in. thick material.
The holes for the stems of the buttons
should be drilled without disturbing the
setting of the shank, as this will then
ensure that the holes are square with the
angled face. For many button sizes a
stem diameter of 1/4 in. will be adequate
but this may have to be varied for the
very small and the large buttons. The
distance between the two holes is
obtained from the chart and will be the
FIG 93 5f-10WING >-lOIN Tf-li'O. BuTTONS relevant 'C' reading divided by the D.P.
Ai2E POS,T,ONED 1"-.\ THE Sf-I"NK.S being used. Once again, there is no need

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INFEED E

t __
FIE:ST C.UT s~co)..]o CUT ,Him CUT

FIG 94 FO<:iV\\i'-lG BOTH SIDES 0>' '" GE.A.R CUTTE.I< ll51)"]~


A SI'-lG\..E SuTTO)"] FOoaM TOO\..

to measure with any special measuring actual 4° top rake the total angle of the
tools; position the first hole in a top face ofthe button will be 9°. This can
convenient place near the edge of the be achieved either by hand filing or
shank and then obtain the distance milling in a suitable jig. Anyone
between the two holes by means of the possessing one of the tool and cutter
table feedscrew and micrometer dial. grinders designed for the home
The buttons will have to be made workshop, such as the Quorn or Kennett,
from tool steel; silver steel is ideal as it is will be able to grind the angle after the
readily available in bar form, relatively buttons have been hardened. If a
easy to machine and simple to harden suitable grinder is not available then the
and temper. Turn the stems down to an final finishing will have to be done by
easy but not sloppy fit in the holes in the careful manipulation of an oilstone slip.
shank, the main diameter 'D' in the chart Hardening is done in the usual way of
being obtained in a similar way to the 'C' heating to a cherry red and quenching in
centre distance. Part off leaving the head water, tempering to a light straw colour.
about 5/32 in. or so thick. The buttons are secured into the
The front clearance angle of the shank by means of Loctite, which will
cutting buttons has been taken care of allow them to be moved to the correct
by drilling the mounting holes at an angle after they have been placed into
angle of 5° but a top rake will also be their respective holes. The 'high' edges
required - about 3° or 4° will be of the buttons need to be at an angle of
satisfactory. Owing to the inclination of about 45° to the centre line so as to
the pins needed to obtain the clearance derive full benefit from the rake and
angle, 5°top rake will be requiredjustto clearance angles, see Fig. 93. The tool is
offset this angle and so to obtain the now ready for use.

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~BSI' HOLE
I Foe Del><-.J'Ol>.e )' I
L
1
~.
-~ Z3i
JiI~~N
I -

'. - TAP 281>< FOI<


PACK.IWG STRIP O"-l -1'
. Ii.
TaP FOR FOE'lY\I"-lG, -I~.
N-.JD 2.EUE-...J\Nq
I TOOL ow ToP FOR

_CiS'P.a'"b 5T<'P_~ ~T"~"""

FIG 9'7
q 4 8:i) TOOL S T~EL
I

A"-BOR i=OR BOTH PRODLlCJNG I'.t--lO iV10u>-lTI>-lG


"- ISE"-'" TOOTH FLYCuTTEI<

Both sides of a gear cutter are the shape is not produced concentric with
same profile and so both buttons are the the cutter centre, since to do so would
same diameter. It is possible, therefore, result in a tooth with no clearance or
to produce a forming tool with only one rake angle and as a consequence it
button and procure the correct spacing would not cut but merely rub. The
of the two curves by a measured problem of providing a relief to all form
displacement which can readily be cutters is increased by the fact that the
obtained by manipulating the lathe top shape of the tooth must not be affected
slide or carriage. The one-button cutter when it has to be ground in order to
is of course simpler and quickerto make maintain a keen cutting edge. To alter
but it does call for more care in its use, the shape of the tooth in any way would
and the displacement between the cuts of course affect the form it would
has to be performed every time a gear produce and so destroy the whole
cutter is made. The two-button type is concept of the cutter. The method used
simple to use and the chance of an error to apply relief to normal side and face
is minimised. It is simply a case of milling cutters cannot be adopted as this
swings and roundabouts. The diagram type of cutter always loses a little of its
Fig. 94 illustrates the use of a single- width during the sharpening proceS3.
button cutter. The solution is to apply curved relief, the
Now that a means of producing a whole tooth being produced about an
practical alternative to the true involute eccentric centre, Fig. 88, which
has been solved, the remaining problem maintains a constant cross-section
is how to provide a suitable 'back-off' or throughout the length of the tooth and
reliefto the teeth ofthe cutter. Reference because of the tooth eccentricity to the
to Fig. 88 will show that the whole tooth arc of rotation, all its surfaces 'fall away'

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from the front or cutting face and so no unaffected teeth we are left with a
side clearance is required. When Single-tooth cutter, commonly termed a
sharpening, so long as the grinding is fly-cutter.
limited to the front face, the form will The fly-cutter is a very useful type of
remain constant and the cutter can be cutter and if suitably held will perform all
ground many times until the tooth the duties of a normal circular cutter.
finally breaks away owing to weakness. The main difference is that as only one
It is neither an easy nor straight- tooth is cutting for each revolution ofthe
forward machining operation to apply cutter, the swarf removal rate is
curved relief to a multi-tooth circular naturally lower and the overall
cutter; commercially made cutters are production time increased but not,
'backed-off' on a special form-relieving surprisingly, by a great amount! Single-
lathe and this time-consuming process pointed fly-cutters are perfectly
is the main factor in the high cost of gear satisfactory for gear cutting, in fact they
cutters. Turning plain eccentric shafts is, have one advantage over the multi-
however, a simple operation to carry out tooth cutter in that they are extremely
in the home workshop. After being simple to keep sharp.
machined in its normal centres the There is an old fable that says roast
workpiece is either mounted in offset pork was discovered when a pigsty was
centres or moved over in a four-jaw burnt down and when the farmer, whilst
chuck so that the eccentric element can removing a hot carcass, burnt his
be produced by normal turning fingers. He put his fingers into his mouth
operations. This is the way model to ease the pain and discovered that the
engineers make their valve gear hot substance on his fingers had a
eccentrics for steam engine models. If pleasant taste. The farmer soon learned
the cutter, Fig. 88, is first turned and that there was no need to burn down a
formed about its normal centre, teeth sty every time he wanted roast pork, and
can then be produced by milling a series it is the same with a single-tooth form
of gashes into the cutter disc. However, cutter. A fly-cutter can be made without
these teeth - being concentric with the producing a disc and then cutting a strip
cutter axis - will have no relief and so off it. A piece of square section tool steel
will not cut. but if we mount the cutter on is all that is required and, once again,
an eccentric mandrel we can silver steel is the obvious choice. The
eccentrically turn one tooth about the size of the tool will naturally depend
new centre and so produce a correctly upon the tooth size it is going to
relieved tooth form. There is one big produce: for 20DP a % in. square section
snag in doing this in that every tooth has is recommended, but for small tooth
to be formed about a different eccentric forms then 3/16 in. or Vs in. square
centre and so the act of relieving one material may be used.
tooth will have totally destroyed many In order to make the cutter some form
of the teeth that follow it. In fact only one of holder will be needed in which to
tooth out of the complete disc can be mount it while the forming and backing-
successfully relieved by normal off operations are undertaken. A holder
eccentric turning methods. If we cut will also be required to support and
away from the disc all the mutilated and drive the tool during its cutting

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Fig. 96 The holder,
flycutter and packing
strip detailed in Fig.
95.

operations and with a little ingenuity the packing piece is positioned below
one holder can be adapted to perform the cutter, thus bringing the top face of
both duties. It can be used to support the the cutter coincident with the centre line
cutter while it is formed then, after the of the holder and into its correct
cutter has been hardened and ground, operating position.
the tool can be mounted in the same To sharpen the cutterthe whole ofthe
holder for the actual gear cutting top face is ground and this operation can
process. be performed many times because the
Fig. 95 shows such a holder, the key thinning ofthe cutter has no effect on the
to its versatility being the little packing operating attitude as its top, or cutting,
piece. This is used in the holder both for face is always hard against the upper
the forming ofthe cutter and also in the face of the slot and so on the centre of
general use of the finished tool. The slot rotation.
in the end-face of the holder is made In eccentric turning the normal centre
wide enough to accommodate both the line of the cutter is displaced by a certain
cutter and also the packing piece. The amount relative to the tooth being cut. In
slot is positioned so that its top su rface is the case ofthe holder and packing strip,
on the centre line of the holder. For the the centre line is unaffected but the tool
forming operation the packing strip is is offset; this is a simpler process but the
placed above the cutter, this then end result will still be the same.
positions the top face ofthe cutter below Another method of producing a fly-
the centre line of rotation. Now, by cutter is shown in Fig. 97, the cutter in
ordinary turning methods, and with the this case being a circular one with the
holder rotating truly about its own axis, tooth concentric to the bore. No
the button tool will correctly form and at eccentric turning or 'backing-off' is
the same time 'back-off' the cutter needed so the tooth profile can be
relative to its working face. After machined at one setting on a true-
hardening and grinding, the cutter is running mandrel, the button tool again
placed back into the holder but this time being used to produce the appropriate

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'-J22 M T SHA.NI(
- Tt>.PFtD FOR D~WBA.g

a «'
Q

-~i
-
-iN
-i~jL
I -<IJ--
-- -
.

i eo 5.F ~ DE.E.P.
t>.1<.80R
].---

r--
Ie:.,

.L
8 CLA.~P NuT
6,
-I~!

L
_ _ 32
~)

TYPICAL C.u TTe.R.

FIG 97 A.R80R FoR URC.ULA.R FLY C.uTTeR


THE. SI2E:S Mt>.Y VARY TO SUIT DE.51G,N I2.E.QuII2.EMENT5

profile. The form relief is achieved by brought into use without disturbing any
mounting the cutter eccentrically onto part of the machining set up. When not
its operating arbor which unfortunately being used for cutting, the second tooth
in this case is not suitable for the initial still has a duty to perform as, by means
turning. This type of cutter actually has of a pin, it provides a positive drive to the
two teeth but only one can be used at a cutter. This will eliminate any tendency
time, the advantage being that if it the cutter may have to slip under the
becomes necessary to sharpen the load which, if this occurred, would
cutter during actual gear cutting then the reduce the eccentricity and destroy the
job need not be stopped as the cutter can depth setting.
be turned over and the second tooth The arbors for both this and the

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Fig 98 The two
f/uctters assembled
and ready for use.

previous tools are shown with morse cut-out portion to provide it with one
taper shanks for direct fitting into the cutting tooth and the relief is provided
milling machine or lathe spindle. This by boring its mounting hole
type of mounting is superior to chuck eccentrically from the normal axis, the
mounted arbors as they will always run centre of the hole being positioned
truly, which is essential for a gear cutter, diametrically opposite the cut-away
and they also provide greater rigidity to portion. Although this is basically a
the cutter. Another advantage is that the simple type of cutter its manufacture
machine can be set to rotate in either does present a small problem because
direction without the fear of the chuck the outside profile and the bore cannot
unscrewing from the mandrel. be machined at the same setting. There
The type of cutter shown in Fig. 100 is are one or two ways in which the
not provided with a driving pin, relying problem can be overcome and one is to
solely on its clamping nut to secure it to produce the cutter from bar material.
the driving arbor. It is intended for small Making cutters from bar has the
cutters where the cutting loads are advantage that most of the machining
lower. It is a circular form cutter with a can be carried out at one setting and

Fig. 99 The two flycutters


assembled and ready for
use.

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then parted-off to the required cuT A'WA.Y AFT~
thickness. After parting-off, the hole can
be produced either by drilling in the
normal drill press or by setting
eccentrically in the four-jaw chuck and
producing the bore in the lathe. ---+f--+--+-"~-+ - ____1
An entirely different approach is to !
make the cutters from plate material

~
such as gauge plate; this is a good
material for cutters as it is easy to
machine and to harden. Being specially OR';ET TI> 'RO",OE
made for the manufacture of gauges the RELIEF
amount of distortion suffered in the FIG 100 A C\..ITTER 5UITA.t\l.E. FOI<
hardening process is virtually nil. To PROOUO>.l5 St-1AU- 51z.E. TEe.TI-l
produce a blank, saw out from the sheet
an approximate disc a little above the element is in the cutter itself, and if
finished diameter ofthe cutter and drill a under load the cutter slips on the
hole in the centre of it. The diameter of operating mandrel it will not affect the
the hole must be no more than a half of setting of the cutter in any way as the
the finished bore; for instance, if the eccentricity providing the relief is
cutter is eventually to be mounted on a constant for all positions of cutter and
3/8 in. dia. spigot then the initial, or arbor.
service, hole should be no more than 3/16
in. dia. The actual diameter and profiling MULTI-TOOTH CIRCULAR CUTIERS
with the button tool is carried out on a The single-point fly-cutters are perfectly
mandrel but make sure that the flat satisfactory for cutting the 'one off' type
clamping face of the mandrel is square of gear but if it is intended to cut gears on
with the spigot diameter. The end of the a regular basis then it will be well
spigot is screwed for the provision of a worthwhile building up a stock of multi-
clamping nut. Care will be needed, tooth circular cutters. This type of cutter
particularly with the forming operation, can be produced successfully in the
as the cutting forces will be relatively home workshop but it does necessitate
high and the spigot diameter small, but a the making of some special tooling
cautious approach will ensure a equipment. As already outlined, the
satisfactory result. After forming, the main problem in making multi-tooth
small concentric hole will have to be cutters is to provide the correct form
made into a large eccentric one and this relief to each tooth. Overthe years many
will have to be done by setting up the attachments have been designed and
blank in a four-jaw and using a single- made to perform this operation and
point boring tool. The minimum most of them work very well, the main
diameter of the finished bore cannot be criticism being that they only deal with
less than the diameter of the original one tooth at a time and so the complete
service bore plus twice the amount of process of form relieving a cutter of
eccentricity. twelve teeth or more can be somewhat
With this type of cutter the eccentric tiresome. As it happened, Professor

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DRIVE CAI2I2IEI2 TO SUIT
cp
USEe'S LA-THE - __ _

FORMI"-lG CUTTER ,-'--"-"---''-L--1--J


TOPPING CUTTER
,-
'"
",'-3

~II
~ L.,.BA GRue SCRt:W
!--4. CIA._P\).J 10
},,-xi-
"- EN6A.<"E IN THE
5LOTII'-J T HI;::
ANCHOR P,-,,-TE.
A TyPICAl... PAlR Or- CUTTE~5

!="IG 101

Chaddock and the author had been correct backing-off action to a tooth on a
interested in this problem for some time gear cutter, it then indexes it round to
when a copy of a page from an old the next tooth and so produces a
Victorian tool catalogue advertising a continuous relieving action. Thetool will
continuous form relieving attachment only relieve a cutter that possesses the
came into their possession. It was sent same number of teeth as its ratchet
by a reader of the Model Engineer and wheel but as there is no detriment in
curiosity was immediately aroused making all cutters with the same number
although, unfortunately, the advert- of teeth this limitation is of no
isement gave no details as to how the consequence. The device can be made
device worked or how it was constructed to any size within reason but the
and a search through old books of the prototype, and the one shown on the
period proved fruitless. Nevertheless drawings, is for cutters of a half-inch
this old print gave the necessary bore and possessing twelve teeth. It will
inspiration and after some discussion a successfully relieve cutters up to about
tool was designed and made which 20DP and of 11/4-1 V2 in. diameter. This
performs very well. It was given the size was chosen because material for
name "Eureka" and a full detailed making the cutter, such as silver steel or
description of it has been published gauge plate, is readily available and can
in the Model Engineer. The be heat treated without specialised
tool is used mounted between the equipment. This size of cutter is
centres of a lathe and, after giving the adequate for most model engineers'

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-'
t-

"'"
-'
w
g;
z
"'"

:5§
-~

~=g
Fig. 102 The Eureka. ... ---~
JI!
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I 562 ref

Fig. 103 I'ie

12 Iteth equally Spaced


'~ ~ /------ ,~.
I I 1
3
'32 • /

I
L __ '

f----+-I~_Lenqlh cI flol fa
I surt 'spanner

3~ ~ I Secllon Through Spanner F

~JJ CD INDEX ING SLEEVE MAT LENS

Fig. 104 general needs but anyone wishing to cut


gears with a larger tooth profile would
need to increase the size of the relieving
tool. The number of teeth on the ratchet
wheel may also be increased but even
with a cutter of a larger diameter it is
doubtful if any advantage would be
gained by the addition of more teeth.
The Eureka device is neither difficult
nor complicated to make -the prototype
@ LOCATING RING - MILD STEEL
was completed and in operation within
four days ofthe design being finalised. It

1~
is not so easy, particularly from a study
of the drawings, to visualise the cycle of

·l~-~
events but once the tool is seen in
operation then its mystery quickly
unfolds.
The device is an eccentric turning
attachment operated by two eccentrics
on the same shaft or mandrel. When
G CUTTER QAMP NuT
CASE HARDENED MILD STEEL placed in the lathe between two centres
and rotated continuously it will, by
means of one eccentric, index each
~ I" ~~ tooth in turn while the other - and
. . '/06 • 40 -@I- ==r 465 0'0
smaller eccentric provides the

e MANDREL NUT
CASE HARDEN
MILD STEEL
movement needed to give the tooth its
form relief. The first, or indexing,

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movement is not difficult to visualise; about a fixed centre and no relief would
the rearmost plate, item 2 on the be obtained so it is the duty of the
drawing, is the ratchet plate and is second eccentric to provide this relief
mounted on the largest of the eccentrics. action. The cutter seating, being made to
It is prevented from rotating by an arm rotate eccentrically about the normal
engaging in a fixed pin secured in the axis, advances and retracts the cutter
anchor plate (item 8) which is itself blank to and from the fixed form tool.
prevented from turning by the pin in the The timing between the two movements
cutter holder. The ratchet plate will is important and is outlined below. As
therefore oscillate with respect to the the ratchet pawl is gathering, the ratchet
ratchet wheel, one pawl engaging in the wheel (item 7) and the cutter that is
teeth of the ratchet and alternately attached to it are not rotating although
gathering and indexing the ratchet they are moving under the influence of
wheel. The second pawl, secured to the the relieving eccentric which, when the
anchor plate, acts as a back stop and gathering commences, will start to
prevents reverse rotation during the move the cutter away from the form
gathering phase. We now have a means tool. However, before the gathering is
of indexing the blank correctly provided completed the relieving eccentric will
that both ratchet wheel and gear blank have started to move the cutter blank
have the same number of teeth. As it back towards the form tool so that when
stands the blank would merely rotate the gathering stops and the indexing

Fig. 105

o RATCHET PLATE
I
"16 THI1:K MILD STEEL

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Fig. 106

6BA 2hor .. \'1 r "-M> ,.,


~-$~~
116 '~ B S F
e
Slot deep'

ANCHOR PLATE
PAWL PIYOT-STEEL

o ANCHOR PLATE 6 PIN - STEEc

, Jito
$=- -JnfaI r1
~/16 d,e
G ANCHOR P' ATE PAWL
SPR'NG 6 BLOCK
8 ANCHOR PLATE P/lWL
CASE HARDEIlED MILD STEEL

and cutting action begins, the cutter will have started to withdraw the cutter
blank will have advanced up to the form away from the form tool ready for the
or button tool and cutting will begin. The next cycle of events which commences
cutter blank will be moving towards the with the indexing of the next tooth.
form tool and providing the form relief It is not intended to give a detailed
the whole of the time that it is rotating. account of the various machining
When the tooth being cut has operations needed to build the tool as
completely passed the form tool and the this is not the place to discuss general
gap between two teeth has been machine shop practices and techniques,
reached the indexing will stop and the but a full and detailed set of drawings is
cutter blank will stop rotating. At the shown in the Figs. 101 to 107 and
same time the relieving eccentric will provided these are carefully followed no
have passed its full extent of travel and problems should be encountered. Care

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Fig. 107 Above, the spread of parts needed to
make the Eureka form-relieving tool. Right,
the completed machine with a cutter
mounted, below in use on the lathe.

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should be taken to ensure that the timing been chosen then this should be set to
of the two eccentrics on the main run truly in a four-jaw chuck and the end
mandrel is correct as an error here could faced. The bore can be roughed out by
prove disastrous to the correct means of a drill, or series of drills, but it
functioning of the device. No tolerances is recommended that a single-point
have been quoted on the drawings, the boring tool is used to bring the hole up to
reason being that it is the fit between size. If a half-inch reamer is available
components that is important rather then this can be used to finish and size
than their basic sizes. Try to achieve a the bore but only allow about .005 or so
close but not tight fit between the 1.000 for the reaming process. The next
and .375 diameters on the mandrel and operation is to part-off to th ickness and
their respective bores in the index sleeve this operation can be a little tricky,
(item 7). The Eureka is not a difficult tool particularly if the lathe being used is on
to make and the average model the flimsy side - a tail support can be
engineer will have no problems in used to advantage here even if the
quickly constructing this rather unique overhang is small. To obtain a good
tool. surface finish on the side face, start to
Once the necessary tooling has been part-off a little on the thick side, do not
made the manufacture ofthe actual gear complete the cutting off but stop leaving
cutter can be considered. As previously a wall thickness between the cut and the
stated the form relieving tool is intended bore of about V16 in. Then withdraw the
to relieve cutters of about 1% in. dia. and cutter and reset to the required thickness
Fig. 108 shows a typical cutter of this and slowly feed the parting tool in again,
size. The first stage is to produce the this time using a little cutting oil, and
blank and this can be made from either part-off completely. Once the lathe has
bar or plate material. If bar material has been set up forthis operation it is as well

THIS IS THE P. COOl' 1'2 ~ DIA HO'-I::S


IT IS NOT THE. PC D OF THt: CUTTE.\2

\\

FIG 100. '" TYPICAl:- CUTTE.IC BLANK SUITA5LE


FOI<' THE E.Ue.Ek.I\ RELlE.'!INE, DE\,)ICE

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Fig. 109 Drilling the holes in a
cutter blank. The indexing is
obtained by means of a rotary
table.

to produce a number of blanks even if be used to advantage. The photograph


they are not all initially required as they Fig. 109 shows such a device in use. The
can be put aside for future use and so centre spindle of the device is set
save time at a later date. directly over the spindle axis of the
If the blanks are to be produced from milling or drilling machine and then by
sheet material such as gauge plate then using the table feedscrew and
roughly cut them to profile before micrometer dial the correct offset or
machining the hole. The bore must be radius forthe holes can be obtained. The
square to the face and in order to indexing between each hole is then
achieve this it may be advantageous to achieved by means ofthe handwheel on
clamp the blank down flat against the the rotary table.
face-plate rather than trying to set it up The actual gap between the teeth can
in a chuck. To turn the outside diameter, be produced by carefully filing down
mountthe blank on a mandrel as this will and into the drilled holes but an easier
ensure concentricity between the two method is to remove the unwanted
diameters. metal by means of a slitting saw
The next operation is to drill the mounted on a suitable arbor in the
twelve equally spaced holes that form spindle of a vertical milling machine.
the basis of the gaps between the teeth. The cutter blank, still on the arbor that
A simple drilling jig can be made to secured it for the drilling operation, is
position the holes correctly but if a then placed horizontally in the dividing
rotary device is available then this can head. Two cuts are needed to form each

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gap, both cuts being parallel to each pin that prevents the ratchet and anchor
other, and the only movement needed plate from rotating. The angular position
between each cut is a lowering of the between the cutter to be relieved and the
slitting saw. This operation should be device is important and must be
performed on all twelve teeth before correctly set otherwise the relieving
setting for the second cut. The sequence will be mis-timed. The
illustration Fig. 110 shows the principle indexing or rotary motion of the cutter
of the operation in diagrammatic form, must start in one of the gaps between
whilst the photograph Fig. 111 shows the teeth and cease in the following gap.
the actual cutting being performed and This setting is best obtained by trial, so
the tooling used. put the cutter in the device but only grip
The cutter is now ready for profiling, it lightly so that it may be rotated on its
this being done by means of the button seating by hand. Then advance the
tool. The cutter is mounted on an arbor button tool almost up to the cutter and
and once again it is the same arbor used then rotate the lathe mandrel; it will be
for the previous operations but this time apparent at once whether or not the
it is secured in the lathe spindle. The angular setting is correct. If not, adjust
depth of the cut, or the amount the the position of the cutter and try again.
button tool is advanced, is of vital Once the setting has been determined
importance for it is this that will tighten the clamp nut securely using two
determine the final shape of the gear spanners, one on the nut and the other
teeth. The distance to advance the on the ratchet body. If this second
buttons is as shown in the chart and spanner is not used the whole of the
under the heading 'In Feed - "E" Ins'. tightening force is taken on the ratchet
Read off the figure appropriate to the pawls and this is not desirable. The
cutter being made and then divide this actual cutting operation can now begin.
figure by the D.P. required. The result Start by advancing the tool by small I
will be the required depth of cut. The increments of about one-thou or so and
depth should be obtained by means of do not forget to allow the cutter to make
the cross-slide micrometer dial. First set one complete revolution, or twelve
the extreme front edge of the button so cutting events, before advancing the
that it just touches the outside diameter tool a further increment. When the
of the teeth on the cutter then set the cutting starts it will remove metal from
micrometer dial to read zero and the back, or heel, of the tooth only but
centralise the buttons on the cutter. Run gradually the cut will lengthen. When
the lathe in a low back gear speed and the cut reaches the leading edge of the
carefully and slowly feed in the button tooth then this part of the form relieving
cutter until the required depth has been operation is complete. The buttons will
reached. only have given relief to the sides or
The last machining operation is to circular arcs of the teeth and not to the
apply the form relief, which is done with outer lips, or tops, as these will have
the same button tool used for the initial passed between the two buttons and so
profiling. This tool now actually remain unaffected. A change of tool will
becomes part of the Eureka device as therefore be needed, the second tool
mounted in the shank of the tool is the being merely a square-ended tool

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SLITllNiS S ....'-'l IN
VE.I2.IICAL- MILL\>-\c,
M"'G1I>J~ -
POSTION OF ~w Foe
FII2ST CUT _

BLANK.. A.FTE'<'
\\
FieST C01-

ccd==~~=-~\
MO'-Je.ME:.NT OF SA..\,..,) ..i
BETWEEt-J FieST ....>.JD
SEC.Ot-JD CuT
POSITION OF S ....-w -
Fe12 SI:CONO CuT

FIG 110. FOe.Y\ING -n-IE. Gt\PS BE.TWE.E.\..l THE Te.:TH

similar to a parting tool. The width ofthe upon the material used but in the case of
tool tip is not important but it must silver steel, heat to a cherry red and then
obviously be wider than the tips of the plunge it into water. It will be necessary
teeth to be cut. This second operation is to temper the cutter otherwise the teeth
a simplified version of the initial will be brittle - but do not over temper,
process: carryon cutting until the length heat until the colour just begins to
of the cut just reaches the front edge of change and then quench again.
the tooth. The cutter is now completely Grinding the faces of the teeth will be a
relieved and is ready for heat treatment. relatively simple task for owners of a
The hardening process will depend cutter grinder such as a Quorn or Kennett,

Fig. 111 Showing the


gullets being formed
by means of a dividing
head and slitting saw.

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but if one of these machines is not satisfaction can be achieved from
available then carefully dress the face of producing one's own gears and, after all,
each tooth with an oilstone slip and the the satisfaction of creating things with
cutter is ready for use. one's own hands is the basic driving
force behind the amateur engineering
The author hopes that the reader who movement. If, therefore, this book has
may at first have been rather hesitant encouraged, inspired or enthused a few
about gears has gathered confidence constructors who previously regarded
and now realises that the cutting of a gear cutting as being outside their
gear is well within the scope of the ambit, to 'have a go' then the task of
average model engineer. A great deal of writing it has been well worth while.

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Index Gashing
Gear cutting in the lathe
103
68
Gear cutting in horizontal miller 82
Gear cutting in vertical miller 78
Addendum 19 Generating circle 19
Approach 21
Arbors 84 Hypocycloid 19
Hobbing worms 100
Back cone 46
Base circle (cycloid) 19 Idler 11
Base circle (involute) 25 Involute curve 25
Bevel gear teeth 41
Brown and Sharpe cutters 65 Lantern pinion 22
Lead 50
Centralising the cutter 72,81
Centre distance 10 Mitre wheels 37
Circular pitch 29,55 Module 30
Compounding 91
Continuous fractions 92 Pinion 10
Crown wheel 43 Pitch circle diameter 13,55
Curved relief 118 Pressure angle 27
Cycloidal curve 17
Rack cycloidal 34
Dedendum 19 Rack involute 33
Diametral pitch 30 Raising block 70
Dividing head direct division 59 Recess 21
Dividing head raising block 79
Dividing head worm type 61 Speeds & feeds 67
Division plate 62 Spur wheel 14
Drawbolts 71
Driven 9 Tooth 15
Driver 9 Tooth contact 21,27
Tooth depth 66
Epicycloid 19 Tooth proportions 30
Eureka form tool 124 Train 10

Face 19,26 Wheel 10


Face angle 52 Worm 47
Flank 19,26 Worm two-start 47
Flycutter 119 Worm wheels 47
Free hobbing 102 Wheel 10

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--I

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WORKSHOP PRACTICE SERIES from Special Interest Model Books
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Heat Treatment Tubal Cain Jim Forrest & I'8Ier Jennings
Tubal Cain 13 Worlc:shop Drawing 24. Electric Motors in the
2. Vertical Milling in the Tubal Cain Home Worlc:shop
Home Workshop 14.Making Small Worlc:shop Jim Cox
Arnold Throp Tools 25. The Baclcyard Foundry
3. Screwcutting in the Lathe Sian Bray B.Tarry Aspin
MartinCl_ IS. Workholding in the Lathe 26. Home Worlc:shop Hints & n
4. Foundrywork for the Amateur Tubal Cain Edited by Vic Smeed
B.Terry Aspin 16. Electric Motors '0. Spindles
S. Milling Operations in Jim Cox Harpril Sandhu
the Lathe 17. Gears & Gear Cutting 28.Simple Worlc:shop Devices
Tubal Cain Ivan Law Tubal Cain
6. Measuring & Marking Metals 18. Basic 8enchwork 29. CAD for Model Engineers
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7. The Art of Welding 19.5pring Design & 30.Worlc:shop Materials
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R.E.Wakeford 20. Metalwork & Machining Stan Bray
9. Soldering & Brazing Hints & Tips 32. Unimot 1/1 Lathe Accessories
Tubal Cain Ian Bradley Bob Laader I
10. Sows & Sowing 21. Adhesives & Sealants 33. Making Clocks
Ian Bradley David Lammas Stan Bray
11. Electroplating 22.Workshop Electrics 34. Lothework
J.Payner Alex Weiss Harold Hall

17. Gean and Gear Cutting


Gears in one form or another are a port of most mechanisms, but they are by n
means as simple as they appear. This book explains simply, clearly and compre
hensively the underlying theory involved and, in its second port, how to cut gear
on a lathe or milling machine. It covers all the questi(lns raised by enthusiasts wh
have watched the author, Ivan Low, demonstrating gear cutting techniques a
exhibitions throughout Britain, where his advice on engineering matters i
constantly sought.

ISBN 0-85242-911-P

www.EngineeringBooksLibrary.com9 7808
I I 29112

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