Journal of Technology - Winter 2016

Winter 2016
Saudi Aramco
THE SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
Journal of Technology
A quarterly publication of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company
Channel Fracturing — An Effective Technology to

Unlock Tight Gas Production Potential in Saudi Arabia
see page 2
Novel Electric Submersible Pump Cable Operates in

High H2S Production Environment
see page 31
On the Cover
Novel multistage channel fracturing using conventional proppants and
local sand is gradually turning many challenging tight gas prospects
economical by creating and sustaining high conductivity fractures,
resulting in faster post-fracture clean up and improved well productivity.
Gas and condensate flow through the open channels

created by sequential pumping while proppant packs
serve as pillars, sustain fracture conductivity, and
prevent fractures to collapse and close.
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Winter 2016
Saudi Aramco
THE SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
Journal of Technology
A quarterly publication of the Saudi Arabian Oil Company
Contents
Channel Fracturing — An Effective Technology to

Unlock Tight Gas Production Potential in Saudi Arabia 2
Dr. Zillur Rahim, Adnan A. Al-Kanaan, Rifat Kayumov and Ziad Al-Jalal
Kinetic Approach for Modeling Scale Formation

during Water Injection into Carbonate Reservoirs 10
Dr. Peng Lu, Dr. Qiwei Wang, Dr. Tao Chen and Dr. Fauken F. Chang
Pushing the Envelope of Residual Oil Measurement:

A Field Case Study of a New Class of Inter-Well
Chemical Tracers 20
Modiu L. Sanni, Dr. Mohammed A. Al-Abbad, Dr. Sunil L. Kokal,
Dr. Øyvind Dugstad, Sven K. Hatvig and Dr. Olaf Huseby
Novel Electric Submersible Pump Cable Operates

in High H2S Production Environment 31
Brian A. Roth, Dr. Jinjiang X. Xiao and Mark Paquette
Assessment of Advanced Corrosion Monitoring

Technology for Pipeline Integrity 41
Bander F. Al-Daajani, Dr. Nayef M. Al-Anazi,
Dr. Abdelmounam M. El-Sherik and Abdullatif I. AbdulHadi
Iron Sulfide Scale Dissolution at High-Pressure,

High Temperature 47
Dr. Tao Chen, Dr. Qiwei Wang, Dr. Frank F. Chang and
Dr. Yahya T. Al-Janabi
Enhance Drilling Performance Using an Optimized Mud

Fluid System through Extensive Laboratory Testing 55
Adel A. Al-Ansari, Amr M. Abouhamed, Abdullah A. Abahussain,
Rafael M. Pino Rojas, Moustafa El Bialy and Dr. Bilal Zoghbi
Hydrogen-Induced Cracking Prediction Software 64

Dr. Abderrazak Traidia, Kaamil M. Shibly, Abdulrahman S. Al-Qahtani
and Mohammed A. Abufour
Channel Fracturing — An Effective
Technology to Unlock Tight Gas
Production Potential in Saudi Arabia
Dr. Zillur Rahim, Adnan A. Al-Kanaan, Rifat Kayumov and Ziad Al-Jalal
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
Economic recovery and production of nonassociated gas Some gas-bearing clastic reservoirs in Saudi Arabia are tight
from tight clastic reservoirs faces some challenges from the and so can be produced at an economical gas rate only by
reservoirs’ high bottom-hole temperatures, high in situ stress, applying hydraulic fracturing. These tight reservoirs present
low permeability, and high Young’s modulus and rock com- multiple challenges to the successful achievement of hydraulic
pressive strength. Hydraulic fracturing, which is needed to fracturing operations.
exploit tight reservoirs, is constrained in these cases by high
fracture initiation and treating pressure, risk of premature • High bottom-hole static temperatures (270 °F to 325
screen out and conductivity degradation with time. A con- °F) can significantly reduce the stability and viscosity
ventional fracturing treatment in such a challenging envi- of the fracturing gel. So high polymer concentrations,
ronment requires a higher polymer loading in the fracturing 40 lb to 50 lb per 1,000 gal of fluid, are needed to
fluids to stabilize fluid viscosity and the use of smaller size maintain fracturing fluid viscosity at an acceptable level
proppant at low concentrations to ensure proppant place- during the entire treatment. This high gel concentration
ment. This results in a shorter effective fracture half-length can leave a large amount of residue, causing significant
and low fracture conductivity. The reduced contact area in proppant pack damage and consequently reducing effec-
turn decreases production potential. tive fracture half-length.
Additionally, high polymer loading is not easily breakable
• High in situ stresses — 0.9 psi/ft or above — and a high
and may cause major damage to the proppant pack, thereby
Young’s modulus — 5 to 10 × 106 psi — significantly
substantially reducing fracture conductivity. These challenges
increase the risk of screen out due to the creation of
are compounded when the reservoir is relatively tight and so
thin fractures. For certain challenging fields, a high
often cannot generate enough energy to clean up the injected
screen out ratio was seen at 35%1. To mitigate this risk,
fracturing fluids. To overcome these challenges, channel
a low final proppant concentration, measured as pound
fracturing was introduced. In this kind of fracturing, prop-
of proppant additive (PPA) per gallon of clean fluid,
pants are added in pulses in the fracturing fluids along with
ranging from 4 PPA to 6 PPA is typically used, which
dissolvable fibers, creating stacks of pillar-like structures
negatively impacts fracturing width and conductivity.
inside the fracture. These proppant pillars stay suspended
and are kept intact by the fibers during the treatment. Once • Low quality reservoirs in heterogeneous formations re-
pumping is stopped, the fracture closes on the pillars, and quire the creation of fractures that penetrate all potential
the fibers degrade under formation temperature. Because the pay zones and have a long fracture half-length with suffi-
pillars holding the fracture open act as columns, the voids cient conductivity to maximize reservoir contact and pro-
surrounding them are essentially stable channels that extend vide a conductive pathway for the gas to flow across the
along the entire geometry of the fracture. The channels pro- entire created fracture. This is not feasible with a conven-
vide an open pathway for hydrocarbon flow, resulting in a tional fracturing approach due to the fracture conductiv-
near-infinite conductivity environment. Channel fracturing ity damage caused by the high gel concentrations and low
has other benefits: The technology reduces the amount of proppant concentrations that this approach requires, as
proppant pumped compared to a conventional fracturing well as proppant damage due to crushing or embedment.
treatment, and the pulsation of the proppant during pump- The situation is made worse when screen outs occur and
ing reduces the risk of an early screen out. the desired fracture geometry cannot be placed properly.
The use of channel fracturing technology can overcome

some of the tight gas fracturing challenges. The technique
2 WINTER 2016 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY

EFFECTIVE
HYDRAULIC
PROPPED
Fig. 1. Representation of fractures achieved with channel fracturing and conventional proppant fracturing, and a schematic indicating different fracture lengths.
Fig. 1. Representation of fractures achieved with channel fracturing and conventional proppant fracturing,
and a schematic indicating different fracture lengths
substitutes the usual homogeneous proppant pack in the CHANNEL FRACTURING IN SAUDI RESERVOIRS
fracture with a heterogeneous structure containing a network
of open channels, Fig. 1. The key difference in pumping To date, more than 50 stages have been successfully treated
schedules is that channel fracturing, unlike conventional using channel fracturing in Saudi Arabian reservoirs. While
proppant fracturing, adds proppant in short pulses, sep- around 37% of stages experience screen out with conventional
arated by pulses of clean fluid. This discontinuity in the fracturing in some tight reservoirs, no screen out occurred
proppant addition helps reduce the net pressure during when similar wells were treated using channel fracturing
treatment and ensures reliable placement of the proppant technology. Typically, channel fracturing treatments were
with minimal, if not totally eliminated, risk of screen out. pumped in wells where high bottom-hole treating pressures
Statistics on 10,000 treatments show an average 99.9% suc- (BHTP) were expected, based on mechanical properties and
cess rate in proppant placement through channel fracturing2. a mini-fracture analysis. If conventional fracturing were to be
Abdelhamid et al. (2013)3 reports increased well productivity used in such wells, there is a very high probability of screen
and total elimination of screen out after implementation of out due to limited fracture width and premature proppant
channel fracturing in the Silah field in Egypt, while screen packing. In the case of channel fracturing, however, prema-
out occurred in more than 45% of the standard fracturing ture proppant packing is eliminated with the pulsed addition
treatments, according to the statistics over a two-year period. of proppant. Figures 2 and 3 show examples where the BHTP
Successes in faster gel recovery and improved productivity (indicated by the gray lines) was kept just below the comple-
are reported by Kayumov et al. (2014)4 and Valenzuela et al. tion limit of 16,000 psi during channel fracturing treatments.
(2012)5 in gas fields in Russia and Mexico, respectively. Overall, production results after channel fracturing are
Channel fracturing does not depend on the proppant pack more consistent compared to those after conventional prop-
to provide conductivity; rather it depends on the open flow pant fracturing. For the fracturing treatments where the data
channels, which achieve conductivity that is a few orders of for offset wells were available, production results after chan-
magnitude higher compared to the proppant pack conduc- nel fracturing show more consistency and better performance
tivity. Gillard et al. (2010)6 indicates that pressure buildup compared to those after conventional proppant fracturing.
(PBU) tests conducted on wells in Argentina’s Loma La Lata The next section provides several case studies illustrating the
field after channel fracturing confirmed that fracture conduc- application of channel fracturing and the results obtained
tivity was above a threshold value and might be considered with that approach.
Fig. 2. Channel
effectively fracturing
infinite for treatment
given reservoir on Well-S04.
conditions. Long-term
performance data for the same wells support the notion that Case Study #1: Well-S01
the structure of the created channels within the proppant
pack remained stable for no fewer than two years during the Vertical Well-S01, located in a recently developed area,
production period. Furthermore, even when highly concen- underwent the first fracturing operation in this field. The
trated fracturing gel is pumped, it can be easily flowed back formation is deep sandstone, exhibiting a high initial reser-
through the open channels, thereby minimizing damage to voir pressure, a thick net pay interval and low permeability
the fracture and providing effective fracture half-length near- — less than 0.1 millidarcy (mD). Channel fracturing tech-
ing the created hydraulic fracture half-length. nology was selected to minimize the risk of screen out and
maximize reservoir contact. A mini-fracture operation was
used to compute fracture characteristics and reservoir flow
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 2016 3

Fig. 2. Channel fracturing treatment on Well-S04.
Fig. 2. Channel fracturing treatment on Well-S04. Besides the good production achieved in Well-S01, the
entire proppant amount was successfully placed. A con-
ventional fracturing treatment pumped on an offset well,
Well-S05, resulted in screen out with only 55,000 lb of
proppant placed into the formation. As a result, Well-S05
did not meet production targets, and flow back data analysis
confirmed much lower PI compared to Well-S01. Another
well, Well-S02, was later conventionally fractured success-
fully in the same field with 100,000 lb of proppant at a max-
imum proppant concentration of 5 PPA. A greater proppant
amount or higher proppant concentration was not possible
Fig.
Fig. 3. 3. Channel
Channel fracturing
fracturing treatment
treatment on Well-S39.
on Well-S39. due to the high BHTP this would have required to break
down the formation and propagate the fracture, thereby
parameters. It revealed significant fracture height growth
Fig.risking
3. Channel
thefracturing treatment
completion on Well-S39.
integrity. The calculated PI after frac-
able to cover the entire pay zone. The main fracturing treat-
turing was lower compared to the PI for Well-S01, although
ment was successfully conducted as per design with 130,000
Saudi Aramco: Company
reservoir General
properties Use wells were very similar. Figure
for both
lb of proppant pumped at a maximum concentration of 7
2
PPA. Due to the pulsation in proppant pumping, the created
fracture geometry
1 to date has not been compromised, and
it matches with the geometry achieved by pumping a higher
proppant amount — about 215,000 lb — in a conventional 2
treatment. Flow back operations performed before and after

1
treatment
Fig. showed
4. Nodal analysis an almost
for Well-S01 twofold
productivity. increase in productivity
index (PI) as a result of channel fracturing. A post-fracturing
skin factor of -5.9 (point #2) was achieved, as computed us-
ing Nodal analysis, Fig. 4, which demonstrates the creation
of a highly conductive fracture. The pre-fracturing skin fac-
tor was estimated at +0.8 (point #1). Fig.Fig. 4. Nodal
4. Nodal analysisfor
analysis forWell-S01
Well-S01 productivity.
productivity.
Saudi Aramco: Company General Use

production confirmed the existence of an infinite conductiv-
ity fracture with a half-length of 200 ft, similar to what was
expected based on the fracturing pressure match.
Offset Well-S25 had been stimulated by conventional
fracturing a few months before Well-S04. The treatment
was pumped as per design with 137,000 lb of proppant
placed inside the formation. In spite of the greater proppant
amount, post-fracturing flow back resulted in about 30%
less productivity compared to that of Well-S04. Furthermore,
long-term production showed a rapid productivity decrease
for Well-S25, while the production rate and pressure in
Fig. 5. Comparison of reservoir parameters and post-fracturing PIs for Well-S01,
Fig. 5. Comparison Well-S04 stayed stable with time, confirming the stability of
Well-S02 and Well-S05. of reservoir parameters and post-fracturing PIs for Well-S01, Well-S02 and Well-S05.
the created channels. Figure 7 shows the normalized reser-
5 shows normalized reservoir parameters — obtained from voir parameters — obtained from the mini-fracture operation
the mini-fracture operation — and post-fracturing PIs for — and post-fracturing PIs for Well-S04 and Well-S25. The
Well-S01, Well-S02 and Well-S05. The normalized PI for normalized PI for Well-S04 outperforms Well-S25 by 35%.
Well-S01 outperforms Well-S02 by 85%.
Case Study #3: Well-S12
Case Study #2: Well-S04
Vertical Well-S12 was drilled through a very thick section
Vertical Well-S04 penetrated a moderately thick tight sand- of a relatively tight sandstone reservoir and completed as a
stone reservoir. Only one offset well had been2previously cased hole with plans to fracture it in five separate stages.
fractured in the same reservoir, 1 and it achieved an acceptable Stage 1 was canceled due to the potential for fracture height
post-fracturing gas rate. The channel fracturing treatment for growth into an undesired interval. Stage 2 was also canceled
Well-S04 was initially designed with 124,000 lb of proppant. due to a high BHP that reached completion limit at a low
Mini-fracture tests indicated a high fracture gradient, with pumping rate, confirmed during mini-fracture tests. Channel
the bottom-hole pressure (BHP) required approaching the fracturing treatment was successfully pumped in Stage 3,
completion limit, which suggested that a screen out pressure with 170,000 lb of proppant placed into the formation at a
Fig. 6. Nodal analysis for Well-S04.
might be quickly reached during pumping. Accordingly, the maximum proppant concentration of 7 PPA. A pre-fractur-
proppant amount was reduced to only 48,000 lb — equiv- ing flow back operation was not performed, but flow back
alent to about 90,000 lb of proppant in a conventional after channel fracturing showed a high gas rate significantly
fracturing operation. The treatment was pumped success- exceeding initial expectations. Because of the high productiv-
fully, placing the designed proppant inside the fracture and ity of this stage, the subsequent fracturing stages were can-
keeping the BHP below the completion limit. A flow back celed, and the well has been put into production with only a
operation, conducted before and after fracturing treatment, single fracturing stage performed.
showed more than a twofold increase in the PI. Nodal The offset vertical Well-S99 was completed with an open
analysis, Fig. 6, revealed a post-fracturing skin factor of hole multistage fracturing completion, and three conven-
Fig.-4.6
5. Comparison of reservoir parameters and post-fracturing
(point #2), which is an excellent result for the smallPIs for Well-S01, tional fracturing
Well-S02 stages were successfully pumped, placing a
and Well-S05.
treatment size dictated by the completion limit. There was
no pre-fracturing skin for this well (point #1). Furthermore,
results from a PBU test conducted after three months of
2
1
Fig. 7.7.
Fig. Comparison of reservoir
Comparison parameters
of reservoir and post-fracture
parameters andproductivity for
post-fracture
Fig. 6. Nodal analysis for Well-S04. Well-S04 and Well-S25.

Fig. 8. Comparison of reservoir parameters and post-fracture productivity for

Fig. 8. Comparison of reservoir parameters and post-fracture productivity for Well-S12 andComparison
Fig. 10. Well-S99.of reservoir parameters and post-fracture productivity for
Well-S12 and Well-S99.
Fig. 10. Comparison
Well-S07 and Well-S59. of reservoir parameters and post-fracture productivity for Well-
total of about 450,000 lb of proppant into the formation.

factor was estimated to be -1 (point #1). The negative value
Post-fracturing flow back was performed for all three frac-
for the pre-fracturing skin factor was because of the short
turing stages combined, and the result showed about 50%
flow back time when the gas rate and flowing pressure had
less production compared with the productivity of Well-S12,
not yet stabilized.
where only one channel fracturing stage was pumped.
Another refracturing operation was conducted on offset
Figure 8 shows the normalized reservoir parameters and
Well-S59. The well had produced for a few years after initial
post-fracturing PIs for Well-S12 and Well-S99. The normal-
conventional fracturing, then production declined, and a
ized PI for Well-S12 outperforms Well-S99 by 98%.
Saudi Aramco: Company General Use conventional refracturing treatment was attempted to restore
production. The refracturing treatment was pumped suc-
Case Study #4: Well-S07 (Refracturing)
cessfully with 318,000 lb of proppant. Post-fracturing flow
back resulted in a moderate gas rate at low flowing pressure.
Deviated Well-S07 — 40° deviation in the pay zone — pene- Saudi Aramco: Company General Use
Though the gas rate and flowing pressure for Well-S59 af-
trated a moderately thick tight sandstone reservoir. Initially,
ter refracturing were considerably less compared to those
conventional fracturing of this well was attempted, but due for Well-S07, the PI of Well-S59 was slightly higher due to
to some operational problems, only 84,000 lb of proppant reservoir pressure depletion. It needs to be mentioned that
was placed instead of the designed 320,000 lb, with a con- Well-S59 was drilled in a much thicker section of the reser-
siderably high final treating pressure. The decision was made voir with an almost doubled net pay compared to Well-S07.
to refracture this well, using channel fracturing to mini- Once the PI was normalized to the reservoir capacity kh
mize risk of screen out and maximize fracture conductivity. value, data showed that Well-S07 significantly outperformed
The refracturing treatment was pumped successfully with Well-S59. Figure 10 shows the normalized reservoir parame-
238,000 lb of proppant, equivalent to a conventional frac- ters and post-fracturing PIs for Well-S07 and Well-S59. The
turing operation with 432,000 lb of proppant. normalized PI for Well-S07 outperforms Well-S59 by 71%.
A flow back operation was performed before and after The four case studies presented in the article clearly show
the fracturing treatment, which showed more than a two- the major benefits derived from channel fracturing. Better
fold increase in the PI as a result of channel fracturing. The fracture conductivity is always achieved, which helps de-
post-fracturing skin factor of -5.2 (point #2) was calculated liver the desired production rates. Channel fracturing also
using Nodal analysis, Fig. 9, while the pre-fracturing skin provides excellent placement reliability, thereby minimizing
screen out risk in tight gas reservoirs.
CONCLUSIONS
2 1. Channel fracturing technology has been successfully de-

1 ployed in Saudi Arabian tight clastic reservoirs, with more
than 50 stages successfully pumped to date.
2. No screen out occurred during channel fracturing treat-
ments, while a few conventional fracturing operations re-
sulted in screen out in similar quality reservoirs.
3. Production results after channel fracturing treatments were
Fig. 9. Nodal analysis for Well-S07. consistent.

4. Four case studies described in this article illustrate the et al.: “Field Development Study: Channel Fracturing
reliability and gain in productivity achieved with channel Increases Gas Production and Improves Polymer Recovery
fracturing compared with offset wells completed by con- in Burgos Basin, Mexico North,” SPE paper 152112,
ventional fracturing: presented at the SPE Hydraulic Fracturing Technology
• All channel fracturing stages were pumped as per de- Conference, The Woodlands, Texas, February 6-8, 2012.
sign, keeping the BHTP below completion limit. 6. Gillard, M.R., Medvedev, O.O., Hosein, P.R., Medvedev,
• All wells produced at or above the expected gas rates A., Peñacorada, F. and d’Huteau, E.: “A New Approach
after channel fracturing treatment. to Generating Fracture Conductivity,” SPE paper 135034,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
• The normalized PI for wells with channel fracturing
Exhibition, Florence, Italy, September 19-22, 2010.
shows them outperforming the offset wells with conven-
tional fracturing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the management of Saudi

Aramco and Schlumberger for their support and permission
to publish this article.
This article was presented at the SPE EUROPEC 78th
EAGE Conference and Exhibition, Vienna, Austria, May 30 -
June 2, 2016.
REFERENCES
1. Rahim, Z., Al Kanaan, A.A., Al-Anazi, H., Al-Malki,

B., Kayumov, R. and Al-Jalal, Z.: “Evaluation and
Application of Novel Technologies and Their Impact on
Sustained Gas Production in Saudi Arabian Reservoirs:
Field Examples,” IPTC paper 18497, presented at the
International Petroleum Technology Conference, Doha,
Qatar, December 6-9, 2015.
2. Medvedev, A.V., Kraemer, C.C., Pena, A.A. and
Raju Panga, M.K.: “On the Mechanisms of Channel
Fracturing,” SPE paper 163836, presented at the SPE
Hydraulic Fracturing Technology Conference, The
Woodlands, Texas, February 4-6, 2013.
3. Abdelhamid, M.S.A., Marouf, M., Kamal, Y., Shaaban, A.,
Mathur, A., Yosry, M., et al.: “Field Development Study:
Channel Fracturing Technique Combined with Rod-Shaped
Proppant Improves Production, Eliminates Proppant Flow
Back Issues and Screen Outs in the Western Desert, Egypt,”
SPE paper 164753, presented at the North Africa Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Cairo, Egypt, April 15-17, 2013.
4. Kayumov, R., Klyubin, A., Konchenko, A., Yudin, A.,
Khalzov, A., Firsov, V., et al.: “Channel Fracturing
Enhanced by Unconventional Proppant Increases
Effectiveness of Hydraulic Fracturing in Devonian
Formations of Russia’s Oil Fields,” IPTC paper 17409,
presented at the International Petroleum Technology
Conference, Doha, Qatar, January 19-22, 2014.
5. Valenzuela, A., Guzman, J., Moreno, S.S., Garcia
Mondragon, G., Gutierrez Rodruigues, L.A., Exler, V.A.,

BIOGRAPHIES and Ph.D. degrees from Texas A&M University, College
Station, TX, all in Petroleum Engineering.
Dr. Zillur Rahim is a Senior
Petroleum Engineering Consultant Adnan A. Al-Kanaan is Manager of
with Saudi Aramco’s Gas Reservoir the Gas Reservoir Management
Management Department (GRMD). Department (GRMD), overseeing
He heads the team responsible for three divisions with more than 120
stimulation design, application and engineers and technologists. He is
assessment, both for conventional and directly responsible for strategic
for tight gas reservoirs. Rahim’s expertise includes well planning and decisions to enhance and
stimulation, pressure transient test analysis, gas field sustain gas delivery to meet the Kingdom’s ever increasing
development, planning, production enhancement and energy demand. He oversees GRMD’s operating and
reservoir management. He initiated and championed business plans, new technologies and initiatives, tight and
several novel technologies in well completions and unconventional gas development programs, and the overall
hydraulic fracturing for Saudi Arabia’s nonassociated gas work, planning and decision making.
reservoirs. Adnan has 22 years diversified experience in oil and
Prior to joining Saudi Aramco, Rahim worked as a gas reservoir management, full field development, reserves
Senior Reservoir Engineer with Holditch & Associates, assessment, production engineering, mentoring of young
Inc., and later with Schlumberger Reservoir Technologies professionals and effective management of large groups
in College Station, TX, where he consulted on reservoir of professionals. He is also a key player in promoting
engineering, well stimulation, reservoir simulation, and guiding the Kingdom’s unconventional gas program.
production forecasting, well testing and tight gas Adnan also initiated and oversees the Tight Gas technical
qualification for national and international companies. team to assess and produce the Kingdom’s vast and
Rahim is an instructor who teaches petroleum challenging tight gas reserves in the most economical way.
engineering industry courses, and he has trained engineers Adnan started his career at the Saudi Shell
from the U.S. and overseas. He developed analytical and Petrochemical Company as a Senior Process Engineer. He
numerical models to history match and forecast production joined Saudi Aramco in 1997 and was an integral part of
and pressure behavior in gas reservoirs. Rahim also the technical team responsible for the on-time initiation
developed 3D hydraulic fracture propagation and proppant of the two major Hawiyah and Haradh gas plants that
transport simulators, and numerical models to compute currently process more than 6 billion standard cubic feet
acid reaction, penetration, proppant transport and of gas per day (Bscfd). Adnan also directly managed Karan
placement, and fracture conductivity for matrix acid, acid and Wasit field developments — two major offshore
fracturing and proppant fracturing treatments. nonassociated gas increment projects — with an expected
He has authored more than 100 technical papers total production capacity of 5 Bscfd, in addition to the
for local/international Society of Petroleum Engineers new Fadhili gas plant with 2.5 Bscfd processing capacity,
(SPE) conferences and numerous in-house technical expected online in 2019. Adnan also served on assignment
documents. Rahim is a member of SPE and a technical in the position of General Manager for the Unconventional
editor for SPE’s Journal of Petroleum Science and Resources Group.
Technology (JPSE) and Journal of Petroleum Technology Prior to the inception of GRMD, he was the General
(JPT). He is a registered Professional Engineer in Supervisor for the Gas Reservoir Management Division
the State of Texas, a mentor for Saudi Aramco’s under the Southern Reservoir Management Department for
Technologist Development Program (TDP) and a member 3 years, heading one of the most challenging programs in
of the Technical Review Committee. Rahim teaches optimizing and managing nonassociated gas fields in Saudi
the “Advanced Reservoir Stimulation and Hydraulic Aramco.
Fracturing” course offered by the Upstream Professional He actively participates in the Society of Petroleum
Development Center (UPDC) of Saudi Aramco. Engineers (SPE) forums and conferences, and has
He is a member of GRMD’s technical committee been a keynote speaker and panelist for many such
responsible for the assessment, approval and application programs. Adnan’s areas of interest include reservoir
of new technologies, and he heads the in-house service engineering, well test analysis, simulation modeling,
company engineering team on the application of reservoir characterization, hydraulic fracturing, reservoir
best-in-class stimulation and completion practices for development planning, and reservoir management.
improved gas recovery. In 2013, he chaired the International Petroleum
Rahim has received numerous in-house professional Technical Conference, Beijing, and in 2014, Adnan was a
awards. As an active member of the SPE, he has keynote speaker and technical committee member at the
participated as co-chair, session chair, technical committee World Petroleum Congress, Moscow. In 2015, he served as
member, discussion leader and workshop coordinator in Technical Conference Chairman and Executive Member at
various SPE international conferences. the Middle East Oil Show, Bahrain.
Rahim received his B.S. degree from the Institut Adnan received the international 2014 “Manager of
Algérien du Pétrole, Boumerdes, Algeria, and his M.S. the Year” award conferred by Oil and Gas Middle East

(OGME) magazine for his outstanding contribution in the
oil and gas industry. He also received two prestigious SPE
awards: a 2015 “Service” award and 2016 “Management
and Information System” award. In addition, under his
direct supervision and management, GRMD received
OGME’s “Best Project Integration” award in 2013
and Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition and
Conference’s (ADIPEC) “Oil and Gas Innovation” award
in 2016 for its work, respectively, on the Karan and the
Arabiyah/Hasbah projects, two major offshore gas projects.
He has authored more than 45 technical papers on
reservoir engineering and hydraulic fracturing.
Adnan received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering
from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
(KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Rifat Kayumov started his career in

1999 working in the Production
Enhancement Department at one of
the Russian service companies in
western Siberia. In August 2004, he
joined the Well Services Division in
Schlumberger. Rifat spent 3 years in
western Siberia, then 6 years in the Volga-Urals region of
Russia, working in different technical positions. In June
2013, he moved to Saudi Arabia and a position as the
Production Stimulation Engineer in charge of stimulation
activities for Saudi Aramco. Rifat is involved in
implementation of new technologies for hydraulic
fracturing and matrix acidizing, the candidate selection
process, results evaluation and interactions with involved
divisions and departments.
He is the author of 15 technical papers published by the
Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) and the International
Petroleum Technology Conference (IPTC) and actively
participates in different workshops and conferences.
In 1999, Rifat received his B.S. degree in Mechanical
Engineering from the Russian State University of Oil and
Gas, Moscow, Russia.
Ziad Al-Jalal is currently working as

the Stimulation Domain Manager for
Schlumberger, where he is involved in
fracturing projects in Saudi Arabia
and Bahrain. He has 17 years of
experience in fracturing treatments in
both conventional and unconventional
wells. Ziad joined Schlumberger in 2000 as a Fracturing
Field Engineer in Western Siberia, Russia, for four years,
then as Technical Engineer in Saudi Arabia. He was a
Team Leader in the Tight Gas Center of Excellence based
in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, from 2008 to 2012. Ziad
previously worked as a Senior Production and Stimulation
Engineer in Oklahoma City, OK, from 2012 to 2014.
He received his B.S. degree in Mechanical Engineering
(KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, in 1999.

Kinetic Approach for Modeling Scale
Formation during Water Injection into
Carbonate Reservoirs
Dr. Peng Lu, Dr. Qiwei Wang, Dr. Tao Chen and Dr. Fauken F. Chang
ABSTRACT 20 years near the injection wellbore and in the mixing zones
due to the formation of calcium carbonate and calcium sul-
Water injection is commonly used in oil fields for pressure fate scales, respectively. A negative feedback loop develops
support and productivity enhancement. Injection water, if between the initial exploitation of preferential flow paths
incompatible with formation water, can induce scale pre- and subsequent reservoir quality deterioration in these paths.
cipitation and impose a significant threat to economic and The kinetic approach described in this article offers a signif-
efficient field operation. Reliable scale prediction is of critical icant improvement in scale prediction, providing better results
importance in the selection of suitable injection water and than the traditional approach and leading to enhanced field de-
the development of an effective scale management strategy. velopment and a more cost-effective scale management strategy.
The traditional (thermodynamic) approach for scale pre-
diction only provides precipitation potential at different INTRODUCTION
mixing ratios of injection water and formation water. While
it describes the initial and final states of the system, it omits In an effort to increase or maintain the oil production rate
some intermediate processes and products that may be im- in a reservoir, water injection has long been used in daily
portant for operations. In addition, it may overestimate the operations; however, any freshwater or saltwater injected
total amount of the scale forms. In this article, we describe a into a reservoir could disrupt its chemical equilibrium and
new approach, the kinetic approach, which facilitates a more induce reactions with both the formation fluids and the
accurate prediction of scale formation. reservoir rocks. These reactions would modify the chemical
We demonstrate the kinetic approach in a parametric composition of the injection and formation fluids, and affect
study of seawater injection into a carbonate reservoir in the chemical and physical properties of the reservoir rock.
Saudi Arabia. The study used reactive transport modeling
Furthermore, water injection generates a supersaturated wa-
(RTM), which simulates coupled multiphase fluid flow
ter due to water mixing, and a variety of scales may form as
and chemical reactions; it has the capability of predicting
a result. Scale formation can cause reservoir damage, flow
time-dependent mineral scale formation and associated reser-
line blockage and facility failure, presenting a significant
voir quality deterioration. The formation of calcium sulfate
threat to economic and efficient field operations.
scale in the reservoir and the near wellbore regions is a ma-
An evaluation of the scaling potential of water injection
jor concern when there is a high calcium concentration in the
formation water and a high sulfate concentration in the in- Aqueous Species Seawater (ppm) Formation Water
jected seawater. We built a 2D RTM using TOUGHREACT pH 8 6.6
v1.2, with GUI pre- and post-processor PetraSim v2015, to
Ca +
2
664 50,843
simulate scale formation over a 20-year time span. Reservoir
Mg2+ 2,130 5,530
heterogeneities were considered in our model. The impact of
scale formation on the reservoir and well properties during Na+ 17,885 34,987
waterflooding operations was evaluated. K+ 665 872
The results indicate that the migration path of the solutes Cl- 31,011 163,474
depends highly on the reservoir permeability distribution: HCO3- 150 9.6
preferential flow paths form in the high permeability layers. SO42- 4,321 147
At 20 years, the model shows up to 11.6% calcium sulfate
Sr2+ 12 2,108
scale in the mixing zones of the injection and formation
Br- 8e-6 8e-16
waters, and up to 18% calcium carbonate scale near the in-
jection wellbore — within a ~10 m radial distance from the Table 1. Concentration of aqueous components of seawater and formation water
in the simulations
wellbore. So a severe reduction in porosity is predicted at

and associated reservoir quality deterioration.
4
Kinetic, 1 day
Kinetic, Reservoir heterogeneities, e.g., geological complexities and
Kinetic, 10 day
Kinetic, petrophysical variations, have significant impact on the ef-
Kinetic, 30
Kinetic, 30 day
day ficiency of waterflooding operations. Super-permeability (or
3 Kinetic, 1
1 year
year
Kinetic, super-K) zones can have high production or injection rates
(g/L)
Anhydrite(g/L)
Thermodynamic
Thermodynamic of over 500 barrels of fluid per day per ft1. Studies show that
more than 50% of the total flow of a well can be produced
Anhydrite
2
from a single super-K zone2. Therefore, a super-K zone may
form a critical layer to the flow and dominate the flow paths
in a reservoir. The problem arises in a reservoir undergoing
1
active waterflooding for pressure support; a super-K zone
may cause early water breakthrough and increased water
production (due to focused flow through this zone). Poor
0 sweep efficiency may result.
40% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Kinetic, 1 day
Kinetic, This article describes the kinetic approach for scale pre-
Seawater Ratio
Seawater ratio
Kinetic, 10
Kinetic, day diction and provides a parametric study of waterflooding in
Kinetic, 30
Kinetic, 30 day
day a carbonate reservoir in Saudi Arabia. Formation of calcium
Fig. 1. Comparison of the amount of calcium sulfate (anhydrite or CaSO4)
Fig. 1. 3
Comparison of the amount
Kinetic, 1 yearof calcium sulfate (anhydrite or CaSO4) scale predicted to form at
Kinetic, seawater/formation
scale predicted to form at different 1 year water mixing ratios sulfate scale in this reservoir and in the near wellbore region
different seawater/formation water mixing ratios by thermodynamic and kinetic approaches. The kinetic
(g/L)
by thermodynamic and kinetic approaches. The kinetic approach can provide

is aV2.0
major concern duethe
to the high calcium concentration in
Anhydrite(g/L)
Thermodynamic
Thermodynamic scale formation information. Phreeqc
approach can provide time-dependent 25 was used for
time-dependent scale formation information. Phreeqc V2.025 was used for the
calculations in a batch system. the formation water and the high sulfate concentration in the
calculations in a batch system.
Anhydrite
2 seawater. We simulated coupled multiphase fluid flow and

in a reservoir is often performed to assess the severity of chemical reactions using kinetic reactive transport modeling
the scaling
4 likely to result from the mixing 0.1 of injection and (RTM)3, 4 and predicted time-dependent mineral scales for-
formation 1 waters. The traditional approach is a batch-type mation and associated reservoir quality deterioration. The
Anhydrite
Calcite or Dolomite (g/L)
model using thermodynamic methods. 0.08 It deals with the impact of the potential scale formation on the reservoir and
Calcite or dolomite (g/L)
3 Calcite
initial and final states of the system, e.g., far from equilib- well properties, taking into account reservoir heterogeneities,
Anhydrite (g/L)
(g/L)
rium and fullyDolomite

at equilibrium, and provides 0.06 information on during waterflooding operations was then evaluated.
0
Anhydrite
whether 2 0%scale is likely

20% to form 40%and how much
60% it can
80% form. 100%
Because of design constraints, this method 0.04 cannot tell us LIMITATIONS OF THE THERMODYNAMIC APPROACH
Seawater Ratio
Seawater ratio or if kinetic
how fast the scale is likely to be precipitating
1
barriers have prevented precipitation somewhat 0.02 or even en- Currently, most commercial software packages for scale
Fig. 1. Comparison of the amount of calcium
tirely. This is a serious limitation. Many important processes sulfate (anhydrite or CaSO 4) scale
prediction predicted
and to form atuse batch-type thermody-
risk assessment
different seawater/formation water mixing ratios by thermodynamic and kinetic approaches. The kinetic
may be 0 rate namic models. Scaling potential is calculated in term of
approach canlimited
providebytime-dependent
one or more slow 0 reactions.
scale formation information. Phreeqc V2.025 was used for the
0% 50% 100% supersaturation. This approach, however, only predicts the
Kinetics is a science
calculations in a batch system. that deals with the mechanisms and
Seawater Ratio
Seawater ratio
rates of chemical reactions. The kinetic approach can pro- total amount of a scale that can form — but not necessar-
vide information on time-dependent mineral scale formation ily form completely — and provides no time-dependent
4 0.1 4 0.1
Anhydrite 1 year
Anhydrite Anhydrite 10 day

0.08 Calcite 1 year

0.08
Calcite
3 3 Calcite 10 day
Anhydrite (g/L)
(g/L)
(g/L)
Dolomite 1 year
Dolomite
(g/L)
0.06Company General Use

Saudi Aramco: Dolomite 10 day 0.06
Anhydrite
Anhydrite
2 2
Anhydrite
0.04 0.04
1 1
0.02 0.02
0 0
0 0
0% 50% 100%
0% 50% 100%
Seawater Ratio
Seawater ratio Seawater Ratio
Seawater ratio
Fig. 2. Comparison of the amount of scales formed at different seawater/formation water mixing ratios using the thermodynamic approach (left) and kinetic approaches
Fig. 2. Comparison of the amount of scales formed at different
(right). Calcite will form first before converting into dolomite, but the thermodynamic method only provides the final status (dolomite formation) and ignores the
using the thermodynamic approach (left) and kinetic approaches
intermediate product (calcite). Phreeqc V2.0 was used for the calculations in a batch system. converting into dolomite, but the thermodynamic method only provides
formation) and ignores the intermediate product (calcite). Phreeqc
batch system.
Normalized Porosity Permeability RSA scale formation sequence. In Fig. 2, the two im-
Lithology portant scales formed, according to the thermody-
Depth (m) (%) (md) (cm2/g)
Mud-lean namic approach, are calcium sulfate and dolomite
0 17 100 500 (CaMg(CO3)2), whereas calcium sulfate and calcite
Packestone
Mud-lean (CaCO3) are the important scales in the kinetic
1 17 100 500
Packestone approach. That is because dolomite precipitation
Mud-lean is very slow5. It is not likely to precipitate a signif-
2 17 100 500
Packestone icant amount of dolomite at the production time
3 18 3 Packestone 3,750 scale. Instead, calcium carbonate will form first and
4 18 3 Packestone 3,750 eventually convert into dolomite. Therefore, the
thermodynamic approach ignores both the interme-
5 18 3 Packestone 3,750
diate product — calcium carbonate — and the more
6 18 3 Packestone 3,750
complicated scale formation sequence.
7 17 1 Wackestone 7,470
9 17 1 Wackestone 7,470 THE KINETIC APPROACH
11 17 1 Wackestone 7,470 To overcome the limitations of the thermodynamic
12 9 0.1 Mudstone 9,570 approach, the new model needed a mathematical ex-
pression to say how fast scale precipitates for a given
time interval. A reasonable assumption about the ki-
netics controlling mineral dissolution or precipitation
15 17 1 Wackestone 7,470 might be that the rate of dissolution/precipitation is
16 17 1 Wackestone 7,470 proportional to the degree of supersaturation or un-
17 15 250 Grainstone 100 dersaturation. A general form of this rate law6, 7 is:
Grainstone
17.3 18 1,200 100 r
(super-K) R   kaHi  ( fGr )
 (1)(1)
18.3 15 250 Grainstone 100 s
19.3 17 1 Wackestone 7,470 where R is the dissolution/precipitation rate in
mol m-2 s-1 — positive values indicate dissolution
Table 2. Simplified rock properties of a carbonate formation in Saudi Arabia and negative values indicate precipitation — rwhere
r   E 1 where 1 R is- i R
theR  k exp  arate
dissolution/precipitation ( inmol s-1 kgw) a  ( fGr )
scale formation information. In the case of mixing seawater 1 s
; S is the specific reactive R perTkg of298
 area
surface .15k is H
H2O;
and formation water in a carbonate reservoir, Table 1, at
the temperature-dependent rate constant in mol m-2 s-1; +
different ratios, the thermodynamic method provides the is the activity of H
is the activity of H+; and i is the empirical reaction order
maximum amounts of calcium sulfate scale expected to form
accounting r for catalysis by H+ in the solution. is
at each seawater/formation water mixing ratio, Fig. 1. The  R   ka i
( fG )   G  (1)
f (Gon
the rate sdependence ) 1 chemical
r
the exp  driving
r
 force — how(3) su-

H
greatest amount of calcium sulfate scale (~3.8 g/L) forms at
a 90%:10% ratio of seawater to formation water. But when
persaturated and/or undersaturated  RT
is thesolution — of the
r reaction,i ΔGr. The overall rate law becomes:
chemical kinetics is considered, the amount of calcium sul- R   kaH  ( fGr ) (1)
s r  E
( fGra)(  G1r  ) a(1)
 1
fate scale that is formed is significantly different at different i 2
R
R   ka
k exp i
( fGr ) (2) (2)
reaction times, Fig. 1. In addition, the greatest amount of ss f (Gr ) R
H
  exp
T  298.15  1H  (4)
calcium sulfate scale predicted to form on the first day oc-   RT   where
curs at a 70%:30% seawater:formation water ratio. After a r   Ea 1 1  i where
R where
 k exp  (  ) aisH a (function
fGr ) using (2)
year, the amount of scale predicted to form using the kinetic s r  R T EG a 1
298 .15  1 
 r (T  the
i
Rf ( G  1kexp ) a H  ( fGr ) (2)
s )energy,
 exp
approach is close to that predicted from the thermodynamic
activation Ea, toRcalculate 298 . 15
rate (3)

constant at the tem-
approach; however, this presumes a batch system without
  RT aGibbsC freeenergyC faction of  C 
mass transport. If fluid flow and transport is considered, it
perature of interest.
the reaction based tG on
We used
(Ci )  D i   q i  8-10  i 
x
 the Transition

x Theoryx(TST) :k  t k
State
may take a much longer time to reach equilibrium and formf (G )  1  exp   r  G    2(3) 
ff ((  RT  Gr r 1
G Gr)) 1exp
scale. Therefore, use of the thermodynamic approach may
exp    (3) (4) (3)
overestimate the scale formation problem.   RT RT   11
Saldidoes
et al.not
+(2009)
Another serious limitation of the old approach is that it
 
Ca
 G
2+ + HCO

2
3 =the
- CaCO 3 (calcite) + H fit
r 
Saldi et al. (2009) 11
finds that first-order dependence
does not fit
may give the wrong impression as to which scale(s) may formf (G ) 
r the
on  exp 
saturation   1used for dissolution
state 2 (4)does not fit with
RT   Gr  
at the production time scale because it does not consider the
(Gr ) 
the fsecond-order  exp 
dependence 1
 observed (4)
for precipitation. (5)
 2++ C 
DRT Ci  Ci 
Ca
(Ci )  SOi 42-=q CaSO 
4 (anhydrite)
  (7)
t x  x  x k  t  k
(5)
  C C C
r
R   ka
Furthermore, thei nonlinear
H
( fGr ) (1)
s
rate law, Eqn. 4, is based on
the Burton-Cabrera-Frank
(BCF) theory for crystal
 E 1
growth12r, which describes 1 
R k exp  a (  ) a Hi  ( fGr ) (2)
s
the experimental  ofR T 298.15 
data
magnesite precipitation with
great success. The BCF-type
rate law has also success-
 G  r
f (simulated
fully G)  1 secondary
exp  r  (3)  R   kaHi  ( fGr ) (1)
s
mineralization in feldspar RT  Fig. 3. Simplified conceptual model for a water injection well in the Middle Jurassic carbonate reservoir.
hydrolysis experiments13.
2 predecessor of the current TOUGHREACT is the multiphase
  Gr   fluid andr heat flow code   Ea 1 TOUGH2. 1 TOUGHREACT

f (Gr )   exp    1 (4) (4) R k exp  called (  ) a Hi  ( fGr )
  RT   was builts upon  R T 298.15 chemical specia-
TOUGH2, adding a general
The results of scale formation in a batch system when tion and reaction progress package based on EQ3NR3, 14, 15. In
using the kinetic approach for modeling are quite different this program, an integral finite difference approach is used to
from those using the thermodynamic approach. obtain
(5) space discretization; flow, transport and geochemical
 Gr  using a sequential iteration
   C  C  C  f (G) 
reactions are 1  exp 
solved separately  (3)
t
2DRTM
(Ci )  D i   q i    i 
x x x  t
k
approach 3
.
k  RT 
RTM is a tool that applies kinetic theory to understand the Governing Equations 2
  Gr  
dynamics
Ca2+ +ofHCO physical
3 =and
- chemical
CaCO processes
3 (calcite) + in
H+the sub- f (Gr ) 
(6)  exp    1 (4)
surface. It rigorously couples fluid flow and geochemical  RT  equation
The governing mathematical  employed in
reactions to predict the spatial and temporal distributions of TOUGHREACT to describe geochemical processes involving
fluid fluid-rock interactions can be written as3, 16:
Caand
2+ + rock
SOproperties. The change in concentration(7)
4 = CaSO4 (anhydrite)
2- over
time is a product of the sum of all transport processes —
   C  C  C 
advection, dispersion and diffusion — and the geochemical (Ci )  D i   q i     i 
reactions. The complexity of the coupling between trans- t x  x  x k  t  k (5)
port and reaction terms, together with complex boundary
conditions, requires a numerical solution. With the increase where Ci is the concentration of a specific species in the pore
in computational power, RTMs have been developed that CaD
fluid; +the
2+ is HCO 3 = CaCO
-
diffusion (calcite)
term; q3 is the linear+fluid
H+ flow rate;
enable the simulation of complex geological systems over and ϕ is the porosity. The first two terms on the right-hand
extended time scales. side describe the transport process — diffusion and advec-
The simulations of seawater injection into a carbonate tion
Ca—2+while
+ SOthe
4 last term describes
2- = CaSO the effect of geochemi-
4 (anhydrite) (7)
reservoir, the selected parametric study, were conducted with cal reactions.
the computer code TOUGHREACT, a numerical simulation
program for chemically reactive, non-isothermal, density de- Geological Data
pendent flows of multiphase fluids in porous and fractured
media4. This was facilitated by an interactive graphical inter- As noted, for this initial tryout of the kinetic approach, we
face pre-processor and post-processor (PetraSim v2015). The considered a parametric study of seawater injection into a
carbonate reservoir in Saudi Arabia. A 19.3 m section with
good reservoir quality was selected for the model construc-
tion. Table 2 shows the simplified porosity, permeability and
lithology data for this section. Within this section, there is
a 0.3 m grainstone unit that has unusual high permeability
(overUse
Saudi Aramco: Company General one Darcy), which is typical of a super-K interval.
Grid Design and Hydrogeologic Parameters
Fig.
Fig.4.4.A A
cross-section view of
cross-section the lithofacies
view distributiondistribution
of the lithofacies in the model forina the
water injection
model forwell in the
Middle Jurassic carbonate reservoir. This is a simplified representation of reservoir heterogeneity (Yellow
A 2D radially symmetric grid model was set up. The vertical
=a Grainstone,
water injection
Orangewell in the Packstone,
= Mud-Lean Middle Jurassic carbonate
Blue = Packstone, reservoir.
Purple This is Gray
= Wackestone, a =
assignment of cells reflects the rock properties in Table 2. In
Mudstone
simplified and Green = “super-K”).
representation of reservoir heterogeneity (Yellow = Grainstone,
Orange = Mud-Lean Packestone, pH Blue = Packestone, Purple = Wackestone, horizontal directions, 10 radial blocks with logarithmically
Gray = Mudstone and
6.08
Green
6.30 = “super-K”).
6.52 6.74 6.96 Perm (md)
0
Perm (md)
1000
increasing radii represent the first 100 m distance from the
0 1000
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
-4.3
-9.3
-
= Grainstone, Orange = Mud-Lean Packstone, Blue = Packstone, Purple = Wackestone, Gray =
Mudstone and Green = “super-K”).
pH Ca (M)
Ca (M)
6.08 6.30 6.52 6.74 6.96 Perm
Perm(md)
(md)
0.018 0.44 0.862 1.28 1.71 Perm
Perm(md)
(md)
0 1000 0.018 0.44 0.862 1.28 1.71 Perm
Perm(md)
(md)
0 1000 000 1000
1000
0 1000
1000
(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (a)
(a) (b)
(b)
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
-4.3 -4.3
-4.3
-9.3 -9.3
-9.3
-14.3 -14.3
-14.3
(m)
(m)
Depth(m)
(m)
(m)
Perm (md)
(m)
Perm (md)
Depth
-19.3 0 1000
-19.3 0 Perm1000
(md)
Depth
Depth
Depth
-19.3 0 1000
Depth
(c)
(c) (d)
(d) (c)
(c) (d)
(d)
-4.3 -4.3
(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
-4.3
-9.3 -9.3
-9.3
-14.3 -14.3
-14.3
-19.3 -19.3
0 300 600 900 0 300 600 900 -19.30 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Distance (m)
Distance (m) Distance (m)
Distance (m)
Distance (m)
Distance (m)
Fig.5.5.Temporal
Fig. Temporal and
and spatial
spatial evolution
evolution of pHofatpH
(a)at (a) 1 (b)
1 year, year, (b) 5 years,
5 years, Fig. 6.
(c) 10 and (d) 20 years.
(c) 10 years, Fig. 6.The
Temporaland
Temporal andspatial
spatialevolution
evolutionofofCa
Caconcentrations
concentrations(Molal)
(Molal)at at
(a)(a) 1 year,
1 year, (b)(b)
5 years, (c) 10 years,
initial Fig. 6. Temporal and spatial evolution of Ca concentrations (Molal) at (a) 1 year, (b) 5 years, (c) 10 years,
years,reservoir
and (d)permeability
20 years. Theas ainitial
function of depth
reservoir is shown onas
permeability the
a right for comparison.
function of depth is The vertical
and (d) 20
5 years, (c)years. The and
10 years, initial
(d)reservoir permeability
20 years. The initial as a function
reservoir of depth is
permeability asshown on the right for
a function
exaggeration is 30x. and (d) 20 years. The initial reservoir permeability as a function of depth is shown on the right for
shown on the right for comparison. The vertical exaggeration is 30x. comparison. The vertical
of depth is shown on theexaggeration is 20x.
right for comparison. The vertical exaggeration is 20x.
comparison. The vertical exaggeration is 20x.
HCO3 (M)
HCO3 (M)
1.57e-4 5.63e-4 9.69e-4 1.37e-3 1.78e-3 Perm
Perm(md)
(md)
Perm
Perm(md)
well; another 49 radial blocks (100 m length each) represent 1.57e-4 5.63e-4 9.69e-4 1.37e-3 1.78e-3 000
0
(md)
1000
1000
1000
1000
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
the 100 m to 5,000 m distance from the well, Fig. 3. The grid -4.3
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
-4.3
system comprises 1,180 active cells. A denser gridding assign-
-9.3
-9.3
ment near the injection well allows
Saudi for the
Aramco: Company evaluation
General Use of well
-14.3
performance during injection. Figure 4 shows a cross-section Depth (m)
(m)
(m)
(m) -14.3
Perm (md)
-19.3 0 Perm1000
(md)
view of the lithofacies distribution in the model.

Depth
Depth
-19.3 0 1000
Depth
(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
The flow domain is initially specified as having 100% cal- -4.3 (c)
(c) (d)
(d)
-4.3
cium carbonate mineralogy. A constant pressure of 200 bars -9.3
-9.3
(or 20 MPa) and a temperature of 75 °C are assigned to the -14.3
-14.3
formation. The seawater injection is set at a constant rate of
-19.3
3 kg/s, which is equivalent to 1,630 barrels per day, for 20 -19.30
0
200
200
400
400
600 0
600 0
200
200
400
400
600
600
Distance
Distance (m)
years. The current injection rate used in our model is only for Distance
Distance (m)
demonstration purposes. A larger value for the injection rate Fig.

Fig.7.7.Temporal
Temporalandandspatial evolution
spatial evolutionof HCO 3 concentrations
of HCO (Molal)
concentrations
Fig. 7. Temporal and spatial evolution of HCO3 concentrations
3
at (a) 1atyear,
(Molal) (a) 1(b) 5 years, (c) 10
(Molal) at (a) 1 year, (b) 5 years, (c) 10
years, and5(d)
year, (b) 20 years.
years, (c) 10The initial
years, andreservoir permeability
(d) 20 years. as a function
The initial reservoirof depth is shown on the right for
is possible, but has the penalty of lengthy computational time. years, and (d) 20 years. The initial reservoir permeability as a function ofpermeability
depth is shown on the right for
comparison.
as a functionTheof vertical
depth isexaggeration
shown on the is 20x.
right for comparison. The vertical
In the current modeling, a no-gradient boundary condi- exaggeration is 20x.
tion is utilized at the last column of vertical grid blocks to SO4 (M)
the left boundary. This no-gradient boundary is implemented 6.83e-3 2.17e-2 Saudi 3.66e-2
Aramco: Company
5.15e-2 General Use
6.64e-2
Perm
Perm(md)
(md)
00 1000
1000
by assigning a very large (infinite) volume to the boundary (a)

(a) (b)
(b)
-4.3
grid block3. Consequently, any influence from influx becomes
-9.3
negligible compared to the large volume of the formation
brine. The aqueous chemical composition of the boundary -14.3
(m)
Depth (m)
element, as well as its thermodynamic conditions, such as

Perm (md)
Depth
-19.3 0 1000
temperature and pressure, is therefore kept essentially un- (c)

(c) (d)
(d)
-4.3
changed from the original formation brine3.
-9.3
-14.3
Chemical Parameters
-19.3
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Distance
Distance (m)
(m)
The geochemical calculations include 11 primary aqueous
species (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, H+, Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-, H2O, Sr2+ Fig.
Fig. 8.
8. Temporal andspatial
Temporal and spatialevolution
evolutionofofSOSO concentrations
4 concentrations
4
(Molal)
(Molal) at 1(a)
at (a) 1 year,
year, (b) 5 years, (c) 10
and Br-) and three solid phases (calcium carbonate, dolomite years,
(b) and (d)
5 years, (c)20
10years.
years,The
andinitial
(d) 20reservoir permeability
years. The as a function
initial reservoir of depthas
permeability is ashown on the right for
comparison.
function The vertical
of depth is shownexaggeration
on the rightis for
20x.comparison. The vertical exaggeration
and calcium sulfate). Br- is a conservative species used to is 20x.
Anhydrite (%)
trace the injectate migration. The concentration of aqueous 0 2.9 5.8 8.7 11.6 Perm
Perm
00
(md)
(md)
1000
1000
components of Arabian Gulf seawater — injection water used for their precipitation.(a)
A rate law from Arvidson
(a) (b) and
(b)
-4.3
— and the Middle Jurassic carbonate formation water were Mackenzie (1999) is used for dolomite precipitation, be-
5
-9.3
previously shown in Table 1. cause it is derived directly from the relevant experiments.
-14.3
A TST-type rate law is used for the calcium carbonate The kinetic parameters employed here are taken directly
(m)
Depth(m)
Perm (md)
-19.3 0 1000
and calcium sulfate dissolution, but a BCF-type rate law is from Palandri and Kharaka(c)(2004)17, except for dolomite.
Depth
(c) (d)
(d)
-4.3
14 WINTER 2016 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY -9.3
-14.3
Fig. 8. Temporal and spatial evolution of SO4 concentrations (Molal) at (a) 1 year, (b) 5 years, (c) 10
years, and (d) 20 years. The initial reservoir permeability as a function of depth is shown on the right for
Anhydrite (%)
0 2.9 5.8 8.7 11.6 Perm

Perm(md)
(md) profiles to that of pH, Figs. 6 to 8. The concentration dis-
00 1000
1000
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
tributions of these solutes also show a seawater-dominated
-4.3
zone, a transition zone and a formation water dominated
-9.3
zone. The width of the transition zone is significantly greater
-14.3 at the preferential conduits at the top and the bottom of the
(m)
Depth(m)
Perm (md)
-19.3 0 1000
reservoir.
Depth
(c)
(c) (d)
(d)
-4.3 The formation water and the injection water contribute to
-9.3 a high Ca2+ and SO42-, respectively. When these two waters
-14.3
mix, a remarkable amount of calcium sulfate scale, up to
-19.3
11.6% at 20 years, occurs, Fig. 9. The solute mixing zones
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
Distance
Distance (m)(m)
where the maximum amount of calcium sulfate scale forms is
not at the place where the highest Ca2+ concentration occurs,
Fig. 9. Temporal
Fig. 9. Temporaland andspatial
spatialevolution
evolution of of calcium
calcium sulfate
sulfate (anhydrite)
(anhydrite) abundance
abundance (%) at (a) 1 year, (b) 5
years,
nor where peak SO42- is found, but where the highest activity
(%) at (c)
(a)10 years,(b)
1 year, and (d) 20 years.
5 years, (c) 10 The
years,initial
andreservoir permeability
(d) 20 years. as areservoir
The initial function of depth is shown on
the right for comparison. The vertical exaggeration is 10x.
permeability as a function of depth is shown on the right for comparison. The product of a(Ca+2) and a(SO42-) occurs, if we apply the mass
vertical exaggeration is 10x. action law to Eqn. 7:
The reactive specific surface area in natural geologic me-

Ca2+ + SO42- = CaSO4 (7)
dia, especially for multi-mineral systems, is not quantitatively
understood at present. Following Lu and Cantrell (2016)18,
With the high Ca2+ from the formation water and the high
the reactive surface areas of packestone, wackestone and
HCO3- from the injection water, calcium carbonate scale is
mudstone are assumed to be proportional to the average
expected. Severe calcium carbonate scale (up to 18%) forms
percentage of fines, which are 3,570 cm2/g, 7,470 cm2/g
near the injection wellbore — within the ~10 m radial dis-
and 9,570 cm2/g, respectively, and those areas for mud-lean
tance to the wellbore — at 20 years, Fig. 10.
packestone and grainstone are assumed to be 500 cm2/g and
The rate of dolomite precipitation is quite slow, and only
100 cm2/g, respectively. The range of reactive surface area
a trace amount of dolomite — up to 5.6e-3% — has formed
(100 cm2/g to 10,000 cm2/g) is comparable to that in previ-
at 20 years (data not shown). Therefore, dolomite scale
ous RTM studies for carbonate reservoirs19, 20.
would not have significant effects on the injectivity and pro-
ductivity values.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
There is significant porosity loss at 20 years near the in-
jection wellbore and in the formation due to the formation
Figure 5 illustrates the time-series pH profile evolution, show-
of calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate scales, respectively,
ing the migration of the injectate and the mixing effects of the
Fig. 11. Matrix permeability changes are calculated as a
two waters. Due to the reservoir heterogeneity, the migration
of the pH front is highly dependent on the permeability at a function of changes in porosity following a simple cubic law
given location — see the initial permeability distribution as a relationship (data not shown). This may raise concerns about
function of depth on the right. Consistent with the permeabil- lower reservoir quality and injectivity deterioration. Calcium
Calcite (%)
ity distribution, the pH front profile shows two preferential Perm (md)
0 4.5 9.0 13.5 18 Perm (md)
paths. The first is at a depth of -17 m to -19.3 m, with the 0

0 1000
1000
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
permeable grainstone facies and the super-K interval, while
-4.3
the second is at a depth of 0 m to -3 m, with the relatively
-9.3
permeable mud-lean packestone facies. The pH front migrates
up to 431 m at 1 year, 562 m at 10 years and 885 m at 20 -14.3
(m)
Depth (m)
years. At 20 years, the left ~9 m near the injection well has -19.3
Perm (md)
Depth
0 1000
a high pH (~7), which is influenced mainly by the injection (c)

(c) (d)
(d)
seawater. Calcium carbonate precipitation releases H+, Eqn. 6, -4.3
which reduces the pH. This explains why the highest pH (~7), -9.3
occurring near the injection well, is lower than that of sea-
-14.3
water (8). Due to the mixing effects, a transition zone occurs
between the high pH area near the wellbore and low pH (6.6) -19.3
0 10 20 0 10 20
area dominated by the formation water. Distance(m)
Distance (m)
Fig. 10. Temporal and spatial evolution of calcite abundance (%) at (a) 1 year,
Fig.
Ca2+ + HCO3- = CaCO3 + H+ (6) (b) 5 years, (c) 10 years, and (d) 20 years. The initial reservoir permeability as a
comparison.
function of The
depthvertical exaggeration
is shown is 10x.
on the right for comparison. The vertical exaggeration
Porosity (%)
is 10x.
Ca2+, HCO3- and SO42- exhibit similar time-dependent 0 4.5 9 13.5 18 Perm
Perm(md)
(md)
00 1000
1000
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
-4.3 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 2016 15
-9.3
Fig. 10. Temporal and spatial evolution of calcite abundance (%) at (a) 1 year, (b) 5 years, (c) 10 years,
and (d) 20 years. The initial reservoir permeability as a function of depth is shown on the right for
Porosity (%)
0 4.5 9 13.5 18 Perm

Perm(md)
(md) ulated that using the ion complexation model in this study
00 1000
1000
(a) (b)
may incorrectly predict a delay in the formation of the scales
(a) (b)
-4.3
as well as underestimate their areas of impact.
-9.3
-14.3 CONCLUSIONS
(m)
Depth(m)
Perm (md)
-19.3 0 1000
Depth
(c)
(c) (d)
(d) We introduced a kinetic approach for predicting scale forma-
-4.3
tion during production. The kinetic method overcomes the
-9.3
limitations in the thermodynamic approach, which provides
-14.3
no information on how fast scales precipitate and ignores the
-19.3
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300 intermediate processes and products that are important to
Distance
Distance (m)(m)
the waterflooding. The kinetic approach is a powerful tool
Fig. 11. Temporal and spatial evolution of porosity loss (%) at (a) 1 year, (b)
Fig. 11. Temporal and spatial evolution of porosity loss (%) at (a) 1 year, (b) 5 years, (c) 10 toyears,
predict the time-dependent spatial distribution of scales
and (d)
520years,
years. (c)The
10 initial
years,reservoir
and (d) 20permeability
years. Theas a function
initial of depth
reservoir is shownason
permeability a the right for near
comparison.
the wellbore and in the formation, as well as to show
The vertical
function exaggeration
of depth is shownison 10x.
the right for comparison. The vertical exaggeration
is 10x.
the associated reservoir quality deterioration. In addition, it
facilitates the optimal design of both pre-scale treatment and
carbonate scales form mainly near the injection well. They post-scale remediation.
may be pushed away from the well by employing mechanical Using a parametric study of waterflooding in a carbonate
force — agitation, hydrodynamic strategies, high pressure, reservoir in Saudi Arabia, we evaluated the impact of scale
etc. Once released, the particles are either redeposited on the formation potential on the reservoir and well properties,
matrix, transported with flow, or entrapped at pore constric- taking into account the reservoir heterogeneities, during
tions, clogging pore throats . In addition, because calcium
21 waterflooding operations. The results indicate that reservoir
sulfate mainly precipitates at the high permeability, preferen- heterogeneity has a significant impact on the preferential
tial conduits, the deposition of calcium sulfate and calcium flow paths and so on the temporal and spatial distribution
carbonate scales will reduce the permeability of the preferen- of scales, which highlights the importance of reservoir char-
tial conduits and slow down the flow. This sets up a negative acterization and prediction of changes in its quality. The
precipitation of scale may dynamically change the reservoir
feedback loop between the initial exploitation of preferential
quality and flow behavior, and thereby affect the production
flow paths and subsequent deterioration in rock properties
efficiency.
in these paths. If there were no calcium sulfate and calcium
In the future, a multidisciplinary team with experts from
carbonate scales, the injection water would be transported
engineering (reservoir, production and process engineers),
much faster through the super-K zone and get into the
from reservoir description and simulation groups, and from
production wells. It can be argued, therefore, that the flow
the geosciences (geology, geophysics, hydrogeology and geo-
retardation in the preferential conduits, which changes the
chemistry) should be formed to diagnose the scale problems
flow behavior from focused flow toward uniform flow, may
during waterflooding in a reservoir and plan a cost-effective
increase the sweep efficiency.
scale management strategy. An integrated approach, includ-
ing reservoir characterization and the prediction of changes
MODEL LIMITATIONS
in its quality, e.g., sequence stratigraphy, facies, lithology
and rock physics, as well as kinetic RTM and reservoir simu-
The models in this study used the B-dot equation22 to cal- lation, should be used for the next-generation scale modeling
culate ion activity coefficients instead of using the Pitzer to provide optimal strategies for reservoir management.
ion interaction model23, 24, although a special version of
TOUGHREACT-Pitzer is available. Errors crop up when us- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ing the B-dot equation, with is an ion complexation model,
on the high ionic strength calculations. We conducted a The authors would like to thank the management of Saudi
speciation solubility calculation comparing the two methods Aramco for their support and permission to publish this
for calculating concentrations in the formation and injection article. We also would like to thank Dr. Shaun Hayton and
waters using code Phreeqc V2.025 with llnl.dat and Pitzer.dat Dr. Peter Birkle for their internal review, which significantly
databases for the B-dot and Pitzer methods, respectively. The improved the quality and clarity of the manuscript.
results indicate that using the B-dot method overestimated This article was presented at the SPE Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
the concentrations of ion pairs, such as CaCl+, CaSO4o and Annual Technical Symposium and Exhibition, Dammam, Saudi
NaSO4-, and underestimated the activity of Ca2+, SO42-, etc., Arabia, April 25-28, 2016.
which in turn underestimated the supersaturation states of
calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate. We therefore spec-

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BIOGRAPHIES Dr. Tao Chen is a Petroleum
Engineering Specialist working with
Dr. Peng Lu is a Geologist in Saudi the Production Technology Team of
Aramco’s Exploration and Petroleum Saudi Aramco’s Exploration and
Engineering Center – Advanced Petroleum Engineering Center –
Research Center (EXPEC ARC). He is Advanced Research Center (EXPEC
currently conducting research related ARC). His interests are production
to carbonate and clastic diagenesis, chemistry and flow assurance in the oil and gas industry,
reservoir quality prediction, and specializing in oil field scale management.
reactive transport modeling. Prior to joining Saudi Aramco in 2014, Tao spent
Before joining Saudi Aramco in 2012, Peng worked as more than 10 years on oil field scale management in the
a Geochemist in Calera Corporation for 2 years, where Eastern Hemisphere and worked with Clariant, Champion
his work was focused on the experimental and numerical Technologies, Nalco Champion and LR Senergy in
modeling of carbon dioxide reduction through conversion Aberdeen, U.K.
to mineral products. He has published nearly 60 technical publications about
He has authored and coauthored more than 30 refereed scale management in oil fields.
journal articles and several other technical papers, and is a Tao received both his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Chemical
recipient of two U.S. granted patents. Engineering from Dalian University of Technology, China,
Peng is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers and his Ph.D. degree in Chemical Engineering from
(SPE), American Association of Petroleum Geologists Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, U.K. Tao also received
(AAPG), Geological Society of America (GSA), Geochemical an MBA from Warwick University, Coventry, U.K.
Society, and American Geophysical Union (AGU).
He received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Geology from Dr. Fakuen “Frank” F. Chang is the
Nanjing University, Nanjing, China, and his Ph.D. degree focus area champion for Productivity
in Geochemistry from Indiana University, Bloomington, Enhancement in the Production
Indiana, in 2010. Technology Team of Saudi Aramco’s
Exploration and Petroleum
Dr. Qiwei Wang works in Saudi Engineering Center – Advanced
Aramco’s Research & Development Research Center (EXPEC ARC).
Center as a Science Specialist in oil Prior to joining Saudi Aramco in September 2012, he
field scale mitigation. Since joining worked at Schlumberger for 16 years. Before that, Frank
Saudi Aramco in 2011, he has played was at Stimlab for 4 years. He has developed many
a key role in all major scale mitigation products and technologies dealing with sand control,
activities and led the completion of fracturing, acidizing and perforating.
over 40 projects. Before joining Saudi Aramco, Qiwei Frank is an inventor and recipient of 23 granted U.S.
worked for Nalco Champion as a R&D Coordinator on patents, and he is the author of more than 40 Society of
flow management and as a Senior Specialist on scale Petroleum Engineers (SPE) technical papers.
management. He has over 25 years of R&D and technical Frank received his B.S. degree in Mineral and Petroleum
support experience in oil field production chemistry, scale Engineering from the National Cheng Kung University,
management and water treatment. Tainan City, Taiwan; his M.S. degree in Petroleum
Qiwei is an active member of the Society of Petroleum Engineering from the University of Louisiana at Lafayette,
Engineers (SPE) and National Association of Corrosion Lafayette, LA; and his Ph.D. degree in Petroleum
Engineers (NACE). He has organized workshops, served on Engineering from the University of Oklahoma, Norman,
technical committees and chaired several conferences for OK.
both organizations.
He has authored and coauthored over 80 publications
and nine U.S. patent applications.
Qiwei received his B.Eng. degree in Chemical
Engineering from Taiyuan University of Science and
Technology, Taiyuan, China; an M.Eng. degree in Material
Sciences from Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin,
China; an M.S. degree in Chemistry from the University
of Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan; and a Ph.D. degree in
Oceanography from Texas A&M University, College
Station, TX.

Pushing the Envelope of Residual Oil
Measurement: A Field Case Study of a
New Class of Interwell Chemical Tracers
Modiu L. Sanni, Dr. Mohammed A. Al-Abbad, Dr. Sunil L. Kokal, Dr. Øyvind Dugstad, Sven K. Hartvig and Dr. Olaf Huseby
ABSTRACT has led to a better reservoir description and an improved

dynamic simulation model.
The success of any improved oil recovery (IOR) project is
largely dependent on how much oil is remaining to be mo- INTRODUCTION
bilized within the targeted area of the partially depleted or
mature reservoir. Partitioning tracers are generally used to Tracer technology is a generic tool used to investigate mass
measure residual oil saturation (Sor) or remaining oil sat- transport, and it has a large variety of applications. In sub-
uration (ROS) in the near wellbore region via a single well surface reservoir studies, tracers are frequently used to track
chemical tracer test (SWCTT) and in the interwell region fluid phase movement from an injector to offset producers:
via a partitioning interwell tracer test (PITT). Only a lim- so-called interwell tracer tests1. Near wellbore tracer studies
ited repertoire of nonradioactive (and so environmentally are also frequently performed to monitor stimulation oper-
friendly) interwell partitioning tracers is available for mea- ations — fracking, acid stimulation, etc. — and to measure
suring ROS. To expand that repertoire, a new class of envi- residual oil saturation (Sor) or remaining oil saturation
ronmentally friendly interwell partitioning tracers was field (ROS) in the near wellbore region, both via a single well
tested in a giant carbonate reservoir undergoing peripheral chemical tracer test (SWCTT). In the past, tracers used in
waterflood to determine their effectiveness in measuring ROS the petroleum industry were often radioactive2, 3, but with
in the interwell regions of a depleted area. the development of chemical tracer technology in the last
The new partitioning tracers were first qualified via lab- two decades, chemical tracers have now replaced radioactive
oratory experiments and deemed to be very stable at res- tracers. Typical chemical tracers are fluorinated benzoic ac-
ervoir conditions (213 °F and a salinity range of 60 kppm ids for water4 or perfluorocarbons for gas5, 6.
to 200 kppm). The field pilot was conducted concurrently In general, tracers should behave as close as possible to the
with a set of non-partitioning interwell chemical tracer tests way the phase they are designed to trace behaves. This is of-
(IWCTTs) being run to determine reservoir connectivity, ten impossible for gas tracers, which always partition between
water breakthrough times and paired injector-to-producer the oleic and gaseous phases according to the pressure-vol-
communication in an area selected for a possible IOR and/or ume-temperature properties of the specific tracer applied5. For
enhanced oil recovery (EOR) field pilot. An elaborate sam- water tracers, a number of chemical tracers have been identi-
pling and analysis program was carried out over a period of fied that behave very close to the ideal, in the sense that they
30 months. follow the aqueous phase, are chemically and biologically sta-
This article reviews the complete design and implemen- ble under reservoir conditions, and do not exhibit sorption on
tation of the test of the new interwell partitioning tracers, rock surfaces. An additional constraint for petroleum reservoir
the operational issues encountered, the analyses conducted, tracers is that they must be detectable in a complex oil-water
and the interpretation of the results. The breakthrough times matrix at very small quantities. Today, using appropriate tracers
of the passive and partitioning tracers are reported, and the and modern lab instrumentation and techniques7, 8, quantities as
interwell connectivity between the paired and cross-paired low as 50 parts per trillion (50 × 10-12 kg/l) can be quantified,
injectors and producers is analyzed. The ROS measured by where previous methods could only detect chemical tracers in
a majority of the novel tracers is shown to be comparable to the parts-per-billion (10-9 kg/l) range. In practice, this means
the saturations obtained from the SWCTT, core sample anal- that injected amounts can now be reduced by a factor of up to
yses and log derived data. 100 without compromising the reliability of a tracer study.
The combination of a conventional IWCTT and a PITT The fractional flow of oil and water is obviously import-
using the novel partitioning tracers has been very useful in ant for understanding and optimizing production from oil
analyzing well interconnectivity and understanding the res- reservoirs in general — and it is of particular importance
ervoir dynamics and ROS distribution in the reservoir. This when enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methodologies are ap-

plied. The use of tracers to quantify the relative movement not adsorb to rock surfaces, must be unique in the reservoir
of oil and water — and in particular to quantify the ROS or and must have excellent analytical sensitivity. A new class
Sor — was proposed decades ago by Cooke (1971)9. Until of partitioning tracers suitable for oil reservoirs is described
recently, however, applications of Cooke’s idea have been in Viig et al. (2013)13, which also reports how the applica-
rare in the oil industry with a few notable exceptions . The 10
bility of these tracers for use in PITTs was demonstrated in
use of partitioning interwell tracer tests (PITTs) in certain the Lagrave field, an onshore carbonate reservoir located in
applications, such as to assess and remediate non-aqueous France. The same applicability was demonstrated later, as
phase liquid (NAPL) contaminations in aquifers , has been 11
reported by Hartvig et al. (2015)14, in the Bockstedt field in
relatively frequent. A likely reason for the limited use of Germany.
PITTs in oil reservoirs is the lack of suitable chemical trac- This article reports on the application of the new PITT
ers, ones that can survive the harsh chemical, biological and tracers to assess oil saturation in a Jurassic age carbonate
temperature conditions in oil reservoirs. Identifying stable reservoir. The results from the new water tracer candidates
and reliable partitioning tracers for oil field applications has were compared with results from the ordinary water tracers
been challenging. Dugstad et al. (2013)12 amply demonstrates used in a PITT7; an ordinary (non-partitioning) water tracer
that alcohols, suitable for NAPL studies, degrade in oil resis always co-injected with partitioning tracers in PITT op-
ervoirs and should be avoided there. In addition to chemical, erations. In the field pilot a set of non-partitioning interwell
biological and temperature stability, suitable tracers must chemical tracer tests (IWCTTs) was also being run, where
Fig. 1. Main principle of a PITT (Fig. 1a) and a SWCTT (Fig. 1b), as well as a comparison of typical test zones for PITTs and SWCTTs (Fig. 1c).

𝜕𝜕 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
(∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝜑𝜑 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 ) + ∇ ⋅ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝒗𝒗𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 ) − ∇ ∙ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝜑𝜑𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝑫𝑫∗𝑖𝑖
a newly qualified non-partitioning water tracer, WT-5, was nant oil, it can be shown14 that the oil saturation is given9 as:
injected concurrently with a pilot non-partitioning water
tracer, WT-60. The pilot test of the new non-partitioning 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 −𝑇𝑇𝑊𝑊
So = (2)
water tracer candidate means that for this PITT we have two 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 +𝑇𝑇𝑊𝑊 (𝐾𝐾−1) (2)
non-partitioning water tracers that can be compared to the
three novel partitioning tracers used to assess saturation. where TR and TW are retention times for the partitioning and
To confirm the ability of new PITT tracers to accurately 𝐸𝐸(𝑡𝑡)tracers,
passive = 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)
respectively, and K = C0/CW is (3)
∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 the oil-water
estimate saturation, it is necessary to compare the PITT partition coefficient of the partitioning tracer.
saturation estimates to other independent measurements. In
the Lagrave case reported by Viig et al. (2013)13, saturation PROJECT BACKGROUND
𝐸𝐸 (𝑡𝑡) = AND OBJECTIVES(4)
𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡) ∙ 𝑄𝑄 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀
𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗
estimates from the PITT were compared and shown to be
in good agreement with Sor estimates obtained from core The field pilot testing of this new class of PITT tracers was
samples, thereby proving that the PITT tracers provided a done concurrently
∞ with a planned passive IWCTT in a de-
reliable estimate of oil saturation. In the case presented here, ∑𝑗𝑗 area
pleted ∫−∞ of 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗a(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
Jurassic = age1 carbonate reservoir. (5) The tracers
PITT saturation estimates were compared to those obtained were deployed as part of a comprehensive monitoring and
in a SWCTT, again with favorable results. Results from this surveillance (M&S) plan to assess a pilot improved oil re-
covery ∞project. This reservoir has ∞
SWCTT are reported in an accompanying paper15. 𝑚𝑚0 (IOR)
= ∫−∞ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 , 𝑚𝑚1 = ∫−∞been 𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐸𝐸undergoing
𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 and 𝑚𝑚2 = ∫
Although comparisons with SWCTT results or the satura- peripheral water injection for several decades. The area of
tion obtained from coreflood analyses are indeed useful, and interest is in a downdip flank of the reservoir, proximal to
required as an independent verification of our PITT meth- the original peripheral injectors. As part of the IOR strat-
1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕
odology and the new PITT tracers, it should be noted that egy,𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑚𝑚 ∫wells,
new injector 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
Wells I-1and to I-4,Φ(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑚𝑚 ∫
and producer 𝜏𝜏 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
wells,
0,𝑗𝑗 0 1,𝑗𝑗 0
the PITT is an interwell test. PITTs are capable of assessing Wells P-1 to P-4, were drilled, Fig. 2, to test the impact of
oil saturation in the interwell region, whereas both core in-fill drilling and waterflooding on recovery. The producers
samples and the SWCTT only estimate saturation in the near were put into production 𝜕𝜕 for a number of months to assess
wellbore region, Fig. 1. The PITT can therefore be expected 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤,𝑗𝑗
their (𝑡𝑡) = ∫0 before
performance 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)(1 − 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤 (𝜏𝜏))𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 of any in-fill
the commencement (8)
to provide a better representation of oil saturations on a water injection. The in-fill injectors were later switched on
field-wide scale. It is important to emphasize that a PITT to see the impact of the new downdip injectors on oil pro-
duction. The IWCTT and PITT (𝜕𝜕−𝜕𝜕jobs 2
result represents the average saturation in an interwell region 𝑀𝑀0 0 ) were conducted shortly
and may therefore differ from spot measurements obtained
𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) =
after the in-fill√𝐷𝐷
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
injection
[−
started.
] (9)
0 𝜕𝜕 𝐷𝐷0 𝜕𝜕
through sponge cores and SWCTTs. The success of any IOR/EOR process is largely dependent
(𝑇𝑇̅) on the extent of the oil desaturation that results within the
SATURATION
(𝑇𝑇̅) ESTIMATIONS FROM area of interest and on the early discovery 1−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 of potentially
PARTITIONING TRACER TESTS 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜 + 𝑀𝑀 𝑤𝑤 =
detrimental flow paths that may result
(1 + 𝐾𝐾 ) 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 use of
in inefficient
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
(10)
𝐹𝐹 − Φ
(𝑇𝑇̅) injected fluid. The main objectives of the IWCTT were to:
In
𝐹𝐹 − Φ the PITT, an ordinary non-partitioning water tracer and a (a) determine the connectivity or fluid pathways between the
partitioning tracer are𝐾𝐾injected 𝑞𝑞 simultaneously in an injection injector-producer 1 pairs; (b) measure the water breakthrough
𝑞𝑞
𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 /𝐶𝐶
𝑞𝑞
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = 2 ∫0 𝐹𝐹(Φ)𝑑𝑑Φ −1 (11)
̅
well
(𝑇𝑇) and then monitored 𝐹𝐹 − Φ at offset producers. The movement times, using the tracers, between the injectors and producers;
=̅𝐶𝐶)𝑖𝑖 tracers
𝑞𝑞 (𝑇𝑇 𝑞𝑞
𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 these
of /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 through the reservoir is governed by a gen- (c) assess the sweep
eral convection dispersion 𝑞𝑞 equation: efficiency; and (d) use
𝐶𝐶
𝑞𝑞 ̅ )𝑖𝑖 𝑞𝑞
𝐹𝐹 − Φ 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 (𝑇𝑇
= 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 the tracer data to refine P-4
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 𝐹𝐹 𝜕𝜕 − Φ
𝑞𝑞
𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 the static∗and dynamic 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
(∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝜑𝜑 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖𝑞𝑞𝐶𝐶 ) + ∇ ⋅ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝒗𝒗𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 ) − ∇ ∙ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝜑𝜑𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝑫𝑫𝑖𝑖 ⋅ ∇(𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 )) = 0 (1)
̅𝑞𝑞) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝐶𝐶 reservoir models. The
(𝑇𝑇 𝑞𝑞 𝐹𝐹 − Φ
𝑞𝑞 𝐾𝐾𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖
(1)main objective of the
𝑞𝑞 𝑖𝑖 𝑞𝑞
,𝑤𝑤 𝒗𝒗𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞) − 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖∇ = ∙ (∑ /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 𝜑𝜑𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝑫𝑫∗𝑖𝑖 ⋅ ∇(𝐾𝐾 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 )) = 0
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 P-3
𝑖𝑖 (1) PITT, conducted as part
𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 −𝑇𝑇𝑊𝑊𝐾𝐾𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 = 𝐶𝐶𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝐹𝐹 𝑞𝑞− S
𝐶𝐶 Φo = 𝑇𝑇 +𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶(𝐾𝐾−1) 𝑞𝑞 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 /𝐶𝐶 (2) of the IWCTT, was
𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅 𝑊𝑊
assuming 𝑞𝑞 that partitioning among the phases is an instan- to estimate the ROS
𝐾𝐾𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 =𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞
(2) taneous process. Partitioning 𝑞𝑞 is
𝑞𝑞 described
𝑞𝑞 by the coefficient in the interwell region P-2
𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞, where𝑞𝑞 𝐾𝐾 𝑞𝑞 𝑤𝑤 𝑞𝑞= 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 /𝐶𝐶 = 1
𝐾𝐾
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝑞𝑞 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑖𝑖 /𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶
𝐾𝐾 =𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 /𝐶𝐶 is the𝑞𝑞 concentration of q in phase i between the I-2 and P-2
and 𝐸𝐸(𝑡𝑡)
𝑞𝑞
𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤𝑞𝑞 =𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤𝑞𝑞is/𝐶𝐶
=
the 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)𝑜𝑜 ∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑜(𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀
𝑞𝑞 concentration
=1 in a reference phase.(3) For oil-wa- pair. This estimation
ter partitioning with water 𝜑𝜑 as the reference phase, this gives would form part of the
(3)𝐾𝐾 𝑞𝑞
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝑞𝑞 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 and 𝐾𝐾 𝑞𝑞 𝐶𝐶=𝑞𝑞 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 = 1. Furthermore, in Eqn. 1,
𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤 baseline data used to P-1
𝑜𝑜 𝑞𝑞 𝑜𝑜 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝜑𝜑 is 𝐸𝐸 𝐾𝐾𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡)
porosity;= 𝐶𝐶=𝑜𝑜 /𝐶𝐶
S𝐶𝐶 is (𝑡𝑡)
phase ∙ 𝑄𝑄 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀
saturation (S , S or S ); (4)
v is the ve- assess the efficacy of the
𝑗𝑗 i 𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗 0 g W i
locity of phase i; and 𝐷𝐷𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖∗ is the dispersion in phase i. By using IOR project. Fig. 2. Area of interest showing four new
𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
𝐶𝐶 =equation 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝜑𝜑 𝐾𝐾𝑜𝑜 = 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 Fig. 2.andArea ofproducers.
interest showing four
(4)∗ 𝐾𝐾 𝑞𝑞 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 = 1
𝐾𝐾
this 𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶 𝑤𝑤 /𝐶𝐶 =
and 1 solving for flow in a 1D system with stag- injectors four new
𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤
∞ 𝑤𝑤
22𝑞𝑞 ∑𝑗𝑗WINTER 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

∫−∞ 2016 =1
Φ(𝑡𝑡)
SAUDI
(5)
ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY
𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝐾𝐾𝑜𝑜 =
𝜑𝜑 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖∗ 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 = 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 /𝐶𝐶 = 1
Φ 𝑡𝑡
TRACER QUALIFICATIONS AND LAB WORK
Tracer qualification is one of the requisite steps in the devel-

opment of new tracers. The results from the lab qualification
of the tracers used in this field test are provided in Viig et al.
(2013)13. The qualification protocol is described in detail in
Sanni et al. (2015)7. The recommended protocol includes the
following:
• Thermal stability experiments.

• Determination of adsorption properties toward the
rock; i.e., both sandstone and carbonate.
• Core packed and/or sand packed flooding experiments
at simulated reservoir conditions.
• Biodegradation experiments.
• Establishment of sensitive chemical analysis protocols,
Fig. 3. Picture showing the vials used in the batch K-value experiment.
including sampling procedures. Fig. 3. Picture showing the vials used in the batch K-value
For PITT operations, it is imperative to determine the The injector-producer pair of I-2 and P-2 was chosen for the
partitioning coefficient (K-value) of each of the tracers to be PITT because of the possibility of corroborating the PITT
deployed. Since the K-value will differ with different oil-wa- Tracer K-value (Tracer Added to K-value (T
results with data that will be acquired via the observation
ter systems, it is important to determine these coefficients in Oil Phase) Water P
wells, Wells O-1 and O-2, as part of the elaborate M&S
the actual reservoir fluid (both oil and water). For the exper-
WTP-2 2.2 2.0
plan for the IOR pilot project. The tracer amounts were cal-
WTP-3 2.2 1.9
iments, a dead oil sample from the actual production well, culated
WTP-4using a volumetric method, 4.3 taking into account po- 3.6
Well P-2, was used. In addition, given the assumption that rosity, reservoir height and well spacing, as well as the tracer
the partitioning tracers will need to measure the ROS in the Table 1. Results
detection limits as from theinK-value
verified Sanni et experiments
al. (2015)7. The tracer
flooded zone, injection water of about 54,000 ppm salinity, injection operation was carried out at the onset of water
instead of the original connate water with its very high sa- injection. Two unique chemical water tracers, one qualified
linity of about 200,000 ppm, was used as the water phase in tracer and one pilot tracer, were injected into each injector
the experiments. well, using the best practices that were developed from previ-
The K-values of the tracers WTP-2, WTP-3 and WTP-4 ous IWCTT operations. The water tracers were mixed in the
were determined by conducting batch-type experiments. A same container to ease logistics, Table 2.
standard solution for the injection water and the oil phase, For the field injection, connection was made through a
each containing 100 ppm concentration of the individual trac- ½’’ female national pipe thread taper socket on a side valve
ers, was prepared. Then 5 ml of the oil standard was mixed to a manometer on the flow line about 10 m upstream from
with 5 ml of unspiked injection water and 5 ml of the water the wellhead. Such an injection point is generally well suited
standard was mixed with 5 ml of unspiked oil. Mixing was to this task, with its low dead volumes and its position on
done in 10 ml vials, ensuring a low headspace volume, Fig. 3. the top of the flow line. The tracers were added “on the fly”
The vials were then rigorously shaken before they were placed during normal operation of the water injection wells and were
in a heating cabinet at the reservoir temperature. At regular thereby diluted to low ppm concentration in the injection wa-
intervals, the vials were taken out, shaken, and immediately
ter immediately, so they had no potential to influence injected
placed back into the heating cabinet. On the third day, the
water chemistry, were compatible with surfaces, etc. After the
vials were shaken one last time. Then the two phases in the
injection, the pump and the high-pressure hose were flushed
vials were allowed to separate in the heating cabinet, after
which 1 ml of each phase was transferred into a headspace K-value K-value
vial for analysis. The tracer concentration in the phases was Tracer (Tracer Added (Tracer Added K-value
to Oil Phase) to Water Phase)
measured using a headspace technique in combination with
gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS). WTP-2 2.2 2.0 2.1 ± 0.2
The results from the K-value experiments are summarized WTP-3 2.2 1.9 2.1 ± 0.2
in Table 1. WTP-4 4.3 3.6 4.0 ± 0.4
Table 1. Results from the K-value experiments

FIELD DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

Mass of Tracer Time after Injection (T) Sampling Frequency
Tracer Tracer Type Volume (L)
(kg)
T < 6 months Week
WT-5 Water tracer 10
~350 6months < T < 12 months Fortnight
WT-60 Water tracer 10
T > 12 months Month
Partitioning
WTP-2 10 10
tracer Table 3. Sampling frequency plan
Partitioning
WTP-3 10 10 TRACER RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
tracer
Partitioning
WTP-4 10 10
tracer The collected samples have been consistently analyzed over
the past 30 months to define both water breakthrough times
Table 2. Summary of tracers injected
and the geometry of the elusion concentration over time.
with 20 liters of freshwater to ensure complete injection of the It is important to note that these tracers were designed to
tracers and avoid potential contamination with other tracers. be detected at very low detection limits, i.e., in the parts
per trillion range. In addition to water breakthrough times,
Tracer Sampling reservoir heterogeneity, sweep efficiency, and ROS can be
inferred from careful analyses of the tracer curves.
The success of any tracer test is greatly dependent upon its
sampling protocol. It is extremely important to ensure that Residence Time Analysis for Interpreting Tracer Data
the sampling is done in a meticulous manner to avoid any
contamination. The sampling frequency should be congru- The distribution of the times it takes a population of passive
ent with anticipated possible breakthrough times. For the tracer particles to travel through a medium can be used to
current IWCTT and PITT, additional steps were taken by quantify
𝜕𝜕 the flow through 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 that medium. The tracer 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 particles
travel
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
(∑ 𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤
through
𝜑𝜑 𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖
different
𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 )
paths
+ ∇ ⋅
and
(∑ 𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤
therefore
𝒗𝒗 𝑖𝑖
use
𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 ) − ∇ ∙ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝜑𝜑𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝑫𝑫∗𝑖𝑖
different
the office project team to enhance the success of the project,
including the following: amounts of time to go from the inlet to the outlet. The distri-
𝜕𝜕
bution, of these times 𝑞𝑞 exit age𝑞𝑞distribution,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
(∑E(t),
𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤
𝑇𝑇
𝜑𝜑−𝑇𝑇𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 ) is+ called
∇ ⋅ (∑the 𝑞𝑞
𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝒗𝒗𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 ) − ∇ ∙ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝜑𝜑𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝑫𝑫𝑖𝑖
∗
• Sampling frequency was designed to ensure that early or residence

S𝜕𝜕 o = 𝑇𝑇 +𝑇𝑇 time distribution (RTD), of the(2)
𝑅𝑅 𝑊𝑊 fluid in the sys-
𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
breakthrough times for the water tracers were not
(∑
tem. E(t)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜑𝜑
is𝑅𝑅defined
𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝑊𝑊𝑆𝑆
(𝐾𝐾−1)
𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾
from
𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 ) +
produced∇ ⋅ (∑tracer 𝒗𝒗
concentrations,
𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 ∙ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝜑𝜑𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝑫𝑫∗𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 ) − ∇ C(t),
missed. Highly frequent sampling (weekly) at the be- production rate, Qp(t), and injected tracer amount, M, as:
𝑇𝑇 −𝑇𝑇
ginning was followed by biweekly sampling with less So = 𝑇𝑇 +𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 (𝐾𝐾−1)
𝑊𝑊
(2)
𝑊𝑊 ∙ 𝑄𝑄 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀
𝐸𝐸(𝑡𝑡) =𝑅𝑅 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)
𝑇𝑇 −𝑇𝑇𝑊𝑊 𝑝𝑝 (3) (3)
frequent sampling (monthly) toward the end, Table 3. So = 𝑇𝑇 +𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 (𝐾𝐾−1) (2)
𝑅𝑅 𝑊𝑊
• Field personnel were trained to follow the sampling pro- 𝜕𝜕 unit of E is the𝑞𝑞 inverse
The the time unit.𝑞𝑞If 𝑞𝑞a system
tocol developed for the project. 𝐸𝐸(𝑡𝑡)(∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤
= 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)
𝑞𝑞
) + ∇of⋅ (∑
𝜑𝜑 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 ∙𝐾𝐾𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝒗𝒗𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾(3) ) − ∇ ∙ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝜑𝜑𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝑫𝑫∗𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶multiple
has𝐸𝐸
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕one
𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) ∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀
injector and multiple producers, j, with (4) pro-
• Sampling bottles were clearly labeled for each collection 𝐸𝐸(𝑡𝑡)rates,
duction = 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)Qj, we ∙ 𝑄𝑄can 𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀
define the RTDs between (3) each j as:
to avoid contamination.
𝑇𝑇 −𝑇𝑇
S𝑗𝑗o(𝑡𝑡)
𝐸𝐸 =∞𝑇𝑇=+𝑇𝑇
𝐶𝐶𝑅𝑅𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑊𝑊∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 (2) (4) (4)
• Good communication was established between the of- ∑ 𝑗𝑗 −∞ 𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
∫ 𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅 𝑊𝑊 (𝐾𝐾−1) =1 (5)
fice and field personnel to ensure alignment of objectives 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) ∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 (4)
and priorities. In a closed system, the normalization by injected tracer
∞
• Preservatives (biocide) were added to each sample as
∑ ∫ensures
amount
𝐸𝐸(𝑡𝑡)
𝑗𝑗 −∞ 𝐸𝐸 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
=∞
that: = 1
𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)
𝑗𝑗 ∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 ∞ (5)(3)
𝑚𝑚 0 =∞ ∫−∞ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 , 𝑚𝑚1 = ∫−∞ 𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 and 𝑚𝑚2 = ∫
soon as possible to minimize unintended reactions and ∑𝑗𝑗 ∫−∞ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 = 1 (5) (5)
ensure sample integrity.
∞ ∞
• Analysis for partitioning tracers was started after the 𝑚𝑚𝑗𝑗0(𝑡𝑡)
𝐸𝐸
where ==
the ∫−∞
sum𝐶𝐶1𝑗𝑗is(𝑡𝑡) (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗overall , 𝑚𝑚1 = ∫−∞ 𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗(4)
𝜕𝜕 ∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀
producers. (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
1 𝜕𝜕and 𝑚𝑚2 = ∫
detection of the water tracer was confirmed.
𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) = ∞ ∫ 0
𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 and ∞Φ(𝑡𝑡) = ∫ 𝜏𝜏 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
Exit
𝑚𝑚0 age= ∫distributions
𝑚𝑚0,𝑗𝑗𝐸𝐸 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 for
, the𝑚𝑚1tracers
= ∫−∞ WT-60, 𝑚𝑚1,𝑗𝑗 0and
WTP-2,
𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚2 = ∫
−∞ 𝑗𝑗
WTP3 and WTP4 are displayed in Fig. 4.
Although the high-frequency sampling rate at the early ∞ information
Important 1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕
∑
𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡)
𝑗𝑗 ∫−∞ =𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
∫0 𝐸𝐸= 1about the
𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 andgeometry
Φ(𝑡𝑡)(5)and
= 𝑚𝑚flow∫0in 𝜏𝜏 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
part of the project — during the initial 6 months, Table 3 a system can be 𝜕𝜕
0,𝑗𝑗obtained from the moments of the 1RTD, 1,𝑗𝑗
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤,𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) =1 ∫0∫𝑄𝑄 𝑤𝑤 (𝜏𝜏))𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 𝜏𝜏 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏(8)
𝜕𝜕 (𝜏𝜏)(1
𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏− 𝐹𝐹
𝜕𝜕
— resulted in the collection of a lot of produced water sam- 𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) =
where the initial
𝑚𝑚
three
0
𝐸𝐸 are
𝑗𝑗 given and
as: Φ(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑚𝑚
∫0
0,𝑗𝑗 1,𝑗𝑗
ples, only a few of the collected samples were analyzed until ∞ ∞
𝑚𝑚 0 = =𝑀𝑀∫𝐸𝐸0𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
(𝑡𝑡)∫−∞ , 𝑚𝑚 ∫−∞ 𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 and 𝑚𝑚2 =(8)
1𝐹𝐹=(𝜏𝜏))𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 ∫
𝜕𝜕
the tracer was detected in a sample. Thereafter, additional 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤,𝑗𝑗 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)(1 −
(𝜕𝜕−𝜕𝜕0 )𝑤𝑤2
samples previously collected were analyzed to pinpoint exact 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) = 0
𝜕𝜕 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 [− ] (9)
breakthrough times for the water tracers. 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤,𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) =√𝐷𝐷∫00𝜕𝜕 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)(1 − 𝜕𝜕 𝑤𝑤 (𝜏𝜏))𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
𝐷𝐷0 𝐹𝐹 (8)
1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕
𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑚𝑚𝑀𝑀0 ∫0 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 (𝜕𝜕−𝜕𝜕0and
)2 Φ(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑚𝑚 ∫0 𝜏𝜏 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
24 WINTER 2016 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) = 0,𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 [− 𝐷𝐷 𝜕𝜕 ] 1,𝑗𝑗 (9)
√𝐷𝐷0 0 21−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜 +0𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 =
𝑀𝑀 + 𝐾𝐾
(𝜕𝜕−𝜕𝜕0 ) 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 (10)
𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞
𝜕𝜕 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 ∗ = 𝐶𝐶𝑞𝑞 (𝑡𝑡)
(∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤
𝐸𝐸(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) 𝜑𝜑 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 ∙𝐾𝐾𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀
) + ∇ ⋅ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝒗𝒗𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾(3) 𝐸𝐸 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑞𝑞 ∙ 𝑄𝑄 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀
𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 ) − ∇ ∙ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝜑𝜑𝑆𝑆𝑗𝑗𝑖𝑖 𝑫𝑫𝑖𝑖 ⋅ ∇(𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖𝑗𝑗 𝐶𝐶 )) = 𝑗𝑗0
(4)
(1)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑝𝑝
∞ 𝐾𝐾𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 = 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 1.2E-3
2
𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 and
and 𝑚𝑚2 = ∫−∞ 𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 (6) (6)
1.0E-3∞ WT-60
S𝑗𝑗o(𝑡𝑡)
𝐸𝐸 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 −𝑇𝑇𝑊𝑊
=order
𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) ∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 𝑞𝑞 (4)
∑𝑗𝑗 ∫−∞ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 = 1 (5)
WTP-2
(𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 The = (3)
zero moment
𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 +𝑇𝑇𝑊𝑊 (𝐾𝐾−1) (m0) represents =(2)
𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤𝑞𝑞 the 𝑞𝑞
𝐶𝐶relative
𝑤𝑤 /𝐶𝐶 =amount
1 8.0E-4 WTP-3
1 𝜕𝜕of tracer produced in the production well, j; the first order mo- WTP-4
Ec(t) (1/day)
Ec(t) [1/day]
)= ∫ 𝜏𝜏 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
𝑚𝑚1,𝑗𝑗 0ment (m
(7) 6.0E-4
) represents the average residence time for the tracers ∞ ∞
∞
1
(𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 between ∑𝑗𝑗 ∫−∞

𝐸𝐸(𝑡𝑡) (4)
the
= 𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝐸𝐸injection
𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) =
∙ 𝑄𝑄well 1and producer,𝜑𝜑 j; and(5)
(3)
the second or- 𝑚𝑚0 = ∫−∞ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 , 𝑚𝑚1 = ∫−∞ 𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 and 𝑚𝑚2
𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 4.0E-4
der moment (m2) is related to the dispersion of the tracers.
𝜕𝜕 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 17 ∗ 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
Shook(∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤
(2003) 𝜑𝜑16𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖and
(8) 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶Shook
) + ∇and
⋅ (∑Forsmann
𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖∗ 𝒗𝒗𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 ) − ∇ ∙ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝜑𝜑𝑆𝑆
𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 (2005) intro- 𝑖𝑖 𝑫𝑫𝑖𝑖 ⋅ ∇(𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 )) 𝑞𝑞= 𝑞𝑞0
𝜕𝜕 2.0E-4 (1)
𝑞𝑞
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
duce a method ∞ to characterize the flow∞and geometry of a (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤
∞ 21𝜑𝜑 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 ) + ∇ ⋅ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤 𝒗𝒗𝑖𝑖 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 )1− ∇𝜕𝜕∙ (∑𝑖𝑖=𝑜𝑜,𝑔𝑔,𝑤𝑤
=(5)
𝑚𝑚𝑗𝑗0(𝑡𝑡)
𝐸𝐸 =
∫−∞ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) , 𝑚𝑚1 = ∫−∞ 𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗(4)
∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 and 𝑚𝑚2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡)
=0.0E+0∫−∞ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
=𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚 ∙ 𝐸𝐸∫𝑗𝑗0(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 and Φ(𝑡𝑡) (6) = 𝑚𝑚 ∫0 𝜏𝜏 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑
system using the RTD. Briefly, two functions, the flow ca- 0
0,𝑗𝑗 500 1000 1500
1,𝑗𝑗 2000
pacity, F(t), and the
𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 −𝑇𝑇 𝑊𝑊 storage capacity,
Φ(𝑡𝑡), can be defined as: tt (days)
[days]
So = (2) 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 −𝑇𝑇𝑊𝑊
∞ ∞𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 +𝑇𝑇 𝑊𝑊 (𝐾𝐾−1)
𝜕𝜕 ∞ 2 𝜕𝜕 S = (2)
𝑡𝑡 , 𝑚𝑚1 = ∑
∫−∞ 𝑗𝑗𝑡𝑡 ∫
𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) ∙−∞
𝐸𝐸= 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗1(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 ∫ 𝐸𝐸=
and 1 𝑚𝑚2
𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 = 𝑡𝑡 ∙ (5)
∫−∞Φ(𝑡𝑡)
and 𝐸𝐸= 1
𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡∫ 𝜏𝜏
Fig. 4.oExit age distributions
𝑉𝑉 (6)(𝑡𝑡) = ∫ 𝑄𝑄 (𝜏𝜏)(1
∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
Fig. 4. Exit age
in the 𝑤𝑤,𝑗𝑗
𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅 +𝑇𝑇 𝜕𝜕 for one of the water tracers and the partitioning tracers
(7)− 𝐹𝐹 (𝜏𝜏))𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
𝑊𝑊 (𝐾𝐾−1) for one of the water tracers and the three partitioning
distributions
test. The measured data𝑗𝑗 are represented by
𝑚𝑚 0,𝑗𝑗 0 𝑚𝑚 0 1,𝑗𝑗 measured 0
data are represented 𝑤𝑤circles.
by circles.
The dotted lines are the exit
The dotted lines are the exit age
and age distributions
characterize theused
flowto and
characterize the flow
saturation and saturation
properties in theproperties
field. Thein the
exitfield.
age
𝐸𝐸(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) ∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑝𝑝 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 (3) The exit agedata
measured distributions correspond
when these to measured
are available datatowhen
and these are available
extrapolations based andon data for
(6) (3)
to extrapolations based on the data for larger times.
(10) 𝑚𝑚 𝐸𝐸(𝑡𝑡)
= ∫ =𝑡𝑡𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) 𝑄𝑄 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀
∙ 𝐸𝐸 ∙(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
∞1 𝜕𝜕̅ ) ∞ ∞ 2
and 𝑚𝑚 (𝑇𝑇
(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚 = ∫−∞ 𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 (7) 𝑝𝑝
0 == ∫−∞ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗∫0 𝜏𝜏 ∙ 𝐸𝐸,𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 and
𝑤𝑤
𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 Φ(𝑡𝑡) 𝜕𝜕 𝑀𝑀0 𝑗𝑗 (𝜕𝜕−𝜕𝜕0 )2
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤,𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) = ∫0 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)(1 −1𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤 (𝜏𝜏))𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
𝑚𝑚1,𝑗𝑗 (7)
2
(8)
𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) = −∞ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 [− ]
were not measured, but can be estimated from the water cut
(9)
√𝐷𝐷0 𝜕𝜕 𝐷𝐷0 𝜕𝜕
𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) ∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 (4) and the mass produced in the water phase14.
and combined in a 𝐹𝐹 − Φ diagram to quantify a measure of
1 𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) ∙ 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 (4)
the𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) =
heterogeneity ∫of 𝐸𝐸 the (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
system.
(𝜕𝜕−𝜕𝜕 and
The) Φ(𝑡𝑡)
2 swept
(8) =
reservoir ∫
volume 𝜏𝜏 ∙ 𝐸𝐸 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 (7)
𝑤𝑤 (𝜏𝜏))𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
𝑀𝑀 𝑗𝑗 𝑗𝑗
0
𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑚𝑚of0,𝑗𝑗time
as a function √𝐷𝐷
0𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 [−
can be estimated
0 𝑚𝑚1,𝑗𝑗 0
] from F(t). For a water
(9) 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜 + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 = (1 + 𝐾𝐾 1−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊) 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 (10)
∞ 0 𝜕𝜕 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝐷𝐷𝑞𝑞0 𝜕𝜕 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (10)
∑𝑗𝑗 ∫it−∞
tracer, 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
is given 18 𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 =
as: = 1 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 /𝐶𝐶 (5) ∞
∑𝑗𝑗 ∫ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 = 1 (5)
(𝜕𝜕−𝜕𝜕0 )2 𝜕𝜕 In the−∞ present case, water cuts were about 96%. For a
] 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤,𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) = ∫0 𝑄𝑄𝑗𝑗𝑞𝑞(𝜏𝜏)(1 (𝜏𝜏))𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
(9) − 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤1−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (8) (8)of 2.11 (WTP-2 and WTP-3), this yields M = 0.92
w (11)
𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜∞+ 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 = (1 + 𝐾𝐾 K-value
(10)𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 =∞2 ∫0 𝐹𝐹(Φ)𝑑𝑑Φ − 1 Saudi Aramco: Company General
𝐷𝐷0 𝜕𝜕 ∞ ) 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 Use
𝑚𝑚0 = ∫−∞ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 , 𝑚𝑚1 =𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 ∫−∞ 𝑡𝑡 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 and 𝑚𝑚M, 2 =i.e.,∫about
−∞
𝑡𝑡
∞
28% of
∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
the tracer is produced ∞ (6)with the oil. For
In cases where produced fluid is re-injected, contributions 𝑚𝑚0 = of
a K-value ∫−∞ 𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 , a corresponding
4.0𝐸𝐸(WTP-4), ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 gives
𝑚𝑚1 = ∫−∞ 𝑡𝑡 evaluation and 𝑚𝑚2
𝑀𝑀 𝑞𝑞 (𝜕𝜕−𝜕𝜕 )2
due to re-injection can
𝐶𝐶 be [−removed 0 using de-convolution . 13
1−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) = 1 0 𝜕𝜕 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ] (9) Mw = 0.86 M, i.e., about 14% of the tracer is produced with
)
Moment𝑀𝑀
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = 2 ∫01𝐹𝐹(Φ)𝑑𝑑Φ
𝑤𝑤 √𝐷𝐷
analysis
0 𝜕𝜕 of −1
tracer (10)
𝐷𝐷 𝜕𝜕
curves
0 requires 1(11)𝜕𝜕
normalization the oil. By taking these corrections into account, we find
𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) =
of RTDs, integrated ∫ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
𝑚𝑚0,𝑗𝑗 0 to infinity. As and tracerΦ(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑚𝑚 includ-
campaigns, ∫0 𝜏𝜏 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
estimated produced 1 𝜕𝜕 tracer mass (7) measurements of 0.45, 1 𝜕𝜕
0.29,
𝐾𝐾 𝑞𝑞
= 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞
/𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 1,𝑗𝑗 𝐹𝐹(𝑡𝑡) = ∫ 0
𝐸𝐸 𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏 and Φ(𝑡𝑡) = ∫ 𝜏𝜏 ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)𝑑𝑑
ing the present one, are 𝑜𝑜 ended 𝑜𝑜 at a finite time after injection, 0.26 and 0.28 𝑚𝑚0,𝑗𝑗
for WT-60, WTP-2, WTP-3 and WTP-4, 𝑚𝑚1,𝑗𝑗 0re-
integration 1−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
−1 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀to 𝑜𝑜 +
infinity
𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 =
(11)
must
(1be+based 𝐾𝐾 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 on an
) 𝑀𝑀extrapolation of
𝑤𝑤 (10)
spectively. The fact that the three partitioning tracers yield
Saudi Aramco:the tracer General
Company curves.𝜕𝜕UseVarious
𝑞𝑞 approaches
𝑞𝑞 for extrapolation have smaller values than the ideal one reflects that the secondary
been𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤,𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡) = 13,∫017,𝑄𝑄𝐾𝐾
suggested 19𝑗𝑗
= 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤 /𝐶𝐶−𝑞𝑞 𝐹𝐹
𝑤𝑤(𝜏𝜏)(1
. We used
= 1(𝜏𝜏))𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
the𝑤𝑤approach proposed by peak
(8) not=been𝜕𝜕 𝑄𝑄
has(𝑡𝑡)
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤,𝑗𝑗 ∫0 observed yet for the partitioning tracer
𝑗𝑗 (𝜏𝜏)(1 − 𝐹𝐹𝑤𝑤 (𝜏𝜏))𝑑𝑑𝜏𝜏
Viig et al. (2013) , based on fitting type curves of the form:
13
curves. This implies that the saturation estimated from the
1
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = 2 ∫0 𝐹𝐹(Φ)𝑑𝑑Φ 𝜑𝜑 − 1 (11) average residence time (𝑇𝑇̅) should be considered uncertain,
𝑀𝑀 (𝜕𝜕−𝜕𝜕 ) 2
𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡) = 0 𝜕𝜕 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 [− 𝐷𝐷 0𝜕𝜕 ] (9) and that the mode 𝑀𝑀0
of the distribution
(𝜕𝜕−𝜕𝜕0 )2
(Tm) provides a more
√𝐷𝐷0 0 (9) 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)quantification
robust = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 of [− the saturation ] in thisSaudi
case.Aramco: Company (9)
∗ √𝐷𝐷0 𝜕𝜕 𝐹𝐹 − Φ 𝐷𝐷0 𝜕𝜕
𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖 Several other interesting parameters are provided by(𝑇𝑇 the
̅)
with three parameters, D0, t0 and M0, to the data. For the RTD analysis, in addition to the fraction of produced mass
ideal tracer, a bimodal distribution 1−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
was observed. To ex-
𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀𝑜𝑜 + 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 Φ(𝑡𝑡)= (1 + 𝐾𝐾 ) 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤Saudi Aramco: Company(10) in the well (m0). The heterogeneity
General Use
𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞1−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
of the flow given from
trapolate the curve for this tracer, a𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 linear combination of the𝑀𝑀 = 𝑀𝑀coefficient,
Lorenz 𝑜𝑜 + 𝑀𝑀 𝑤𝑤 = (1
defined + as 𝐾𝐾the area) between
𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤 the 𝐹𝐹 − Φ
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
solutions given by Eqn. 9 is convenient. Tracer data, as well curve and the diagonal, normalized by one-half18,
as the analytical models used to extrapolate the curves, are 𝑞𝑞
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖
1 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 =Saudi
displayed 2in∫Fig.𝐹𝐹(Φ)𝑑𝑑Φ
5. For
Aramco: the−
Company 1General Usetracers, no (11)
partitioning bimodal 1
0
behavior is observed yet. An obvious explanation for this 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = 2 ∫0 𝐹𝐹(Φ)𝑑𝑑Φ − 1 (11) (11)
is that the partitioning tracers are delayed compared to the 𝑞𝑞
𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖
ideal, and so the secondary peak has yet to appear. Results and the sweep volume are two such parameters. These are
from the RTD analysis based on the data and the extrapola- also summarized in Table 4. It is interesting to note that the
tions are summarized in Table 4. heterogeneity of the flow 𝐾𝐾𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞is=relatively
𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 large, which is in line
𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞
The total produced mass (M) of a partitioning tracer is the with values typically found in carbonate reservoirs, such as
sum of the produced tracer mass in the water and oil phases. the Lagrave case reported𝑞𝑞 by Viig et al. (2013)13.
𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 = 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 = 1
MW and M0, respectively. The concentrations in the oil phase 𝐾𝐾𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 = 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞

𝜑𝜑
𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤𝑞𝑞 = 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(c) (d)
Fig. 5. Non-partitioning tracer, WT-60 (Fig. 5a) and partitioning tracers WTP-2, WTP-3 and WTP-4 (Figs. 5b, 5c and 5d, respectively). The measured data are represented by
Fig. 5. the
circles and Curves
fits used tofor the non-partitioning
extrapolate tracer,
the RTD to infinity are indicated WT-60
by dashed (Fig.
curves. The 5a)blue
combined and partitioning
curve tracers
represents the full RTD used to WTP-2, WTP-3
analyze the tracer data. and
WTP-4 (Figs. 5b, 5c and 5d, respectively). The measured data are represented by circles and the fits and
Fig. 5. Curves for the non-partitioning tracer, WT-60 (Fig. 5a) and partitioning tracers WTP-2, WTP-3
WTP-4
used
Estimation (Figs.
to extrapolate
of Oil5b,Saturation
5ctheand RTD5d, torespectively).
infinity are indicatedThe measured byfore data
dashed
not are
wellrepresented
verycurves. Theto combined
suited by circles
estimate blueand
saturations curve the Eqn.
using fits
used to extrapolate the RTD to
represents the full RTD used to analyze the tracer data.infinity are indicated by dashed curves. The combined blue
2. The best estimate for the saturations in our case is there- curve
represents
Saturations canthebe full RTD from
estimated usedEqn.to analyze
2 if the oilthe in atracer
sys- data. fore given from T of the RTD. The values for saturations
m
tem is mostly stagnant. In our case, with water cuts at about obtained from (𝑇𝑇̅) and K are 0.19, 0.22 and 0.21 from the
96%, this condition is satisfied. This estimation requires partitioning tracers WTP-2, WTP-3 and WTP-4, respectively.
knowing the times of the partitioning tracer, TR, and the These values are summarized in Table 5.
Tracer
ideal tracer, TW, in K
addition to m 0 values of m
the K.1Given that m22 ̅ 𝐹𝐹 − Φ
𝑻𝑻 Tm Lc Vp
Tracer K m0 m 1 5m ̅
𝑻𝑻 Tm Lc V5p 3
(days) (10
the bimodal shape of the ideal tracer is not yet seen for the 5 days 2
) (days)
DISCUSSION (days)
AND LESSONS LEARNED (10 m)
(days) (10 days 2
) (days) (days) (105 m3)
WT-60 tracers,—it is challenging
partitioning 0.45 to extrapolate
199 the parti- 1.2 445𝐾𝐾 𝑞𝑞 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶221
𝑞𝑞 0.32 2.5
WT-60 — 0.45 ̅ 199 1.2 445𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖 221 0.32 2.5
WTP-2 2.1 0.27
tioning tracer curves. The values for (𝑇𝑇 ) 188
in Table 4 are there- 2.0 1. Careful execution of the tracer sampling protocol2.4
705 329 0.36 and
WTP-2 2.1 0.27 188 2.0 705 329 0.36 2.4
WTP-3 2.1 0.24 163 1.6 679 352 0.34 2.1
WTP-3 2.1 0.24 163m1 1.6
m2 679 T352 0.34 2.1
Vp
WTP-4
Tracer 4.0
K 0.24m0 219 3.0 923𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝑞𝑞 448
m 0.35
Lc 2.8
WTP-4 4.0 0.24 𝐹𝐹 − Φ 219 (days) (1053.0
days2) 923
(days) 448
(days) 0.35 2.8
(m)
Table
WT-604. Summary
— of results from analysis
0.45 199 of the RTDs
1.2 of the 445
ideal tracer221 WT-60 and0.32
the partitioning
2.5
Table 4. Summary of results from analysis of the RTDs of the ideal 𝑞𝑞tracer WT-60 and the partitioning
tracers WTP-2, WTP-3 and WTP-4 𝐶𝐶
tracers
WTP-2 WTP-2, 2.1
WTP-3 and0.27WTP-4𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 /𝐶𝐶188 2.0 705 329 0.36 2.4
𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞
WTP-3 2.1 0.24 𝑞𝑞 163 1.6 679 𝐾𝐾𝑜𝑜 = 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜 /𝐶𝐶
352 0.34 2.1
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖
WTP-4 4.0 0.24 219 3.0 923 448 0.35 2.8
𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤𝑞𝑞 = 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 = 1
𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞
Table 4. Summary of results from analysis of the RTD of the ideal tracer WT-60 and partitioning tracers WTP-2, WTP-3 and WTP-4
𝜑𝜑
26 WINTER 2016 𝑞𝑞 TECHNOLOGY
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL𝐾𝐾OF = 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞
𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜
Tm So from Eqn. 2 So from Eqn. 2
Tracer K
(days) (days) and Tm and
WT-60 — 445 221 — —
WTP-2 2.1 705 330 0.19 0.22
WTP-3 2.1 679 352 0.22 0.20
WTP-4 4.0 923 448 0.21 0.21
Table 5. Saturation estimates from the partitioning tracers WTP-2, WTP-3 and WTP-4. Saturations based on average residence time (𝑇𝑇 ̅ ) as well as from the mode of the residence
time distribution (Tm ) are given. The latter are expected to be more reliable, as they are not based on extrapolation of the data.
proper communication between office staff and field per- a nearby well and sponge core 𝐹𝐹 −analyses
Φ performed in adja-
sonnel have been highly instrumental in eliminating sam- cent wells. Therefore, these new sets of PITT tracers are well
𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞
ple contamination and other headaches that could have suited as a tool to estimate oil
𝐾𝐾𝑖𝑖 saturations
= 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 in the interwell
jeopardized the tracer project. region and are adjudged qualified for field deployment.
2. The partitioning tracer test performance confirms that 𝑞𝑞
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖
the new set of partitioning tracers devised by Viig et al. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
(2013)13 are well suited as a tool to estimate oil satura- 𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞
tions in the interwell region. The authors would like to thank the management of Saudi
3. The estimated saturations from the individual partitioning Aramco for their support and 𝑞𝑞permission to publish this ar-
𝐾𝐾𝑜𝑜 = 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞
tracers are mutually consistent, with a variation of about ticle. Furthermore, this article would not have been possible
1 to 2 saturation units. The values are also consistent with without the contributions and𝑞𝑞efforts of many colleagues.
𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 = 𝐶𝐶𝑤𝑤𝑞𝑞 /𝐶𝐶 𝑞𝑞 = 1
estimations obtained in a SWCTT performed in an adja- In particular, we would like to acknowledge and thank
cent producer in the same field15, which reported an oil Ibrahim Zefzafy, Yousif Abdulmohsin, Fouad Sadis and
𝜑𝜑
saturation of 0.21 ± 0.02, further strengthening the conclu- Senthilmurugan Balasubramanian, our colleagues from Field
sions that these tracers are reliable for interwell estimations Services, for the periodic wellhead sampling, and many oth-
of saturation. 𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖∗
ers for their contributions toward the project.
4. The saturation estimations based on suffer from insuffi- This article was presented at the SPE Annual Technical
cient data in the tail of the partitioning tracer curves. The Conference and Exhibition, Φ(𝑡𝑡)Dubai, UAE, September 26-28,
use of the Tm of the distribution, representing the apex of 2016.
the tracer curves, is a satisfactory replacement of the aver-
age for this project. REFERENCES
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is more delayed than the two others but still yields a
2. Beier, R.A. and Sheely, C.Q.: “Tracer Surveys to Identify
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MCA Unit, New Mexico,” SPE paper 17371, presented
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at the SPE Enhanced Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa,
Oklahoma, April 16-21, 1988.
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3. Du, Y. and Guan, L.: “Interwell Tracer Tests: Lessons
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been a success. The estimated saturations from the individual sented at the SPE Asia Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and
tracers are mutually consistent, with a variation of about 1 Exhibition, Jakarta, Indonesia, April 5-7, 2005.
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and interwell saturations may differ, as in the field case Determination of Fluorinated Aromatic Carboxylic Acids
presented here. The derived values are also consistent with in Aqueous Reservoir Fluids Using Solid-Phase Extraction
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6. Kleven, R., Høvring, O., Opdal, S.T., Bjørnstad, T.,
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18. Shook, G.M., Pope, G.A. and Asakawa, K.: “Determining
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Tracers to Assess EOR and IOR Potential in the
Bockstedt Field,” 18th European Symposium on Improved

BIOGRAPHIES Dr. Sunil L. Kokal is a Principal
Professional and a Focus Area
Modiu L. Sanni is a Senior Petroleum Champion of enhanced oil recovery
Engineering Consultant with the (EOR) in the Reservoir Engineering
Reservoir Engineering Technology Technology team of Saudi Aramco’s
Division of Saudi Aramco’s Exploration and Petroleum
Exploration and Petroleum Engineering Center – Advanced
Engineering Center – Advanced Research Center (EXPEC ARC). Since joining Saudi
Research Center (EXPEC ARC). He is Aramco in 1993, he has been involved in applied research
currently leading the monitoring and surveillance program projects on EOR/improved oil recovery, reservoir fluids,
for Saudi Aramco’s first carbon dioxide enhanced oil hydrocarbon phase behavior, crude oil emulsions, and
recovery demonstration project. Since joining Saudi production related challenges. Currently Sunil is leading a
Aramco in 2004, Modiu has been involved in research group of scientists, engineers and technicians to develop a
projects relating to improved/enhanced oil recovery, tracer program for carbon dioxide EOR and to conduct
technology, logging tool development, petrophysics and appropriate studies and field demonstration projects. Prior
integrated reservoir description. Prior to joining Saudi to joining Saudi Aramco, he worked at the Petroleum
Aramco, he worked for Shell for about 15 years in Africa, Recovery Institute, Calgary, Canada.
Europe and the Middle East in various capacities. Sunil is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers
Modiu is a member of the Society of Petroleum (SPE), and is a Registered Professional Engineer and a
Engineers (SPE) and the Society of Petrophysicists and Well member of the Association of Professional Engineers,
Log Analysts (SPWLA). He has authored and coauthored Geologists and Geophysicists of Alberta (Canada).
several technical papers and journals. He has written over 100 technical papers. Sunil
In 1987, Modiu received his B.S. degree in Mechanical has served as the associate editor for the Journal of
Engineering from the University of Benin, Benin Petroleum Science and Engineering, and SPE’s Reservoir
City, Nigeria. In 1990, he received his M.S. degree in Evaluation and Engineering Journal, and earlier served
Mechanical Engineering from the University of Ibadan, on the Editorial Review Board of the Journal of Canadian
Ibadan, Nigeria. Petroleum Technology.
He is the recipient of the prestigious 2016 SPE
Dr. Mohammed A. Al-Abbad is Honorary Member Award, the 2012 SPE DeGolyer
leading the monitoring and Distinguished Service Medal, the 2011 SPE Distinguished
surveillance program of the carbon Service Award, the 2010 SPE Regional Technical Award
dioxide (CO2) enhanced oil recovery for Reservoir Description & Dynamics, and the 2008
(EOR) demonstration project within SPE Distinguished Member Award for his services to the
Saudi Aramco’s Reservoir Engineering society. Sunil also served as a SPE Distinguished Lecturer
Technology Division of the during 2007-2008. Currently he is the Chair of the SPE
Exploration and Petroleum Engineering Center – Advanced Distinguished Lecturer Committee.
Research Center (EXPEC ARC). He was previously in In 1982, Sunil received his B.S. degree in Chemical
charge of designing several passive and partitioning tracers Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, New
as well as field tracer implementations. Mohammed has Delhi, India, and in 1987, he received his Ph.D. degree
worked in various disciplines, including petrophysics, in Chemical Engineering from the University of Calgary,
production engineering, reservoir management, reservoir Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
simulation and EOR.
He is an active member of the Society of Petroleum
Engineers (SPE), participating in local and regional Dr. Øyvind Dugstad is CEO and
events, and assisting with several technical publications. founder of the reservoir tracer service
Mohammed is an SPE Certified Petroleum Engineer. company Restrack, which provides
In 2002, he received his B.S. degree in Chemical information about reservoir properties
Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum with the aid of tracer technology. He
and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. served in various positions as a
Mohammed received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Research Scientist and Research
Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering from Pennsylvania Leader at the Institute for Energy Technology from 1985
State University, State College, PA, in 2008 and 2012, to 2013, and has been a Project Leader for a large number
respectively. of research and development projects.
Øyvind has published more than 30 papers on
tracer technology. He contributed to a Society of
Petroleum Engineers (SPE) handbook with a chapter on
“Well-to-Well Tracer Tests.”
In 1992, Øyvind received his Ph.D. degree in Reservoir
Physics from the University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.

Sven K. Hartvig is Chief Operating
Officer and a co-founder of the tracer
service company Restrack, founded in
2013; the company is a spin-off of the
tracer technology services at the
Institute for Energy Technology (IFE).
Through his 15 years at IFE, he led
major R&D projects involving new interwell tracer
technology, from the lab scale up to operational full-field
pilot testing.
Sven is a member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers
(SPE) and European Association of Geoscientists and
Engineers (EAGE). He has coauthored several SPE papers
pertaining to utilization of tracer technology.
In 1997, Sven received his M.S. degree in Nuclear and
Analytical Chemistry from the University of Oslo, Oslo,
Norway.
Dr. Olaf Huseby is the Vice President

of Technology and Interpretation and
co-founder of the reservoir tracer
service company Restrack. He
co-developed Restrack’s interpretation
schemes for interwell and single well
tracer data, including simulation as
well as analytical techniques.
Olaf has 15 years of research and consultancy
experience in reservoir and tracer studies, including
interwell gas and water tracers, partitioning interwell
tracers to assess oil saturation, and single well tracer
testing.
He has published more than 40 scientific papers, and
co-chaired and co-organized several Society of Petroleum
Engineers (SPE) workshops.
Olaf received his Ph.D. degree in Reservoir Physics
from the University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway. Afterwards, he
undertook postdoctoral studies in Poitiers and in Paris on
transport processes in discrete fracture networks.

Novel Electric Submersible Pump
Cable Operates in High H2S Production
Environment
Brian A. Roth, Dr. Jinjiang X. Xiao and Mark Paquette
ABSTRACT system that can improve the speed, efficiency and ease of ESP
deployment.
Electric submersible pumps (ESPs) are a widely used artificial
lift technology. Conventional ESP systems provide power to BACKGROUND
the pumps through a cable banded to the outside of the tub-
A majority of the electric submersible pumps (ESPs) used
ing. These systems have drawbacks in terms of slow instal-
today are installed with jointed tubulars using workover rigs.
lation and limited efficiency. To overcome these obstacles,
The ESP is installed as part of the tubular string. The cable
a novel cable deployed ESP system developed for use in a
that provides power to the ESP is banded or clamped to the
high hydrogen sulfide (H2S) production environment offers a
tubular. This method has been in use since the first ESP in-
future solution. This article focuses on the material selection
stallations back in the 1930s.
process and the validation of the nontraditional National
Since the 1970s, several types of alternate deployment
Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) materials even-
have been developed. Systems using the alternate technolo-
tually selected.
gies include cable suspended submersible pump systems1; ca-
An evaluation process was developed and used early on to
ble internal, coiled tubing (CT) deployed submersible pump
narrow down the choices to several potential alternatives. A
systems2; and umbilical systems3. Much was learned from
metal-jacketed power cable was selected as the most viable
the use of these alternate deployment systems; however, each
solution since it provided the best protection against H2S
of these systems had drawbacks that prevented widespread
attack and it provided a smooth outside diameter that could
adoption of the technology. Major drawbacks of the current
be gripped onto and sealed. The cable criteria required that
technologies include safety concerns, problems finding ma-
it be able to withstand H2S levels up to 15% and chloride
terial able to endure corrosive environments, the uncertain
levels in excess of 150,000 ppm for a minimum of 5 years. A
reliability of downhole electrical wet connectors, and deploy-
major challenge was constructing the system so it supported
ment and retrieval concerns.
the weight of the cable inside the metal jacket. The cable was
Saudi Arabia’s experience with several of the systems led
qualified through extensive physical and chemical testing.
to a rethinking of ESP design and the development of a new
The interlocking of the metal jacket (tubing) with the in-
ESP system that could operate in a high hydrogen sulfide
ner core (cable) was qualified through extensive mechanical
(H2S) environment in the long term. A major challenge was
testing of the power cable, including its pull resistance, bend,
designing the compact, H2S resistant cable. The material
thermal growth and mechanical splice connections. Electrical
used had to be strong enough to support the weight of both
testing assessed insulation resistance. Chemical compatibility
the copper power cables and the ESP system, and also pro-
testing was performed on a number of candidate metallur-
vide resistance to high H2S levels. The cable itself had to be
gies using a modified NACE H2S stress cracking test based
a compact size to minimize pressure drop along the length of
upon ANSI/NACE Standard TM0177. Test coupons of the
cable. Finally, the technology had to be simple enough to be
various metallurgies proposed for the tubing were welded
reliably and economically manufactured in large quantities.
and formed for testing. The test coupons were bent to stress
levels in excess of the final design stresses. CABLE DESIGNS
The high chloride levels in the test conditions caused sev-
eral metallurgies to fail, even at low H2S levels. A single met- The initial plans were to brainstorm potential cable design
allurgy successfully passed all the mechanical, electrical and solutions. A review of several design possibilities identified
chemical testing. It will be used for field trials of the new some key technology gaps. As expected, the most critical as-
ESP technology. pect of the cable deployed ESP was the power/support cable.
A rigorous evaluation and test program resulted in the Finding a material for the cable able to withstand H2S con-
development of a novel high H2S rated, cable deployed ESP centrations up to 15% in the vapor phase presented a consid-

erable challenge. (In addition, the material had to be strong
enough to support the weight of the cable, but with a small
enough diameter to minimize pressure drop across the length
of the cable.) H2S permeates elastomers and thermoplastics,
and even if it does not cause deterioration directly to the elas-
tomer, any H2S reaching a copper conductor will eventually
destroy the conductor. So, a reliable method for sealing the
conductor from H2S exposure was a key requirement.
The effect of tension on the power/support cable was the
next most critical concern. Since materials have different
elastic characteristics, any stretching of the cable will have
a major impact on the various other components in the ESP
system. Some of the materials will stretch and recover com-
pletely, while others will not. Special attention therefore had
to be paid to how the components and materials interact.
Given that some type of traction method will be used to
deploy the cable, it was also important to consider how the
tension applied when pulling the system would mechanically Fig. 1. Spools of welded strips for manufacturing the metal jacket.
Fig. 1. Spools of welded strips for manufacturing the metal jacket.
affect each cable component.
A third key element of the design was the termination of through a forming line to shape the strip around the cable
the power/support cable. It would have to accommodate the and then to continuously weld the longitudinal seam using
electrical requirement of the applications, along with high a specialized laser. After this, the completed tube is drawn
temperatures and high H2S levels, and support all the hang- down (or cold drawn) onto the cable to finish the process.
ing weight. One factor was especially critical to the manufacture of
Taking the above issues into consideration, a feasibility the cable. Unlike regular CT, the tubing seam weld could not
study was devised that focused on three solutions: be annealed after welding and cold working because the high
heat required to anneal the weld would damage the cable.
1. Wire-wrapped copper conductor cable (conventional Little information was available on the use of unannealed
cable). materials in a welded tube and in a high H2S well environ-
2. Non-copper conductor cable. ment. NACE standards set a material’s maximum hardness
3. Metal-jacketed cable. level based upon testing and historical information, and
Fig. 2. Metal-jacketed cable seen in cross section.
welded and unannealed materials typically exceed the NACE
Based upon the design information and requirements, it maximum allowable hardness level, Fig. 2.
was determined that the metal-jacketed cable had the most
merit. It is impermeable to H2S. Its size and weight are within WELL CONDITIONS
reasonable limits, making transportation less of an issue. It
uses fewer different materials, so differential thermal and ESPs are used in a number of wells in Saudi Arabia. ESPs are
mechanical force considerations are simplified; and electrical installed in wells with varying fluid properties, from sweet
and mechanical connections are more straightforward. to sour, depending on the field and reservoir. Chloride levels
The manufacture of a metal-jacketed cable is a multi-step in the formation water in many wells are extremely high.
process. To fabricate the metal jacket, a rolled flat coil is slit H
Fig.
Fig.S 3a.
2 1.
levels
Spools canofvary
Coupon from
welded
cut from 0%
strips
the to manufacturing
for
bias 15%.ofCarbon
weld dioxide
the
the strip. metal(CO )
jacket.
2
into strips. Each strip is about 300 ft in length. To achieve levels vary from 0% to 10%. Water cuts vary from 10% to
the production lengths required, they are welded together 50%.
Saudi Bottom-hole
Aramco: Company General Use
using a specialized in-line laser that produces welds in a bi- temperatures range up
ased pattern — a bias weld provides greater overall strength to 220 °F.
than a butt weld. During the process of welding, complete Separate metallurgy
full production lengths with the cable inside, the smaller coils solutions offer eco-
are welded together in an in-line welding process, as needed. nomical solutions for
After the bias welding, the weld is ground and polished to the varying H2S levels
the exact same thickness as the strip. The joined strips are in different fields. It
wound onto a large diameter spool, Fig. 1, once they are long was decided to identify
enough to produce a full production length in a single longi- three levels of H2S for
tudinal pass. To complete the manufacture of the metal-jack- metallurgy testing.
Fig. 2. Metal-jacketed cable seen in cross section.
eted cable, the flat strip and a completed ESP cable are run Fig. 2. Metal-jacketed cable seen in crossSamples section. would be

tested in a H2S solution of 1%, 5% and 15%. The alloys selected had to meet the yield strength require-
ments to support the weight of the cable and the ESP string.
TESTING They also had to have superior resistance to extreme sour
conditions. Some information was found on the corrosion re-
Information was sought before testing the new unannealed sistance of these selected alloys, but this information did not
laser welded alloys in these low to severe sour well conditions.
cover the material condition and well environments that the
Literature searches and a review of industry standard specifi-
project was targeting. The alloys were chosen based on top-
cations (NACE, API, etc.) revealed, however, very little testing
ical knowledge, but how they would perform given their un-
history or useful guidance related to this new material.
annealed welds in extreme sour environments was unknown.
Ward et al. (2014)4 reports on qualifying a CT velocity
string in sour brine service. Their article discusses some of NONSTANDARD NACE
the testing challenges faced when using nonstandard material
geometry as well as providing some insight into methods of The alloys were good selections for testing, except they were
sample construction and testing in a fit-for-service test. nonstandard NACE materials due to their unannealed weld
A collaborative team worked together to develop a list condition. This was the driving force behind completing the
of potential materials and to design a qualification test that extensive and costly qualification testing. The process used in
would simulate well conditions related to actual field condi- producing the cable included starting with a flat strip, slowly
tions (a fit-for-service test). Three materials were selected as forming the strip into a tube, adding the cable with armor
likely to have the best success in the 1%, 5% and 15% H2S inside the unwelded tubing, then welding the strip with the
test conditions. UNS N06625, a nickel alloy, was considered Fig. 1. Spools of welded strips for manufacturing the metal jacket.
cable inside.
for the conditions of high H2S, chloride levels, and tem-
peratures; however, UNS N06625 was too costly. So, UNS H2S TESTING
N08825, another nickel alloy, was chosen as a trial option.
Similar to UNS N06625, N08825 provides exceptional resis- The H2S testing allowed us to select the best candidates for
tance to many corrosive environments. It has a lower overall further electrical and mechanical testing. The testing proce-
tensile strength, which could limit the total length of the dure was as follows.
cable. Lower cost materials for use in a less corrosive well
environment were researched and selected. A high perfor- Purpose
mance austenitic grade stainless steel, S34565, and a duplex
The purpose of the H2S study was to evaluate test samples of
stainless steel, S32205, were chosen for testing. The cost of
different corrosion resistant alloys having unannealed laser
S32205 is less than half the cost of N08825. S34565 has a
welds as they were subjected to corrosive environments. The
higher cost, roughly 75% of the N08825 cost, but it was ex-
sample
Fig. welds were longitudinal
2. Metal-jacketed cable seen inseam
crosswelds representative
section.
pected to have improved corrosion resistance and provide a
of the strip splice (bias) welds that would be in the finished
mid-tier resistance to H2S compared to S32205.
The qualification process was broken down into environ-
mental or chemical testing, electrical testing, and mechanical
testing. These included tests of the cable’s H2S corrosion
resistance, load, bend/fatigue, electrical integrity, thermal
growth, and shearability.
Testing involved subjecting a high nickel alloy, a super
austenitic stainless steel and a duplex stainless steel — all
Fig. 3a. Coupon cut from the bias weld of the strip.
unannealed laser welded alloys — to conditions at different Fig. 3a. Coupon cut from the bias weld of the strip.
percentages of H2S, at 5% CO2 and at 300 °F. This testing
was developed to follow procedures similar to NACE test- Saudi Aramco: Company General Use
ing. The main objective was to compare the super austenitic

and duplex stainless steel alloys to the high nickel alloy.
Electrical, cable thermal expansion and fatigue testing was
completed after the H2S testing.
METALLURGY SELECTION
Three metallurgies were selected based on their mechanical

properties, finite element analysis results, fatigue testing, a
Fig. 3b. Final shape of H2S test coupon, including a bias weld.
tiered costing approach and their availability in strip form.
Fig. 3b. Final shape of H2S test coupon
1.750”
0.540”
1.750”
0.540”
1.080”
825
1.080”
Nickel Alloy
825 2205 4565
Nickel Alloy (Duplex Stainless) (Austenitic Stainless)
Fig. 4. Test coupons.
tubular product. Because the final tubular product had to be
provided in an “as welded” and “cold worked” condition,
stress corrosion cracking due to H2S attack on the unan-
nealed alloys was of concern. The corrosion testing would
evaluate the different alloy candidates to ensure proper grade
selection was made depending on the well environment.
Testing Setup and Procedure
The alloys selected for H2S testing were: UNS N08825 (825)
— nickel alloy, UNS S32205 (2205) — duplex stainless steel,
and UNS S34565 (4565) — austenitic stainless steel.
Sample coupons were prepared that simulated the actual
unannealed conditions in both longitudinal and transverse
welds. The samples were then bent in a way to induce stress
levels greater than actual field tube conditions. Setup fol-
lowed best practices, including special precautions to prevent Fig. 5. Micro-hardness test location.
Fig. 5. Micro-hardness test location.
Fig.
any 5. Micro-hardness
possible test location.
galvanic reaction. Figures 3a and 3b show the
with both longitudinal and bias welds. Three samples of
test coupon cut and configuration.
each alloy were placed into each autoclave test vessel to pro-
The test coupons were welded and bent around a man-
vide multiple test point confirmation.
drel to the first position with holes drilled in each leg for
After the full duration of the test, the samples were
inserting a bolt to provide additional stress, Fig. 4. Titanium
removed and a post-test evaluation was performed. Post-
bolts added to the test coupons were then tightened to a
testing consisted of a visual examination and a dye penetrant
calculated stress more severe than in situ stress levels. The
test, after which the samples were mounted for microscopic
titanium bolts were wrapped with Teflon tape at all contact
work. Hardness values before and after testing were com-
points with the test coupons to prevent galvanic corrosion
pared along with the microstructures of the base and weld.
between the bolts and coupons. Pretest micro-hardness
Saudi Aramco:val-
Company General Use Saudi Aramco: Company General Use
ues were taken in the base metal and in the weld section, H2S Test Results
and this was repeated at three elevations across the coupon
thickness, Fig. 5. The lab report noted, “Cracking has been observed for all
Four different autoclaves — test vessels — were set up for 2205 U-bend specimens by the visual examination.” All nine
testing the coupons. Three autoclaves, each with a different samples of that alloy (three samples each from the 1%, 5%
level of H2S at 1%, 5% and 15%, were used for 30-day tests and 15% H2S tests) were returned for further examination.
of the 2205 and 4565 alloys. The fourth autoclave had 15% Evaluations indicated that the cracks were in seam weld
H2S and was planned for a 90-day test of the 825 alloy. areas; however, there was no sign of defective welds upon
The remaining test parameters were the same for all four micro-examination. There were no significant differences in
autoclaves: 150,000 mg/l chlorine, 5% CO2, a total pressure crack frequency and crack depth among the autoclave sam-
of 300 psi and a temperature of 275 °F (135 °C). Because ple lots, Figs. 6a to 6d.
the 825 alloy had the highest confidence of passing all the The lab report noted similar results for the other alloy:
testing, it was put in a 90-day test. The 825 test samples “Cracking has been observed for all 4565 U-bend specimens
consisted of U-bend specimens and the actual welded tubing by the visual examination.” All nine samples of that alloy

Fig. 6a. Sample of 2205 alloy, as prepared for testing.
Unbent
Bent
Fig. 6c. Sample of 2205 alloy after 5% H2S, 30-day test.
Fig.
Fig. 6a.Sample
6a. Sample of
of2205
2205 alloy,
alloy, as
as prepared
preparedfor
fortesting.
testing. Fig.6b.
Fig. 6b.Sample
Sample of
of 2205
2205alloy
alloyafter
after1%
1%HH2S, 30-day test.
2S, 30-day test.
LOAD TESTING
Purpose
The design of the metal-jacketed power

cable is for a conventional ESP cable to
be installed inside an outer metal jacket.
The metal jacket is then laser welded, in
a controlled environment to ensure the
quality of the weld process, Fig. 9a. The
ESP cable is fed into the formed jacket
Fig. 6b. Sample of 2205 alloy after 1% H2S, 30-day test. prior to welding, Fig. 9b. After welding,
the metal jacket is drawn down onto the
ESP cable, creating an interference fit.
Load testing was performed to deter-
mine the optimal amount of interference
between the ESP cable and metal jacket
required to prevent loss of support be-
Fig. 6c. Sample of 2205 alloy after 5% H2S, 30-day test. Fig. 6d. Sample of 2205 alloy after 15% H2S, 30-day test.
tween the two components during ser-
Fig. 6c. Sample of 2205 alloy after 5% H2S,Fig. 30-day test.
6d. Sample of 2205 alloy after 15% H2S,vice. 30-day test.
(three samples each from the 1%, 5% and 15% H2S tests)
were returned for further examination. Additional evalua- Testing Setup and Procedure
tions indicated that the cracks were in the base metal area.
Several 10 ft samples of the metal jacket were drawn to dif-
There were no significant differences in crack frequency and Saudi Aramco: Company General Use
ferent diameters to provide different interference fits between
crack depth among the autoclave sample lots, Figs. 7a to 7d.
the jacket and the cable. A restraining force was then applied
The 825 tube sample, originally planned for a 90-day test,
to the metal jacket while the cable inside was loaded until it
was visually inspected at 35 days after the 2205 and 4565
began to move and was pulled from the jacket, Fig. 10. The
alloys failed their 30-day tests. After a good visual inspec-
process was repeated a number of times to provide an aver-
tion of the 825 tube, the sample was placed back into the
age retention force.
charged autoclave to complete the remainder of the 90-day
test. According to the lab report, “No cracking has been ob- Load Test Results
served for all 825 U-bend specimens and 825 tube specimens
after a check with dye penetrant and visual examination,” An optimal restraining force was found to be 500 lb/ft. This
Figs. 8a to 8c. provided sufficient restraint of the ESP cable while prevent-
The 825 alloy was preliminarily qualified for use at H2S ing undue stress on the cable system.
levels up to 15% based upon the autoclave testing. The other
two alloys, 2205 and 4565, were disqualified from use based BENDING CYCLE/FATIGUE TESTING
upon their failed test results.
Purpose
The metal-jacketed power cable is designed to enable de-

Fig. 6d. Sample of 2205 alloy after 15% H2S, 30-day test. ployment of ESP equipment using modified CT equipment.

Fig. 7c. Sample of 4565 alloy after 5% H2S, 30-day test.
Fig.7a.
Fig. 7a.Sample
Sample of
of 4565
4565 alloy,
alloy, as
as prepared
preparedfor
fortesting.
testing. Fig.7a.
Fig. 7b.Sample
Sample of
of 4565
4565 alloy,
alloy after 1% H2S,for
as prepared 30-day test.
testing.
Fig. 7c. Sample of 4565 alloy after 5% H2S, 30-day

Fig.
test. 7c. Sample of 4565 alloy after 5% H
2
baseline fatigue life of the Incoloy® 825

tube. The samples were placed into a
bending jig with a 36” bending form ra-
dius. One test sample was oriented with
Fig. 7b. Sample of 4565 alloy after 1% H2S, 30-day test. Fig. 7b. Sample of 4565 alloy after 1% H2S, 30-day test. the longitudinal weld positioned intra-
dos; the other test sample was oriented
with the longitudinal weld positioned
neutrados, Fig. 11. An internal pressure
of 500 psi was applied to each sample.
Each sample was cycled until failure
occurred, as indicated by loss of internal
Fig. 7d. Sample of 4565 alloy after 15% H2S, 30-day test. pressure.
Fig. 7d. Sample of 4565 alloy after 15% H2S, 30-day test.
During installation, the power cable is subjected to low-cycle Bending Cycle/Fatigue Results
fatigue, similar to that experienced by a CT string. The bend/
fatigue test was to determine the failure mechanism of the UnderSaudi
theAramco:
testingCompany General Use
conditions, the bending fatigue test resulted
cable and to estimate the service life of the cable — the cable in an average fatigue life for the cable of 557 cycles, which
is expected to be reused. is in excess of 275 deployments and retrievals. Both sam-
ples failed with a normal pinhole occurring in the form of a
Testing Setup and Procedure transverse crack that Fig. started
7d.from the outside
Sample of 4565diameter and 15% H
alloy after 2
propagatedFig.by8b.fatigue,
Sample Fig.of12.825The pinhole
alloy after from
15% Test
H2S,190-day
was test.
Two 8 ft long samples were prepared for tests to establish a associated with a small, shallow external dent. None of the
Saudi
Fig.
Fig. 8a.8a. Sampleof
Sample of825
825 alloy,
alloy, as
as prepared
preparedfor
fortesting. Fig. 8b. Sample of 825 alloy after 15% H2S, 90-day
testing.Fig. Fig. 8c. Bias weld sample of 825 alloy after 15% H2S,
8b. Sample of 825 alloy after 15% H2S, 90-day test.Bias weld sample of 825 alloy after 15%
Fig. 8c. H2
test. 90-day test.
Saudi Aramco:
No metallurgical abnormalities were associated with any
of the pinholes. Additional external and internal fatigue
cracks were observed, which is normal from a fatigue test,
e.g., once the maximum fatigue life is reached, fatigue cracks
start at different locations.
ELECTRICAL INTEGRITY AND CABLE

THERMAL GROWTH TESTING
Fig. 9a. Seam welding using CO2 laser beam weld.
Purpose
Downhole temperatures are significantly higher than the

temperature at which the metal-jacketed power cable is fab-
ricated. The electrical testing is designed to validate the ca-
Fig. 9a. Seam welding using CO2 laser beam weld. ble’s electrical characteristics at these elevated temperatures.
Thermal cycling of the power cable was also used to validate
the thermal growth of the system.
For testing the electrical characteristics at an elevated tem-

perature, an 8 ft sample of the power cable was prepared,
Fig. 13. Each conductor within the sample was tested phase
to phase and phase to ground before and during controlled
durations of heat up to 300 °F. The test was repeated five
times and the results were compared. Samples were measured
Fig. 9b. Forming
for change rolls
during the shape
heat cycle, the
and jacket strip
a detailed around the
examination
Fig. 9b. Forming rolls shape the jacket strip around the cable.
pinholes started at the seam weld.
The outside diameter measured during the fatigue test was
close to the nominal value. The ovality and ballooning de-
tected were very low — ovality of 0.1% to 0.4%; ballooning
of 0.001” to 0.009”. It is noteworthy that these results indi-
cate the dimensional changes due to low-cycle fatigue for the
Incoloy 825 tube, under the testing conditions, were below
the maximum acceptable for normal CT operations.
Some displacement of the solid conductors and their in-
sulation was observed at the sample’s ends after the bending
fatigue test. This could be the result of the movement of the
internals while the cable was being bent during the test. Fig. 10. Load testing of cable.
Fig. 10. Load testing of cable.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 11. Cable samples testing using the bending fatigue machine. Both samples were fatigue tested on a 36” radius bending form and with 500 psi internal pressure. (a) Test
1: seam weld on the intrados; (b) Test 2: seam weld on neutrados.
using
SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 2016 37 ;
Fig. 12. Transverse crack.
Fig. 14. Cable sheared with BOP shear rams.

Fig. 14. Cable sheared with BOP shear rams.
SHEAR TESTING
Purpose
Should an unplanned well control incident occur during

deployment or retrieval of the metal-jacketed power cable,
a blowout protector (BOP) must be activated to prevent
the flow of hydrocarbons. In those circumstances, the BOP
would shear the cable. A shear test of the cable was con-
ducted to ensure the BOP could perform as designed.

Fig. 13. End view of cable assembled for temperature cycling test showing sample
electrical test probe.
Fig. 13. End view of cable assembled for temperature cycling test showing sample
A combination electricalBOP
ram shear/seal test was
probe.
filled with water
of the individual power cable components was completed above the rams. A sample piece of the metal-jacketed power
Fig. 13. End view of cable assembled for temperature cycling test showing sample electrical test probe.
after the test. cable was installed in the BOP. The shear/seal rams were
A 10” sample was prepared for the thermal growth test to General Use
activated to shear the cable, and the force and time required
allow for measurement of the cable and conductors at 50 °F to
Saudi Aramco: Company General Use sever the cable were recorded. The time to sever the ca-
increments between 150 °F and 300 °F. ble should be quick to minimize the unplanned release of
hydrocarbons. Once the cable is severed, pressure testing of
Results the BOP and hydrostatic testing will determine if the BOP is
capable of sealing afterward under both low-pressure condi-
The results of the electrical characteristics testing at elevated
tions — at 200 psi to 300 psi — and high-pressure conditions
temperatures confirmed no degradation to the conductors
— at 15,000 psi.
in either phase-to-phase resistance or phase-to-ground resis-
tance. Resistance was in excess of 11 giga-ohms for all tests. Results
A detailed analysis of the armor, elastomeric cable jacket
and conductor insulation was made, and no damage was ob- The activation of the combination ram shear/seal BOP
served. quickly severed the cable, taking less than 30 seconds to
Results of the thermal growth test confirmed that the ther- cleanly shear the cable into two pieces. Subsequent hydro-
mal growth was within the material’s expected coefficient static testing at 300 psi and 15,000 psi was successful as
of thermal expansion (CoE). The measured CoE was within well. Inspection of the cable and the shear rams revealed a
-6.5% to 0.6% of the reference data for the special metals clean shear of the cable without damage to the rams, Fig. 14.
Incoloy alloy 825. Saudi Aramco: Company

CONCLUSIONS Workover (Russian),” SPE paper 160689, presented at
the SPE Russian Oil and Gas Exploration and Production
A rigorous evaluation and test program resulted in de- Technical Conference and Exhibition, Moscow, Russia,
velopment of a novel high H2S rated, cable deployed ESP October 16-18, 2012.
system that can improve the speed and efficiency of ESP
4. Ward, I., Lynn, C., Shaw, R. and Hervo, S.: “Coiled
deployment. The metal-jacketed power cable system im-
Tubing Material Selection for Velocity Strings in Sour
proves deployment and retrieval safety and reduces risks in
Brine Service,” SPE paper 168294, presented at the SPE/
comparison to conventional rig deployed ESP systems. A
ICoTA Coiled Tubing and Well Intervention Conference
laser welded unannealed 825 nickel alloy was found to meet
and Exhibition, The Woodlands, Texas, March 25-26,
required standards of resistance when subjected to high H2S
2014.
and chloride levels. The metal-jacketed cable also met the
physical and electrical requirements, including cable support
and grip, bending fatigue, cable shear, and electrical continu-
ity and resistance.
Due to the failure of the lower cost materials investigated
for use in lower H2S wells, new material will be sourced
and further testing performed. Additional work is being
performed to develop these alternate materials with testing
parameters being revised to simulate less extreme well condi-
tions. It is hoped these efforts should identify cable material
with the mechanical strength and corrosion resistance re-
quired, at a lower cost. Further refinement in the design has
involved reviewing reductions in cable weight to allow for
longer deployment lengths for deeper ESP setting depths.
Field trials of the 825 nickel alloy cable deployed ESP system
is expected to occur in the second half of 2016.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Aramco and Baker Hughes for their support and permission
to publish this article. Furthermore, the authors would like
to thank the many individuals and companies who contrib-
uted to the project’s success.
This article was prepared for presentation at the SPE Middle
East Artificial Lift Conference and Exhibition, Manama,
Kingdom of Bahrain, November 30-December 1, 2016.
REFERENCES
1. Caycedo, L. and Diebold, J.B.: “An Artificial Lift System

That Utilizes Cable Suspended Electrical Submersible
Pumps,” SPE paper 8242, presented at the SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, Las Vegas, Nevada,
September 23-26, 1979.
2. Patterson, J.C., Wiess, J., Brookbank, E.B. and Bebak,
K.T.: “Cable Internal, Coiled Tubing Deployed
Submersible Pump Installation,” SPE paper 60732, pre-
sented at the SPE/ICoTA Coiled Tubing Roundtable,
Houston, Texas, April 5-6, 2000.
3. Malyavko, E.A., Ageev, S.R., Drozdov, A.N., Alekseev,
Y.L., Robin, A.V., Alekseev, A.I., et al.: “The Use
of Umbilicals as a New Technology of Artificial Lift
Operation of Oil and Gas Wells without Well Killing when

BIOGRAPHIES
Brian A. Roth is a Petroleum
Engineer Specialist in the Production
Technology Division of Saudi
Aramco’s Exploration and Petroleum
Engineering Center – Advanced
Research Center (EXPEC ARC). His
focus is on R&D efforts with an
emphasis on artificial lift technologies. Before joining
Saudi Aramco in 2012, Brian spent over 25 years in
engineering and leadership roles in large oil and gas
service companies.
He has over 24 applied and granted patents and has
authored or coauthored several technical and journal
papers.
Brian received his B.S. degree in Mechanical
Engineering from the University of Texas at Austin,
Austin, TX, and an MBA degree from Texas A&M
University, College Station, TX.
Dr. Jinjiang X. Xiao is a Petroleum

Engineering Consultant working in
Saudi Aramco’s Exploration and
Petroleum Engineering Center –
Advanced Research Center (EXPEC
ARC). He is currently the Focus Area
Champion for artificial lift.
Prior to joining Saudi Aramco in 2003, Jinjiang spent
10 years with Amoco and later BP-Amoco, working
on multiphase flow, flow assurance and deepwater
production engineering.
He received both his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in
Petroleum Engineering from the University of Tulsa,
Tulsa, OK.
Mark Paquette is a Metallurgical

Engineering Specialist with Baker
Hughes Artificial Lift Systems based
in Claremore, OK, at the Artificial
Lift Research Center. He has 20 years
of well-rounded industry experience
in various aspects of working with
materials.
Mark received his B.S. degree in Material Science and
Engineering from the University of Wisconsin-Madison,
Madison, Wisconsin.

Assessment of Advanced Corrosion
Monitoring Technology for Pipeline Integrity
Bander F. Al-Daajani, Dr. Nayef M. Al-Anazi, Dr. Abdelmounam M. El-Sherik and Abdullatif I. AbdulHadi
ABSTRACT conditions a pipeline is exposed to, i.e., sour or sweet

environments. Because it does not have these drawbacks, a
Online corrosion monitoring is an integral part of any non-intrusive online corrosion monitoring technique is an
effective pipeline integrity management system that strives important tool that can contribute to an effective pipeline
to ensure the reliability of an established pipeline’s network. integrity management system. It enables field operators
Corrosion monitoring techniques can be classified as to detect changes in corrosion behavior and take timely
intrusive and non-intrusive methods. The advantage of remedial action, eliminating unplanned plant shutdowns.
non-intrusive corrosion monitoring technologies is that they Operators can diagnose a particular corrosion problem,
provide flexibility in selecting the monitoring locations. correlate the effect of changes in process parameters on
This article discusses the findings from a labora- system corrosion, assess the effectiveness of the ongoing
tory assessment of a non-intrusive corrosion monitoring treatment chemicals program and extend equipment life.
technique based on electric field mapping (EFM) under Different non-intrusive techniques are available, such as
simulated field conditions. For comparison purposes, the ultrasonic testing (UT) and the use of a fiber optic sensor14,
ultrasonic testing (UT) technique was utilized to validate the in addition to the electric field mapping (EFM) that is the
EFM results. focus of this work. EFM can cover a larger area compared
to fiber optic sensor ranges, and it can provide online
INTRODUCTION readings where UT can give on-the-spot readings only. EFM
was developed based on the electrical resistance between
Corrosion is known to threaten the operations and integrity
two points. EFM measures the voltage between two points,
of pipelines and other assets in the oil and gas industry1, 2,
which, according to Ohm’s Law, is directly proportional to
leading to failures affecting the health and safety environ-
the electrical resistance. This electrical resistance will vary
ment, with cost consequences, as well as having negative
depending on the resistivity of the metal and the volume
impacts on customers due to the downtime in operations.
of metal that carries the electrical current. That means
Although carbon steel is the industry’s material of choice
the resistivity of the metal will change due to metal loss.
for pipelines, based on its excellent mechanical properties,
Therefore, the measured electrical resistance will increase as
weldability and low cost3, carbon steel is also susceptible
the current carrying volume is reduced, i.e., as wall thickness
to various corrosion damage mechanisms4, 5. Therefore,
is reduced due to corrosion15.
corrosion monitoring programs should be implemented to
The EFM system here consists of 112 mild steel pins, each
protect, control or effectively manage these pipelines. The
with a diameter of ¼”, configured so the distance between
current corrosion monitoring practice in the oil and gas
any two pins is 1” and it covers an area of 15” × 6”. This
industry is to install intrusive online probes, or coupons, as
article discusses the laboratory experimental program that
tools to evaluate and monitor fluid corrosivity.
was conducted to assess the functionality and reliability
These corrosion monitoring techniques include measur-
of the EFM technique for field applications in corrosion
ing electrochemical noise6, 7, electrical resistance8, 9 and
detection.
linear polarization resistance, as well as employing ring pair
electrical resistance sensors10, electrochemical impedance EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
spectroscopy11, a multi-electrode array system12 and weight
loss coupons13. Installing corrosion coupons is labor Three carbon steel spools with an internal diameter of
intensive, however, and they do not provide early warning. 6” and a length of 12” were machined and welded with
Also, coupons need to be removed manually to calculate appropriate ports for directing gas in and out. Each spool
the corrosion rate. In addition, the selection of intrusive contained a specific simulated field environment representing
corrosion monitoring techniques has to consider the specific a specific corrosive condition (1, 2 and 3). An EFM system

otherwise they were kept under low
pressure — around 6 psi — with no
circulation flow. Spool 3, which as noted
above was exposed to an acidic solution
with 10% HCl acid, was connected to
a pump to circulate the acidic solution.
An X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was
conducted on the field sludge used when
preparing the solution for condition 2, Fig.
2, and indicated that the deposit consisted
mainly of calcite phase, at around 85 wt%,
as well as 8 wt% of pyrite (FeS2) and 3
wt% of mackinawite (FeS). Some traces of
palygorskite, quartize and baraite were also
observed in the XRD pattern.
Fig. 1. Experimental setup. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig. 1. Experimental setup.
The wall thickness data generated by the
Fig.
Spool1.
# Experimental
Condition setup.
pH Blend Gas EFM system was collected once a week,
Field water having no Spool # Condition
and a data management analysis tool system was used for pH
1 3.5 Yes
deposits, stagnant water Field
data water having
interpretation noAll
and analysis. deposits,
spools were longitu-
1 3.5
2
Field water + actual field
3.5 Yes stagnant
dinally sectioned afterward water
to allow a visual inspection of
sludge, stagnant water theField
Spool 10% # HCl acid in distilled Condition water
internal surface+ofactual
pHfield
each spool. The sludge,
corrosive effects of
2 conditions 1, 2stagnant 3.5
water
and 3 and the detection of those effects will
3
Field water having
water, water circulated at 1 No
10%no HCldeposits,next be discussed for each spool.
acid in distilled water, water
1 15 l/min
3 3.5 1
Table 1. Data conditions for each spool stagnantSpool-1 water circulated at 15 l/min
Fielda target
water
Table 1. +Dataactual
Visualfield
conditions forsludge,
each
showedspool
2
of 112 pins was then installed, covering location inspection
3.5
minor metal loss, Fig. 3. It was
stagnant water
from the 4 o’clock to 8 o’clock positions of each spool. All noticed in the photo that corrosion products were deposited
test spools were connected in a series with one inlet and onto the pipe wall where they formed a hard film. The EFM
10% HCl acid in distilled water, water
3
outlet for gas mixture purging purposes.
1
Figure 1 shows the experimental setup
for the test spools.
circulated at 15 l/min
The spools were carefully cleaned by
Table 1. Data conditions for each spool

using an acidic solution and distilled
water. Then a solution high in total
dissolved solids (TDS) — field water
with 24,000 TDS and pH = 3.5 —
was prepared and used for conditions
1 and 2. A 10% hydrochloric (HCl)
acid solution with pH = 1 was used
for condition 3. A blended corrosive
gas contained 0.1 mole% hydrogen
sulfide and 0.39 mole% carbon
dioxide, balanced with nitrogen, was
used in spools 1 and 2. No blended
gas was introduced in spool 3. Table
1 summarizes all the adapted and
implemented conditions for each spool.
The blended gas was refreshed in
spools 1 and 2 once per week for
Fig. 2. XRD analysis of an actual field sludge deposit collected from an oil pipeline for condition 2.
15 minutes at a pressure of 10 psi;
Fig. 2. XRD analysis of an actual field sludge deposit collected from
The EFM results showed it detected no metal loss as a result
of this condition, Fig. 7. The UT results showed an average
detected metal loss of around 0.097 mm, Fig. 8, equivalent
to a corrosion rate of 0.194 mmpy. The effect of adding
actual field deposits into the spool was clear: The average
detected metal loss increased from 0.06 mm to 0.097 mm.
Spool-3
In this spool, where a 10% HCl acid solution was utilized

to create a harsh environment, higher metal loss inside the
spool was observed and measured by both EFM and the UT
scan. The average metal loss detected by the UT scan was
Fig. 3. Photo showing a cross section for spool-1.
Fig. 3. showed
results Photo showing a cross
no detectable metalsection for4.spool-1.
loss, Fig. In contrast,
the UT technique detected a metal loss of 0.06 mm, which is
equivalent to a corrosion rate of 0.122 mm per year (mmpy).
Fig. 5. Average metal loss in spool-1 detected by UT and EFM.
For comparison purposes between the EFM and UT
readings, six locations were selected on the 6 o’clock Fig.5.5.Average
Fig. Averagemetal
metalloss
lossinin spool-1
spool-1 detected
detected byby
UTUT
andand EFM.
EFM.
position of spool-1. Figure 5 shows the average metal loss

at these six locations as measured by both EFM and UT.
The comparison reveals that the EFM technique detected no
changes in metal loss at all six locations, while the metal loss
detected by the UT technique was in the range of 0.03 mm
to 0.12 mm for locations 1 to 5. At location 6 no metal loss
was detected by either technique.
Spool-2
The corrosivity of condition 2 was more aggressive than that Fig. 6. Photo showing a cross-section for spool-2.
of condition 1 since field deposits were added to the spool-2

Fig. 3. Photo showing a cross section for spool-1.
solution to simulate actual field conditions. Figure 6, a photo
Fig. 6. Photo showing a cross-section for spool-2.
of the cross section of spool-2, exhibits minor metal loss. Fig. 6. Photo showing a cross-section for spool-2.
Fig. 4. Remaining wall thickness for spool-1 as detected by EFM.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. Remaining
Remaining wall
wall thickness
thicknessfor
forspool-1
spool-1asas
detected by EFM.
detected by EFM. Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. EFM
EFM results
results indicating
indicatingno
nometal
metalloss forfor
loss spool-2.
spool-2.

Fig.
Fig. 8.
8.Average
Averagemetal
metalloss
lossdetected
detectedby
byUT
UTand EFM
and for for
EFM spool-2.
spool-2.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 11.Average
Average metal
metalloss
loss detected
detected by UTand
by UT andEFM.
EFM.
for spool-3 after the experiment. In this part of the test, the
EFM demonstrated the ability to pick up the changes in metal
thickness, confirming that the EFM system does respond to
the reduction in metal thickness, but only when the reduction
in pipe metal thickness is higher than 0.2 mm.
Figure 11 exhibits the results of metal loss detection in
six locations as measured by EFM and UT. The UT readings
are higher than the EFM readings in locations 2, 3 and 4 by
30% to 50%, while in locations 1, 5 and 6, EFM readings
Fig. 9. Spool-3 photo after the experiment with UT locations marked.
are a little bit higher than UT readings by almost 7% to
Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. Spool-3
Spool-3 photo after
photo the experiment
after with UT
the experiment locations
with marked. marked.
UT locations 20%.
CONCLUSIONS
An EFM system was evaluated under three conditions

to assess its sensitivity and reliability in measuring metal
loss. The EFM results derived under each condition were
compared with the UT results. It can be concluded from
this study that the EFM technology can respond to metal
thickness changes only when Saudithe reduction
Aramco: ofUsethe metal
Company General
thickness is higher than 0.2 mm. A UT scan, in contrast, has

the ability to detect minor metal thickness changes down to
less than 0.2 mm.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Fig. 10.
Fig. 10.Remaining
Remainingwall
wallthickness
thicknessmap
mapforfor spool-3
spool-3 based
based on on
EFMEFM detection
detection at end
at the the end
of the experiment.
Aramco for their support and permission to publish this
of the experiment.
article. The authors would also like to thank Saudi Aramco’s
around 0.36 mm for 16 selected locations, and the calculated Research & Development Center management and the
average corrosion rate was 2.3 mmpy. Within this acidy Inspection Department for the full support they provided to
Fig. 10. Remaining wall thickness map for spool-3 based on EFM detection at the to complete
us end this project. The authors highly commend the
of the experiment.
environment, the results of the EFM system were similar
contributions of the technicians who helped in executing the
to but lower than the UT results:
Saudi Aramco:The average
Company General Use metal loss
assigned tasks.
was around 0.257 mm and the average corrosion rate was
1.82 mmpy. Therefore, the difference between the UT and REFERENCES
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“Corrosion of AISI 1020 Steel in Crude Oil Studied by
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9. Kouril, M., Prosek, T., Scheffel, B. and Degres, Y.:
“Corrosion Monitoring in Archives by the Electrical
Resistance Technique,” Journal of Cultural Heritage, Vol.
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Study on Pipeline Internal Corrosion Based on a New
Kind of Electrical Resistance Sensor,” Sensors and
Actuators B: Chemical, Vol. 224, March 2016, pp.
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11. Tan, Y.: “Experimental Methods Designed for Measuring
Corrosion in Highly Resistive and Inhomogeneous
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12. Alanazi, N.M., El-Sherik, A.M., Rasheed, A.H., Amar,
S.H., Dossary, M.R. and Al-Neema, M.N.: “Corrosion of
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in a Simulated Sour Environment,” Corrosion, Vol. 71,
Issue 3, March 2015, pp. 305-315.

BIOGRAPHIES Abdullatif I. AbdulHadi is a Senior
Research Consultant at Saudi
Bander F. Al-Daajani joined Saudi Aramco’s Research and Development
Aramco in October 2001. He has Center (R&DC). His research areas of
contributed to various high value interest include corrosion monitoring,
projects related to corrosion and hydrogen permeation and materials
materials performance such as the performance in a sour environment. In
assessment of advanced corrosion addition, Abdullatif has investigated the feasibility of
monitoring technologies and the adapting and deploying several new corrosion
development of a corrosion inhibition program for measurement technologies in Saudi Arabia fields, such as
different operational facilities within Saudi Aramco. Also, MICROCOR, CEION, CLAMP-ON and Hydrosteel.
Bander played a major role in the assessment and He has authored and coauthored several technical
development of new demulsifiers for various gas plants in papers, which have been published in refereed journals and
Saudi Aramco. He is currently assigned to the Materials papers of international conferences.
Performance Unit where he contributes to the oil field Abdullatif received his M.S. degree in Analytical
chemicals function, corrosion inhibitor evaluation study, Chemistry from King Fahd University of Petroleum and
material testing and coating evaluation. Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Bander has several publications in peer-referred journals
and international conferences.
He received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering
from King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, and
his M.S. degree in Chemical Engineering from King Fahd
University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia.
Dr. Nayef M. Al-Anazi is a Science

Specialist at Saudi Aramco’s Research
& Development Center. He has more
than 16 years of professional
experience in materials performance
and corrosion. Nayef’s interests are in
corrosion under sweet and sour
conditions in the oil and gas industry.
He is a member of the National Association of
Corrosion Engineers (NACE).
Nayef received his Ph.D. degree in Materials Science
and Engineering from Sheffield University, Sheffield, U.K.
Dr. Abdelmounam M. El-Sherik

joined Saudi Aramco in 2004 and is
currently working for the Research
and Development Center (R&DC) as
a Research Science Consultant with
the Materials Performance Unit of the
Technical Services Division. Prior to
joining Saudi Aramco, he worked in Canada for over 15
years in materials development, corrosion and failure
analysis. Abdelmounam has over 25 years of professional
experience in the areas of materials and corrosion.
He received his B.S. degree in Materials Science and
Engineering from Tripoli University, Tripoli, Libya, and
his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Materials and Metallurgical
Engineering from Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.
Abdelmounam has authored or coauthored over 100
publications in the areas of corrosion and materials. He is
an active member of the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers (NACE), American Society for Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) and Society for Petroleum Engineers
(SPE).

Iron Sulfide Scale Dissolution at
High-Pressure, High Temperature
Dr. Tao Chen, Dr. Qiwei Wang, Dr. Fauken F. Chang and Dr. Yahya T. Al-Janabi
ABSTRACT highly desirable.

This article presents the latest laboratory results from
While a thin film of iron sulfide scale is generally considered an evaluation of recently developed iron sulfide dissolvers.
beneficial for sour corrosion protection, a thick layer of scale The dissolvers were studied for their dissolving effectiveness
deposit is detrimental to efficient and safe well operations against iron sulfide scale solids and for the rate of their cor-
in the oil and gas industry. Iron sulfide scale has been a rosion of mild steel at an elevated temperature. Based on
persistent problem in Khuff sour gas wells since their early these results, future developments for iron sulfide dissolvers
production days. These wells were completed with low car- are discussed.
bon mild steel, and the produced fluids usually contain high
levels of acidic hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide INTRODUCTION
(CO2) gases. Deposits on downhole tubulars affect well de-
liverability, interfere with well surveillance and restrict well The Ghawar oil field, located about 100 km southwest of
intervention. Phase analyses show that the deposits usually Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, is by far the world’s biggest oil field
consist of a wide range of scale minerals, which include dif- in terms of both reserves and production. It has a dimension
ferent forms of iron sulfide, iron oxides and oxyhydroxides, of 280 km by 30 km1. It was discovered in the late 1940s,
as well as calcium carbonate and iron carbonate. Attempts and first oil production was brought onstream in 19512.
have been made to determine the deposition mechanism The Ghawar field also holds massive gas reserves at greater
based on scale mineralogy and structure. Meanwhile, exten- depths. A deep gas condensate development program was
sive work has been carried out to identify effective dissolvers started in the early 1980s with initial gas production from
for scale removal. Dissolvers based on concentrated hydro- a prolific sour carbonate reservoir (Khuff). During the early
chloric (HCl) acid have high dissolving power, but they also stages of production, the developed gas reservoirs in the
have limited applicability due to overwhelming drawbacks southern area had a temperature range of 120 °C to 170 °C
such as corrosion and H2S generation. Therefore, alternative and a high pressure of over 8,000 psi.
dissolvers with low corrosivity and slow H2S evolution are The produced gas contains up to 20% hydrogen sulfide
Fig. 1. Scale formed in a Khuff sour gas well, including (left) scale deposited in a downhole tubular, and (right) scale deposited in a topside flow line.
Fig. 1. Scale formed in a Khuff sour gas well, including (left) scale deposited in a downhole tubular, and
(right) scale deposited in a topside flow line. SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 2016 47
(H2S), with an average of ~5% H2S, and 0.5% to 4.0% and casing, along with the generation of H2S during descal-
carbon dioxide (CO2). The produced water is a mixture of ing jobs, raised major concerns and barriers to their further
vapor condensate and formation water, with total dissolved use. Alternative dissolvers, however, usually have limited
solids up to 300,000 mg/l. The average water production dissolving powers.
rate is very low, often in the range of 2 bbl per million This article presents the latest laboratory results from an
standard cubic feet per day (MMscfd) of gas. The produced evaluation of new iron sulfide dissolvers. The recently devel-
hydrocarbon condensate rate is between 20 bbl per MMscfd oped dissolvers were studied for their dissolving effectiveness
and 300 bbl per MMscfd. Low alloy carbon steel T-95, against iron sulfide minerals, and for the rate of their corro-
which contains 0.5% to 1.0% Cr, 0.2% Ni and 0.2% Mo, sion of mild steel at elevated temperatures and high pressure.
has been used for well completions in the Khuff as a cost-ef- Future developments for iron sulfide dissolvers are discussed.
fective option3. No subsurface chemical treatment program
has been implemented to date for controlling corrosion and EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
scale.
Scale deposition has been one of the major issues for the Scale Solids
Khuff sour gas wells in the last few decades. Scale that is
deposited in downhole tubulars and topside pipelines causes Most iron sulfide scales deposited in Khuff wells are in
significant production and operational problems, such as the form of iron mono-sulfide phases, such as pyrrhotite
restriction of downhole surveillance and intervention, and (Fe1-xS), troilite (FeS) and mackinawite (Fe1+xS), Fig. 35. The
leads to significant losses of gas production4. Figure 1 shows iron-deficient Fe1-xS is the most abundant phase. On average,
the typical scale deposited in the downhole tubulars and top- it accounts for more than half of iron sulfide scales (58%),
side pipelines of Khuff wells1, 5. followed by FeS (13%) and Fe1+xS (11%). Pyrite and marca-
Scale formation differs significantly from well to well in site, which have the same chemical composition (FeS2), have
terms of severity and chemical composition; it also varies a combined average scale contribution of 15%. They occur
with depth in the same well . Most deposits are a mixture of
5 in less than half of the analyzed samples. Greigite is the least
different types of minerals. Figure 2 is a graph of the typical common iron sulfide phase. It is found only in a few wells
scale compositions in the Khuff sour wells. As iron sulfide and accounts for only about 3% of the iron sulfide scale on
scale is the predominant mineral found in most scale samples average. As Fe1-xS is the predominant iron sulfide form found
a Khuff
analyzed, sour
it is the maingas well,
focus including
in this study. (left) scale deposited inscale,
at field a downhole tubular,
it was used andthe dissolving perfor-
to measure
deposited
Bothinchemical
a topside andflow line. methods have been used to
mechanical mance of the iron sulfide scale dissolvers in this screening
remove downhole iron sulfide scale in these wells6-8. Hydro- study.
chloric (HCl) acid based scale dissolvers were used in several The Fe1-xS samples used in this study were prepared from
descaling jobs. Although they were often effective in remov- commercial Fe1-xS supplied by VWR. Fe1-xS chips were pul-
ing deposits9, their heavy corrosion of the production string verized, and powders from 0.85 mm to 2.0 mm in size were
Fig. 3. Phases of iron sulfide scaleoftypically

Fig. 3. Phases iron sulfide deposited
scale typically on downhole
deposited tubulars
on downhole ininKhuff wells.
tubulars
Fig. 2. Typical scale composition in Khuff sour wells. Khuff wells.
.
Code pH Chemistry
SD-A <0 15% HCl acid
SD-B <0 Strong acid
SD-C 2-5 THPS
SD-D 2-5 THPS
SD-E 2-5 Acidic chelate
SD-F 2-5 THPS
SD-G 2-5 THPS
SD-H 5-7 pH neutralized chelate
SD-I 5-7 pH neutralized chelate
SD-J >12 Alkaline dissolver
SD-K >12 Alkaline dissolver
Fig. 4. Microscopic image of Fe1-xS particles used in the study. Table 1. Basic chemistry and pH of candidate scale dissolvers
Fig. 4. Microscopic image of Fe1-xS particles used in the study.
collected, Fig. 4. The samples were washed repeatedly by For the dissolving tests, 30 ml of dissolver and 3 grams of
de-ionized water to remove fine particles, and then dried in pulverized Fe1-xS were used. The tests were carried out at
open air before use. 125 °C in an autoclave. The total test duration was 6 hours,
including 1 hour of heating in the autoclave from room
Dissolver Solutions temperature to 125 °C, 4 hours at the test temperature, and
1 hour of cooling, depressurizing and disassembling. Tests
The ideal iron sulfide scale dissolver should not only re- were also performed using test tubes without external ap-
Code pH Chemistry
move scale deposits in downhole tubulars to restore well plied pressure. At the SD-A
end of the tests conducted at 1,000 psi,
<0 15% HCl acid
accessibility and productivity, but also cause no damage to the spent scale dissolvers
SD-Bwere collected
<0 for further
Strongcorrosion
acid
well integrity and pose no safety concerns. Considering the tests. SD-C 2-5 THPS
aggressive nature of HCl acid, non-HCl acid based dissolv- SD-D performance,
To calculate dissolving 2-5 the solidsTHPSwere
ers are desired to alleviate damage and safety concerns. The filtrated out and rinsed with de-ionized water Acidic
SD-E 2-5 chelate
to remove re-
SD-F 2-5 THPS
ideal iron sulfide scale dissolver should have the following sidual dissolver. The collected solids were then dried at 80
SD-G 2-5 THPS
characteristics: °C overnight. The amount
SD-H of dissolved
5-7 Fe1-xpH
S neutralized
was calculated
chelate
from the weight difference
SD-I between5-7the initial and finalchelate
pH neutralized sol-
• A dissolving capacity comparable to that of concen- ids, which were measuredSD-J with an>12
analytical Alkaline
balance.dissolver
trated HCl acid. SD-K >12 Alkaline dissolver
• Low corrosivity against mild steel completions; the Corrosion Test

Table 1. Basic chemistry and pH of candidate scale dissolvers
metal loss should be < 0.05 lb/ft2 during descaling
Mild steel C1018 coupons were used for the corrosion tests.
treatment.
They were rinsed with distilled water and acetone, and then
• No free H2S gas released after dissolving the iron sul- air dried before and after the tests. Corrosivity was assessed
fide scales.
• Stable at high downhole temperatures (up to 160 °C).
Extensive efforts have been made to identify alternative

dissolvers. Following a previous study5, a wide range of
commercial dissolvers has been evaluated in the last three
years. This article reports on 10 of these typical and new
iron sulfide scale dissolvers, all with different pH values and
basic chemistry, Table 1; dissolver SD-A, which is 15 wt%
HCl acid, is included in the study for comparison. Among
these iron sulfide scale dissolvers are different types of acids,
tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium sulfate (THPS), low
pH chelate, pH neutralized chelate and alkaline dissolvers.
Scale Dissolving Test

Fig. 5. Amount of dissolved Fe S at 125 °C.
1-xS at 125 °C.
Fig. 5. Amount of dissolved Fe1-x

by the changes in coupon weight after 4 hours immersed in pH and its dissolution capacity. Strong acids (pH < 0), rep-
the dissolvers — both live scale dissolver and spent scale dis- resented by SD-A and SD-B, gave the highest dissolution
solver solutions for each candidate — at 125 °C. The corro- performance. Mild acidic dissolvers (pH 2 to 7), represented
sivity of the live dissolvers was further tested at 150 °C. by SD-C to SD-I, showed a medium dissolution capacity.
SD-K, which has the highest pH, gave the lowest dissolution
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION performance. Generally, the lower the pH, the higher the
dissolution capacity. Test results also indicated that other
Scale Dissolving Test at 125 °C factors, especially dissolver chemistry and concentration, are
important. For example, while SD-J has a pH of ~13, it gave
Figure 5 summarizes the scale dissolving test results at 125
a better dissolution performance than most of the tested dis-
°C. SD-A (15% HCl acid) showed the highest dissolving
solvers with a pH between 2 and 7.
capacity among the tested dissolvers, with ~1.95 g Fe1-xS
dissolved. SD-B (strong acid with pH < 0) achieved good Effect of Pressure on Dissolution Performance
dissolution with ~1.33 g dissolved Fe1-xS. The weight losses
for the other dissolvers were between 0.1 g and 0.5 g. SD-E The tests were carried out at 125 °C under different pres-
(acidic chelate), SD-F (THPS), SD-G (THPS) and SD-K sures, from ambient to 4,000 psi, to study the effect of pres-
(alkaline) had very low dissolving power, with less than sure on the dissolution performance. The results are shown
0.1 g Fe1-xS dissolved. SD-D (THPS), SD-J (alkaline), SD-C in Fig. 7. In general, no significant change is observed with
(THPS), SD-H (pH neutralized chelate) and SD-I (pH neu- changes in test pressure: The performance rankings of the
tralized chelate) showed better performance, with dissolution tested scale dissolvers are the same at all pressures tested.
amounts of ~0.41 g, ~0.38 g, ~0.36 g, ~0.27 g and ~0.21 g, A small change is noted with SD-A, where the amount of
respectively. Fe1-xS dissolved decreased from 2.1 g to 1.7 g when pressure
Figure 6 shows the relationship between the dissolver increased from ambient to 4,000 psi. For the other scale dis-
solvers, the test pressure did not show a major effect on the
dissolving performance.
Corrosion Tests
Corrosion tests were carried out at 125 °C over 4 hours by

immersing coupons in live dissolver and spent dissolver solu-
tions of each candidate. The spent dissolvers were collected
from the iron sulfide dissolving test conducted at 1,000 psi.
The results are summarized in Fig. 8.
As shown in Fig. 8, SD-A, SD-B, SD-C and SD-D in the
live scale dissolver solutions were highly corrosive against
the mild steel C1080 coupon at 125 °C. Weight loss caused
by these dissolvers exceeds the corrosivity requirement — <
0.05 lb/ft2 during a 4-hour test. The other tested scale dis-
Fig.6.6.pH
Fig. pHofofscale
scaledissolvers
dissolvers vs.
vs. dissolved
dissolved Fe
Fe1-x1-xS.S.
Fig. 6. pH of scale dissolvers vs. dissolved Fe1-xS.
Fig.7.7.Effect
Effectofofpressure
pressure on
on Fe
Fe1-x S dissolution at 125 °C.
1-x S dissolution at 125 °C.
Fig. 8. Corrosion
Fig. 8. Corrosion rate
rateatat125
125°C
°Cafter
after44hours
hoursininlive
liveand
and spent
spent dissolver
dissolver solutions.
solutions.
Fig.
50 7. Effect
Fig. WINTER 2016 SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF
of pressure on Fe1-xS dissolution atTECHNOLOGY
125 °C.
Fig. 10. pH of live dissolvers vs. corrosion rate at 125 °C over 4 hours.
solvers showed less corrosion, with metal loss of < 0.05 lb/
ft2, especially SD-I, SD-J and SD-K, which had a corrosion
rate less than 0.01 lb/ft2.
Compared to the corrosion caused by the live dissolv-
ers, the solutions of spent dissolvers in most cases showed
Blank SD-A SD-B
a reduced corrosivity against the test carbon steel coupon.
Their ability to corrode carbon steel, therefore, is partially
consumed by the dissolution reaction with Fe1-xS. For some
high pH dissolvers — SD-E, SD-H and SD-I — no noticeable
change in corrosivity was observed. SD-C SD-D SD-E
This lower corrosivity seems to be unrelated to pH; the

dissolver pH showed little change after the Fe1-xS dissolution
tests. This is shown in Fig. 9, where the pH of the spent dis-
solvers taken from the autoclave test of 1,000 psi is plotted Saudi Aramco: Company General Use
against the pH of the live dissolvers. SD-F SD-G SD-H
Figure 10 summarizes the relationship between the pH

of scale dissolvers and their corrosivity. The test candidates
SD-A and SD-B had very high corrosivity, > 0.2 lb/ft2. The
THPS-based scale dissolvers, SD-C, SD-D, SD-F and SD-G,
showed medium corrosivity with the corrosion rate between SD-I SD-J SD-K
Fig. 8. Corrosion rate at 125 °C after 4 hours in live and spent dissolver solutions.
0.02 lb/ft2 and 0.2 lb/ft2. The low pH chelate (SD-E), pH Fig.11.
Fig. 11. Images
Images of theoftest
thecoupons
test coupons after
after 4 hours 4 hours at
of immersion of125immersion at 125
°C in live scale °C in live
dissolvers.
neutralized chelate (SD-H and SD-I) and alkaline dissolvers scale dissolvers.
(SD-J and SD-K) showed less corrosivity, with a rate of <

0.02 lb/ft2.
Figure 11 shows light microscope images of the coupons
after their immersion in the live scale dissolvers. 125 °C
150 °C
SD-A, SD-
C, SD-D and SD-G caused severe pitting
SD-F SD-G corrosion. They SD-H
therefore are not suitable for field application. SD-B, SD-F

and SD-H produced a few tiny pits, and a few discoloration
spots were observed on coupons exposed to dissolver SD-
I. Further tests will be arranged to confirm these results.
Test coupons immersed in dissolvers SD-E, SD-J and SD-K
Fig. 12. Corrosion weight loss at 125 °C and 150 °C after 4-hour immersion in live dissolvers.
showed no localized corrosion; their topography is similar to
SD-I SD-J SD-K
that of the blank coupon.
Fig. 11. Images of the test coupons after 4 hours of immersion at 125 °
Fig. 9.
Fig. 9. pH
pH of
of live
livedissolvers
dissolversand spent
and dissolvers.
spent dissolvers. Saudi Aramco: Company General Use

125 °C
150 °C
Fig. 12.
Fig. 12. Corrosion
Corrosion weight
weight loss
loss at
at 125
125 °C
°C and
and150
150°C
°Cafter
after4-hour
4-hourimmersion
immersionin
Fig. 10. pH of live dissolvers vs. corrosion rate at 125 °C over 4 hours. live dissolvers.
Fig. 10. pH of live dissolvers vs. corrosion rate at 125 °C over 4 hours.

Dissolution Corrosion Weight Pitting CONCLUSIONS
Capacity (g) Loss (lb/ft2) Corrosion
1. Iron sulfides are the major scale type deposited in the
SD-A 1.89 0.452 yes
Khuff sour gas well strings, with Fe1-xS being the most
SD-B 1.33 0.295 mild
common iron sulfide mineral. Non-acid based scale dis-
SD-D 0.43 0.153 yes solvers have been considered as one cost-effective alterna-
SD-C 0.43 0.113 yes tive for removing downhole tubular deposits.
SD-J 0.37 0.009 no 2. More than 20 iron sulfide dissolvers have been evaluated;
SD-H 0.26 0.015 mild
test results for 10 dissolvers are reported in this article.
Balancing the dissolution capacity with the corrosion rate
SD-I 0.22 0.005 no
and pitting evidence, the newly developed iron sulfide
SD-E 0.20 0.016 no
dissolver SD-J showed the best performance, with a good
SD-F 0.19 0.041 mild iron sulfide dissolution capacity, less corrosive at high
SD-G 0.13 0.031 yes temperature and no localized corrosion. This dissolver
SD-K 0.12 0.001 no also will experience no free H2S gas generation and no
iron sulfide re-precipitation due to its high pH level — pH
Table 2. Summary of scale dissolution and corrosion results over a 4-hour test
> 12.
Effect of Temperature on Corrosivity 3. The test pressure did not have a major effect on the dis-
solving performance, with the performance ranking of the
To determine the effect of temperature on corrosivity against tested scale dissolvers unchanged at test pressures from
carbon steel, additional corrosion tests were performed at ambient to 4,000 psi. Therefore, tests carried out without
150 °C. The results are shown in Fig. 12. The temperature applied pressure can be used to screen and rank the dis-
had a significant effect on the corrosivity results. Except for solution performance of iron sulfide scale dissolvers going
SD-J, higher corrosion rates were observed at 150 °C for forward.
all candidate dissolvers. Significant increases in corrosivity, 4. Their corrosion of mild carbon steel generally decreases
more than double for most of the candidate dissolvers, were as dissolvers become more alkaline. The dissolution ca-
observed with temperature increases from 125 °C and 150 pacity non-acid based dissolvers — pH > 2 — is deter-
°C. mined by other factors, such as dissolver chemistry and
essay concentration, rather than pH level.
Summary
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Table 2 summarizes the results of the dissolver evaluation
for effectiveness against iron sulfide scale. The evaluation
Aramco for their support and permission to publish this ar-
used a chemical toolbox approach, where the major perfor-
ticle. The authors would also like to thank Ali Jabran, Faez
mance factors were dissolution capacity and corrosivity, to
Dawood, Tawfiq Shafai and Esmael Albelharith for their
identify new dissolvers for Khuff field application. Because
help on conducting the lab tests.
SD-B, SD-C and SD-D showed high corrosivity, > 0.05 lb/ft2,
over the test period, they are not suitable for this field appli- REFERENCES
cation. Reformulation will be considered for these dissolvers
to reduce their corrosivity. SD-G and SD-K, which showed 1. Durham, L.S.: “The Elephant of All Elephants,” AAPG
poor dissolution capacity, are not effective enough as iron Explorer, January 2005.
sulfide scale dissolvers for the field. Balancing dissolution ca- 2. Rasoul, S.: “Finding Ghawar: Elephant Hid in Desert,”
pacity with corrosivity, the newly developed iron sulfide dis- AAPG Explorer, June 2011.
solver SD-J exhibited the best performance, with good iron
3. Al-Tammar, J.I., Bonis, M., Choi, H.J. and Al-Salim, Y.:
sulfide dissolution capacity and low corrosivity against mild
“Saudi Aramco Downhole Corrosion/Scaling Operational
carbon steel at high temperatures. In addition, the high pH
Experience and Challenges in HP/HT Gas Condensate
of this product significantly reduces the risk of free H2S gas
Producers,” SPE paper 169618, presented at the SPE
generation and iron sulfide re-precipitation. Further devel-
International Oil Field Corrosion Conference and
opment of other iron sulfide scale dissolvers should focus on
Exhibition, Aberdeen, Scotland, May 12-13, 2014.
these high pH products and seek to improve their dissolving
4. Franco, C.A., Al-Marri, H.M., Al-Asiri, M.A. and Al-
capacity while maintaining their low corrosivity.
Hussain, H.M.: “Understanding the Nature of the Mineral
Scale Problems in Ghawar Gas Condensate Wells to
Describe and Apply the Right Approach of Mitigation,”

paper 08347, presented at CORROSION 2008, New
Orleans, Louisiana, March 16-20, 2008.
5. Wang, Q., Ajwad, H., Shafai, T. and Lynn, J.D.: “Iron
Sulfide Scale Dissolvers: How Effective Are They?” SPE
paper 168063, presented at the SPE Saudi Arabia Section
Technical Symposium and Exhibition, al-Khobar, Saudi
Arabia, May 19-22, 2013.
6. Al-Tolaihy, M., Bukhari, D.O., Wu, A.M. and Carlos,
F.G.: “Study on the Optimization of De-Scaling Operations
in Saudi Arabian Khuff Gas Wells,” paper 10271, pre-
sented at CORROSION 2010, San Antonio, Texas, March
14-18, 2010.
7. Leal Jauregui, J.A., Solares, J.R., Nasr-El-Din, H.A.,
Franco, C.A., Garzon, F.O., Al-Marri, H.M., et al.: “A
Systematic Approach to Remove Iron Sulfide Scale: A Case
History,” SPE paper 105607, presented at the SPE Middle
East Oil and Gas Show and Conference, Manama, Bahrain,
March 11-14, 2007.
8. Leal Jauregui, J.A., Nunez Garcia, W., Al-Ismail, S.A.,
Solares, J.R. and Ramanathan, V.: “Novel Mechanical
Scale Clean Out Approach to Remove Iron Sulfide Scale
from Tubulars in Vertical High-Pressure and Temperature
Deep Gas Producers: A Case History,” SPE paper 121404,
presented at the EUROPEC/EAGE Conference and
Exhibition, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, June 8-11, 2009.
9. Walker, M.L., Dill, W.R. and Besler, M.R.: “Iron Control
Provides Sustained Production Increase in Wells Containing
Sour Gas,” Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology,
Vol. 29, Issue 6, November 1990, pp. 46-50.

BIOGRAPHIES Dr. Fakuen “Frank” F. Chang is the
focus area champion for Productivity
Dr. Tao Chen is a Petroleum Enhancement in the Production
Engineering Specialist working with Technology Team of Saudi Aramco’s
the Production Technology Team of Exploration and Petroleum
Saudi Aramco’s Exploration and Engineering Center – Advanced
Petroleum Engineering Center – Research Center (EXPEC ARC).
Advanced Research Center (EXPEC Prior to joining Saudi Aramco in September 2012, he
ARC). His interests are production worked at Schlumberger for 16 years. Before that, Frank
chemistry and flow assurance in the oil and gas industry, was at Stimlab for 4 years. He has developed many
specializing in oil field scale management. products and technologies dealing with sand control,
Prior to joining Saudi Aramco in 2014, Tao spent more fracturing, acidizing and perforating.
than 10 years on oil field scale management in the Eastern Frank is an inventor and recipient of 23 granted U.S.
Hemisphere, working at Clariant, Champion Technologies, patents, and he is the author of more than 40 Society of
Nalco Champion and LR Senergy in Aberdeen, U.K. Petroleum Engineers (SPE) technical papers.
He has published nearly 60 technical publications about Frank received his B.S. degree in Mineral and Petroleum
scale management in oil fields. Engineering from the National Cheng Kung University,
Tao received both his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Chemical Tainan City, Taiwan; his M.S. degree in Petroleum
Engineering from Dalian University of Technology, China, Engineering from the University of Louisiana at Lafayette,
and his Ph.D. degree in Chemical Engineering from Lafayette, LA; and his Ph.D. degree in Petroleum Engineering
Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, U.K. Tao also received from the University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK.
an MBA from Warwick University, Coventry, U.K.
Dr. Yahya T. Al-Janabi is a Research
Dr. Qiwei Wang works in Saudi Science Consultant at Saudi Aramco’s
Aramco’s Research and Development Research and Development Center.
Center as a Science Specialist in oil He has worked in the field of
field scale mitigation. Since joining corrosion for more than 25 years.
Saudi Aramco in 2011, he has played During this time, Yahya has led to
a key role in all major scale mitigation completion over 25 applied research
activities and led the completion of studies and many technical projects; he established several
over 40 projects. Before joining Saudi Aramco, Qiwei new competencies, and introduced five new technologies.
worked for Nalco Champion as an R&D Coordinator on Yahya’s current focus is on downhole corrosion where he
flow management and as a Senior Specialist on scale developed/co-developed best practices, guidelines, and
management. He has over 25 years of R&D and technical standards.
support experience on oil field production chemistry, scale Yahya is one of the Saudi Aramco key team members
management and water treatment. that founded the King Abdullah University of Science and
Qiwei is an active member of the Society of Petroleum Technology (KAUST).
Engineers (SPE) and National Association of Corrosion He has one granted U.S. patent, two U.S. patent
Engineers (NACE). He has organized workshops, served on applications, and more than 75 publications in the field of
technical committees and chaired several conferences for corrosion.
both organizations. Yahya is a member of several technical societies,
He has authored and coauthored over 80 publications including the American Chemical Society (ACS), National
and nine U.S. patent applications. Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) and Society of
Qiwei received his B.Eng. degree in Chemical Petroleum Engineers (SPE). He has also been very active on
Engineering from Taiyuan University of Science and the technical committees of several regional conferences, as
Technology, Taiyuan, China; an M.Eng. degree in Material a Technical Committee Chairman and as a Session Chair.
Sciences from Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, In addition, Yahya is a part-time faculty member, teaching
China; an M.S. degree in Chemistry from the University graduate level courses in the field of corrosion.
of Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan; and his Ph.D. degree in He received his B.S. degree in Chemistry (Industrial)
Oceanography from Texas A&M University, College in 1988, his M.S. degree in Physical Chemistry in 1993,
Station, TX. and his Ph.D. degree in Physical Chemistry in 1997, all

Enhance Drilling Performance Using an
Optimized Mud Fluid System through
Extensive Laboratory Testing
Adel A. Al-Ansari, Amr M. Abouhamed, Abdullah A. Abahussain, Rafael M. Pino Rojas, Moustafa El Bialy and Dr. Bilal Zoghbi
ABSTRACT as those used in deep and high-pressure, high temperature

(HPHT) wells in extreme environments, require fluids that
Drilling oil-producing lateral wells often requires the use of provide maximum performance by maintaining their effec-
an efficient drill-in fluid (DIF). A properly designed reservoir tive suspension properties and a non-damaging behavior over
DIF, with precise control of its properties, is essential to help a broad spectrum of conditions1-3. Over the last two decades,
prevent formation damage that can impede production. This major service companies have performed extensive research
article discusses the custom use of a DIF to reduce damage directed toward the development of a specialized category of
while drilling a lateral well to help maximize productivity drilling fluids for utilization within reservoir sections4-13. The
during later stages. implementation of such fluids has become an accepted best
Based on reservoir data, oil-based mud (OBM) with a practice within the petroleum industry. Commonly referred
density of approximately 67 lbf/ft3 was formulated for use to as reservoir drill-in fluids (DIFs), these particular formu-
in drilling the lateral; the formulation was arrived at by op- lations are specifically designed to help prevent formation
timizing the particle size distribution (PSD) of the materials damage, mitigate differential sticking, minimize rig time and
used to effectively bridge against the average pore throat provide maximum production efficiency14.
sizes. It was tested in the laboratory at simulated reservoir Engineering an invert emulsion DIF system with the pre-
conditions and applied in the field at the target well. The ferred performance characteristics for extreme environments
fluid was continuously monitored at the rig for PSD and — particularly deep well and HPHT applications — has
fluid loss control using the particle plugging test (PPT). The continuously presented a significant challenge and has been
hole cleaning and equivalent circulating density (ECD) were the subject of field case studies and laboratory research. A
simulated with proprietary hydraulics software. successful custom-designed invert emulsion DIF, one that is
Using non-damaging specialty products that reduce fines designed to minimize or prevent reservoir damage as well
and fluids invasion is an essential prerequisite for a reser- as provide better hole cleaning with uncomplicated cleanup,
voir DIF. This article describes the case history of drilling will effectively bring about an increase in oil and gas produc-
a horizontal well in a sandstone formation in Saudi Arabia tion from the target reservoir.
and also shows the successful use of a reservoir DIF while Effective external filter cake prevents fluid losses and
drilling the lateral wells. It presents an approach that solids invasion. Limiting solid and filtrate invasion to the
helps minimize formation damage and mitigate differential formation is vital in reducing lift-off pressure. It is an estab-
sticking, while drilling without having any hole problems. lished fact that any fluid loss to the formation creates prob-
Implementation of this optimized fluid in the field while us- lems as the liquid phase of a drilling fluid contains many
ing specially designed practices to maintain the quality of the potentially damaging compounds. An average permeability
DIF during drilling led to higher production rates. reduction of 40%, or sometimes more, can result, depending
This article concludes that close monitoring of mud prop- on the nature of the formation rock and fluid. It is important
erties, optimization of PSD design and use of non-damaging to ascertain the particle size distribution (PSD) needed to de-
specialty products can help minimize fluid invasion and develop an effective filter cake able to prevent fluid losses and
particle invasion15.
liver maximized production.
The design of a DIF should take into consideration the
INTRODUCTION physical and chemical properties of the formation, e.g., min-
eralogy, porosity, permeability and fluid analysis; that data
Advances in drilling and completion technologies with the is needed to understand downhole conditions and choose the
goal of improved returns on drilling investments have led appropriate filtration control and DIF. The optimized DIF
to the development of radically new categories of drilling minimizes fluid invasion, minimizes formation damage and
and completion fluids. Advanced drilling technologies, such mitigates differential sticking. The result is a wellbore with

optimal performance and productivity. This article discusses Product Name Unit Concentration
the custom use of a DIF to reduce damage while drilling a
Diesel bbl 0.641
lateral well in Saudi Arabia to help maximize productivity.
Primary Emulsifier ppb 12
FLUID DESIGN Lime (alkalinity source) ppb 4
Fluid Loss Additives ppb 6
Experimental Laboratory Evaluation
Freshwater bbl 0.233
Extensive experimental laboratory testing was performed Viscosifier ppb 4
in-house to evaluate and optimize the DIF to fit the target Secondary Emulsifier gal 4
well’s downhole conditions. Fluid was first estimated with
a specialty numerical simulator. The customized fluid was CaCl2 (78%) ppb 66.41
then prepared and mixed in stainless steel mixing cups using
5 µm Ground Marble ppb 8
a five-spindle multimixer. Next, fluids were aged in HPHT
stainless steel aging cells and hot rolled in a five-roller oven
at 190 °F for 16 hours.
Table 1. DIF formulation and order of mixing
System Formulation
Minimum Maximum
The DIF formulation was based on reservoir data. The core
Density (lbf/ft ) 3
67 —
analysis and reservoir data showed the pore throat was be-
Plastic Viscosity (cP) 14 18
tween 5 microns and 40 microns. Therefore, the PSD should
be maintained in the 20 µm to 40 µm range, and the undesir- Yield Point (lb/100 ft ) 2
20 24
able drilled solids should not exceed 3 vol% in the mud re- 10 sec/10 min (lb/100 ft ) 2
4 8
turns during drilling. Table 1 shows the products comprising 6 rev/min (lb/100 ft2) >10 —
the DIF, their concentrations and their order of mixing. Chlorides (mg/L × 1,000) 300 350
The rheology of the DIF was determined at 120 °F using a Oil-Water Ratio 70/30 —
six-speed standard oil field viscometer, and the temperature
Electrical Stability (V) >600 —
was controlled with an electrically heated thermo-cup. API
RP 13B2 (2014)16 procedures were followed to measure the Spurt
PPA at 200 °F/500 psi
rheology and fluid loss (API and HPHT) of the mud proper- <2.5 mL/30 min
(20 µm disk)
Total <10
ties shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Mud properties
Laboratory Testing
was finalized at 67 lbf/ft3 to meet well formation rheological
The rheology was defined through a determination of plastic properties.
viscosity (PV), yield point (YP), gel strength and Tau 0 (GS).
Selecting the proper combination of bridging material
The YP was obtained from the Bingham-Plastic rheological
suitable to achieve a D50 distribution within the proposed
model when extrapolated to a shear rate of zero. The PV
range was achieved using hydraulic modeling software and
represented the viscosity of a fluid when extrapolated to an
a PSD analyzer. The particle plugging apparatus (PPA), Fig.
infinite shear rate. Both YP and PV were calculated from the
1, was used to determine the ability of particles in the drill-
300 rev/min and 600 rev/min shear rate readings on a stan-
ing fluid to effectively bridge the pores in the filter medium,
dard oil field viscometer, using the following:
thereby determining the ability of the mud to reduce forma-
PV = 600 rev/min reading – 300 rev/min reading ...* tion damage in the reservoir.
YP = 300 rev/min reading – PV ...** The PPA used is a static, inverted HPHT filter press with
a ceramic disk as a filter medium. This static test measures
The GS was measured as the inflection point at 3 rev/min the pore plugging ability of a fluid. The filtration means
after keeping the fluid at static conditions (120 °F) for 10 most commonly used is an aloxite disk, which comes in a
seconds and 10 minutes, respectively. Because most drilling permeability range of 10 millidarcys (md) to 4 darcys. The
fluids exhibit yield stress, it is a time-independent measure- use of these ceramic disks simulates the interaction of the
ment and is usually denoted in the Herschel-Bulkely model exposed face of the productive formation with the drilling
— also known as the yield-power law (YPL) — as Tau 0. fluid. When combined with the relevant test variables, such
It can be considered gel strength before any time-dependent as pressure and temperature, the simulation provides the
changes in properties are observed. Mud weight rheology user with a very good representation of the filtration process

Fig. 2. PSA used.
Fig. 2. PSA used.
FIELD OPERATIONS
Fig. 1. PPA used. Objective

Fig. 1. PPA used. Well N-1 is a single-lateral horizontal oil producer at the
in the hole. The ceramic disks are selected depending on the
average size of the pores in the formation. If there is time, it crest area of a specific field in Saudi Arabia. The horizontal
is recommended this test be carried out with various sizes of section is 3,001 ft in length across the sand reservoir. The
aloxite disks reflecting the range of pore sizes in the forma- well is the first horizontal incremental oil producer in the
tion. In the particle plugging test (PPT), the filtrates are col- field; the well target was to produce 4,000 barrels of oil per
lected in a cumulative manner over different time intervals, day of Arabian Super Light crude oil. The customized drill-
constructing a filtrates curve, (mL) * 2 vs. square root of ing fluids were commissioned to drill an 8½” lateral hole to
time, which will result in a straight line. achieve the desired rate of production.
The values of the PPA were maintained at 0.5 mL for
spurt and 2 mL for total filtrate, using 10 µm and 20 µm Interval Discussion
aloxite disks, and the filter cake was close to 2/32”. These
values were less than in the mud program. The sand reservoir was expected to have 3,775 psi pore
The particle size analyzer (PSA), Fig. 2, used laser dif- pressure, equivalent to 61.3 lbf/ft3, requiring a drilling fluid
fraction technology to ensure the PSD of the drilling fluids density of 67 lbf/ft3, which will generate a static overbalance
remained stable. The main objective was to keep the D50 pressure of 352 psi. The anticipated reservoir rock permea-
distribution within range and prevent it from dropping bility varied up to 600 md. Therefore, maintaining effective
dramatically. The PSA ran tests several times a day to deter- bridging and low dynamic fluid loss, along with a thin im-
mine the particle size so as to evaluate the condition of the permeable wall cake, was deemed essential to minimize the
DIF and the efficiency of the solids control equipment. The risk of differential sticking and to maximize reservoir protec-
initial DIF presented D10 = 11 microns, D50 = 35 microns tion. Remember, for 600 md, the D50 of the bridging should
and D90 = 75 microns. Once drilling started, drill solids be around 10 microns.
were gained immediately, and ground marble degradation The invert emulsion mud system — 67 lbf/ft3 to 70 lbf/
occurred such that solids of less than 5 µm began to accumu- ft — with properly sized ground marble was chosen as the
3
late in the system. That meant the D50 was decreasing from DIF. In addition, a reserve volume of 600 bbl to 800 bbl
the initial 35 µm to 27 µm, and the mud weight was creep- invert emulsion with a density of 75 lbf/ft3 was available
ing toward 68 lbf/ft3, affecting equivalent circulating density throughout the entire well drilling and completion process.
(ECD). To control this situation, 25 µm and 50 µm ground This was prepared as requested in the drilling program and
marble was added to the system and centrifuges were run. As maintained in good condition for use as a mud cap in case
Fig. 2. PSA used. of lost circulation and/or to control gas kicks. Based on the
soon as the mud weight reached 68 lbf/ft3, mud weight and
properties were held as desired. Another action included dis- information provided, the drilling fluid team established the
continuing use of ground marble with a D50 of 5 microns. following objectives as focal points for the DIF preparation
and maintenance:

• Secure borehole stability and minimize torque and µm ground marble addition rate was increased in po-
drag. rous formations to minimize fluid invasion.
• Maintain the average suspended particle size (not less • Mud treatments, e.g., dilution with diesel or chemicals,
than 20 µm) at the flow line, i.e., in the mud returns were added based on three daily mud checks and a
before screening. PSD check. At 12,749 ft MD, the hole was circulated
• Add 25 µm ground marble and 50 µm ground marble clean before pulling out of hole for a short trip to the
continuously while drilling, equivalent to 50 lb to 100 9⅝” casing shoe.
lb/100 ft drilled, to minimize whole mud losses. Use • Solids-free oil-based mud (OBM) — 1,100 bbl — was
180 mesh to 200 mesh shaker screens, and monitor the mixed for the completion. This was followed by ream-
centrifuge discharge to help ensure that 50% to 60% ing an 8½” hole to the bottom, and then circulating
of the discarded solids are drilled sand and clays. the hole clean with a high-viscosity pill.
• Prevent induced kicks and lost circulation, and mini- • Shaker screens of 180 mesh to 230 mesh were used to
mize swab/surge pressures. discard fines solids and displace the hole to free OBM
• Optimize hole cleaning and prevent differentially stuck solids.
pipe. • The well was completed as per the customer program
• Help achieve safe and economical completion of the and then opened to flare.
well. • The well was cleaned up in 7 hours; the final flowing
wellhead pressure at 0.25 choke was 1,400 psi, and
The mobile mud plant was set up as follows: the final shut-in wellhead pressure was 1,500 psi.
• When the mud plant arrived at the location, the tanks FIELD CHEMICAL CONCENTRATION
were spotted as per the planned area, and the mud COMPARISON FOR DIF
plant was rigged up and hydrotested for leaks.
Tables 3 and 4 show the field mud formulation and field
• The mud plant was connected to the operator diesel
fluid properties, respectively, for the DIF.
tank, filled up with diesel and started to mix the DIF.
As shown in Table 3, extra lime was used because of a
• The 1,400 bbl of DIF was mixed in the mobile mud depletion of the alkalinity while drilling through the gas cap.
tank while drilling the 12.25” hole; it was sheared Actual and planned concentrations were nearly matched
daily in the mud plant to optimize the DIF properties. with the proposed formulation. All the properties shown in
• The first action taken before transferring the DIF to Table 3 were in range and constant, which indicated there
the rig tanks was to clean and flush all the pits and
Planned Actual
lines, and then measure all the tanks. Product Name
Concentration Concentration
• The initial rheology was lower than specification to Primary Emulsifier
12 14
prevent surface losses on the solids control equipment; (ppb)
then the YP was increased to 24 lb/100 ft2. Secondary Emulsifier
4 6
(ppb)
Maintenance Treatments Lime — Alkalinity
4 8
Source (ppb)
• An 8½” horizontal hole was drilled from 9,689 ft MD Fluid Loss Additives
to 12,749 ft MD with 67 lbf/ft3 invert emulsion DIF 6 5
(ppb)
without problems. The active system was treated with Viscosifier (ppb) 4 2.3
lime and invert emulsifier. Bridging Agent —
• On an hourly basis, 25 µm ground marble and 50 µm 5 µm Ground Marble 8 5.8
(ppb)
ground marble were added. The rate of addition de-
pended on the porosity trend. Bridging Agent —
25 µm Ground Marble 24 25.1
• Shale shaker screen sizes were increased from 140 (ppb)
mesh to 180 mesh to discard fine sands and solids. Bridging Agent —
50 µm Ground Marble 8 5.33
• A centrifuge was run 24 hours/day to prevent buildup
(ppb)
of low gravity content.
CaCl2 — 77% (ppb) 66 55
• Seepage losses of 3 bbl/hr to 5 bbl/hr were observed
Table 3. Field mud formulation
while drilling in porous formations; therefore, the 50

Properties Programmed Actual (Typical)
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Conformance

Density (lbf/ft ) 3
67 68 67 68 Yes
PV at 120 °F (cP) 14 18 18 23 —
YP (lb/100 ft ) 2
20 24 12 30 —
6 rev/min (lb/100 ft2) >10 >10 7 15 —
Chlorides (mg/L) 300 K 350 K — — —
Oil-Water Ratio 70/30 — 69/31 71/29 —
Electrical Stability at 120 °F (V) >600 >600 400 775 —
D50 (µm) 20 40 25 35 —
Table 4. Field fluid properties
were no mud invasions, emulsion blockage or hole cleaning lateral section. The hydraulics software simulation always
problems. showed good hole cleaning with the rheology and ROP as
The PSD and PPA were run at different depths to deter- used on the drilling operation. Also, no fill and/or excessive
mine particle size so as to evaluate the condition of the DIF drag were reported on the final trip going out and in, which
and the efficiency of the solids control equipment. Figure 3 indicated the hole was clean.
shows PSD and porosity vs. depth for the DIF throughout It is recommended to not stop the pumps while a sweep is
the drilling operation. in the hole and to make short trips every 500 ft to 800 ft, or
less if needed. Pipe rotation is very important in hole clean-
HOLE CLEANING ing, and backreaming is not recommended. The mud engi-
neer should track each sweep and report on its effectiveness.
Hole cleaning is a major concern in any well. Good hole As shown in Fig. 4, at 12,489 ft, the maximum cuttings
cleaning will reduce problems, such as torque and drag on load in the annular is 0.52%, and the maximum value stan-
short trips and hole pack off. The rate of penetration (ROP) dard is less than 3%. This value represents a good cleaning
should be monitored and controlled to optimize the cuttings practice for the hole. The maximum overbalance in 02 sand
load percentages, which in turn will alleviate any issues con- was 700 psi in dynamic condition.
cerning surface equipment, annular loading and excessive
whole mud losses. Hole cleaning indicators, such as torque SOLIDS CONTROL EVALUATION
and drag and pressure-while-drilling data, should be moni-
tored. It is recommended to pump high density sweeps — 40 Before displacing, shakers were dressed with 140 mesh to
bbl to 50 bbl — for every other stand, 180 ft, or as needed 180 mesh screens to avoid blinding from unsheared mud ag-
to ensure good hole cleaning. These sweeps should be pre- glomerated with ground marble. After two full cycles and no
pared in the slug pits using mud from the active system. In losses on the surface, shakers were progressively screened up
this case, there were no hole cleaning issues through the to 200 mesh and remained as such throughout the section.
The absence of fish eyes indicated cor-
rect mud mixing. The flow was evenly
distributed although most of the time
shakers were running wet. It was
preferred to lose a bit with the finest
screens than incorporate solids with
the coarse screens.
After displacing the hole to the sol-
ids-free OBM, the shale shaker screens
were changed to 325 mesh to avoid
plugging of the 6⅝” premium mesh
sand screens used with mechanical
open hole packers and a dual perma-
nent downhole monitoring system.
The PSD analyses conducted on
Fig. 3. PSD, PPT and porosity vs. depth for the DIF.
cuttings and shaker underflow showed
Fig. 3. PSD, PPT and porosity vs. depth for the DIF.

Fig. 4. Hole cleaning through lateral section.
Fig. 4. Hole cleaning through lateral section.
that 200 mesh screens removed all solids more than 75 µm led to D50 control in the range of 20 µm to 40 µm by
in size. This pattern remained steady until the end of the the hourly addition of 25 µm ground marble and 50 µm
section. Systematic visual checking was performed every few ground marble while drilling.
hours. An eventual increase of solids diameter size, by taking 4. PSD management was the main factor in minimizing for-
off and flushing screens, would have provided a Saudi
betterAramco:
check, Company
mation damage.
General Use
but it was not necessary. 5. Maintaining an optimum surface volume of mud helped
Commercial centrifuges were run on the active system to minimize the phase cost.
remove solids as much as possible. A solids control techni- 6. The mobile mud plant contributed to the success of this
cian ran the machines, and revolutions per minute were ad- well.
justed according to the mud condition.
7. With limited storage and mixing facilities in most land
Diesel dilution in combination with the centrifuge and
rigs, the mud plant helped with preparing and storing
shale shaker screens helped maintain the mud properties at
OBM and solids-free OBM for the next well, which was
the desired level.
reflected in the overall phase cost.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 8. This article recommends building a fixed mud plant in a
remote area to assist in supplying, storing and recycling
1. A reservoir section of Well N-1 was drilled from 9,689 OBM from and to rigs. This will be reflected in the over-
ft to 12,749 ft using 70/30 invert emulsion 67 lbf/ft3 all cost and performance of the field project.
OBM. The previous casing of 9⅝” was set on top of the 9. A total of 26 wells were drilled successfully based on a
reservoir sandstone; a horizontal section was drilled; and similar DIF design.
the well was completed with 6⅝” premium mesh sand
screens. Close monitoring of mud properties and PSD
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
while drilling was conducted, which led to drilling the
hole without any hole problems.
Aramco and Halliburton for their support and permission to
2. Hole cleaning was simulated using the hydraulics soft- publish this article.
ware program, which showed good hole cleaning with This article was presented at the SPE Kingdom of Saudi
minimum cuttings load in the annulus. Arabia Annual Technical Symposium and Exhibition,
3. PSD was conducted periodically every 2 to 3 hours, which Dammam, Saudi Arabia, April 25-28, 2016.

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Tight Gas Reservoir,” SPE paper 147983, presented at the Anazi, H.A., Hembling, D.E. and Baraweel, M.A.:
SPE/IADC Middle East Drilling Technology Conference “Drill-in Fluids for Multilateral MRC Wells in
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at the SPE/IADC Middle East Drilling Technology Gas Conference and Exhibition, Adelaide, Australia,
Conference, Manama, Bahrain, November 23-25, 1997. September 11-13, 2006.
6. Butler, B.A., Sharp, K.W., McDaniel, D.R. and 16. API RP 13B-2: Recommended Practice for Field Testing
Bump, D.M.: “New Generation Drill-In Fluids and Oil-Based Drilling Fluids, 5th edition, American Petroleum
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H.C.: “Development of a Unique Low Solids, High

BIOGRAPHIES Rafael M. Pino Rojas joined Saudi
Aramco in June 2013 as a Drilling
Adel A. Al-Ansari is a recognized Engineer working in the Drilling
Drilling and Completion Fluids Operations Support Unit of the
Consultant in Saudi Aramco’s Drilling Drilling Technical Department. He
& Workover with over 26 years of has over 15 years of experience in
experience. His areas of interest technical and operational procedures,
include designing drilling, completion including coordination and supervision of onshore
and workover fluids, promoting operations in Venezuela and offshore operations in Saudi
protection of corporate assets — including reservoir Arabia. Rafael was trained as a Drilling and Completion
protection — by introducing less damaging drill-in fluids, Fluids Engineer and has advanced knowledge in the design
monitoring drilling operations, reviewing daily reports and and field application of oil-based drilling fluid systems
providing consultations when needed. Adel has conducted (invert emulsion, 100% oil) and water-based systems
advanced research projects to resolve problems associated (conventional, high performance and drill-in), as well as
with field operations and to provide a foundation for the elaboration of drilling fluids techno-economic proposals
transferring and implementing the latest drilling and under different contract schemes.
completion fluid technologies in Saudi Aramco drilling Prior to joining the company, he worked for Baker
operations. He is involved in the development of drilling Hughes for 13 years.
fluids products specifications, laboratory test procedures Rafael received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering
and the QA/QC management program for drilling fluid from the Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas,
additives. Venezuela.
Adel is a member of the American Petroleum Institute
(API) and the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE). Moustafa El Bialy began his career in
He received B.S. degree in Industrial Chemistry the oil and gas industry in 1989 with
from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Shell Egypt working as a Wellsite
(KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, and his M.S. degree in Petroleum Engineer, then he moved to
Petroleum Engineering from Tulsa University, Tulsa, OK. the drilling fluid engineering business,
working in Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia,
Amr M. Abouhamed is a Drilling & Qatar, UAE, Oman, Pakistan and
Completion Fluids Specialist for Yemen. Currently, Moustafa is working as a Regional
unconventional gas drilling in Saudi Completion Fluids Manager for Baroid Halliburton based
Aramco’s Drilling Operations Support in Saudi Arabia.
Unit of the Drilling Technical He received his B.S. degree in Geology from the
Department. His previous experience University of Alexandria, Alexandria, Egypt.
includes international work in the
drilling fluids business and technology in several locations,
including Egypt, Morocco, Syria, the North Sea and Saudi
Arabia.
Amr received his B.S. degree in both Geology and
Chemistry from Ain-Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Abdullah A. Abahussain joined Saudi

Aramco in September 2007 as a
Drilling Engineer working in the
Drilling Operations Support Unit of
the Drilling Technical Department. He
has over 9 years of experience in
engineering and operational
procedures, including coordination of onshore oil and gas
operations in Saudi Arabia. Abdullah was trained as a
Drilling and Completion Fluids Engineer and has advanced
knowledge in the design and field application of oil-based
drilling fluid systems (invert emulsion, 100% oil) and
water-based systems (conventional, high performance and
drill-in).
He received his B.S. degree in Chemical Engineering

Dr. Bilal Zoghbi is a Senior Engineer
for Oil and Gas Production Solutions
at the GE Oil & Gas Technology
Center based at the Dhahran Techno
Valley, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.
Bilal was a Principal Scientist
at Halliburton Technology
Center in Saudi Arabia where he was a cornerstone in
establishing lab and personnel capabilities. He focused on
unconventional and drilling fluid development for Saudi
Aramco. Bilal led and participated in joint development
collaboration with different operators in the Middle East,
which included development of hydraulic fracturing, lost
circulation mitigation, drilling fluids, formation evaluation
analysis and various production enhancement solutions.
Prior to that, he was a postdoctoral research scientist
at the Petroleum Engineering Department at Texas A&M
University in Qatar, where he established the Wettability
and Digital Rock Physics laboratories. Bilal specialized
in developing productivity enhancement fluid solutions
for carbonates and sandstone “oil and gas/condensate”
reservoirs; studying multiphase flow in porous media as
well as studying and modeling of fluid-rock interface at
pore scale.
He received his B.S. degree in Physics from Beirut Arab
University, Beirut, Lebanon, and his Ph.D. degree in Solid
State Physics from Kent State University, Kent, OH.

Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
Prediction Software
Dr. Abderrazak Traidia, Kaamil M. Shibly, Abdulrahman S. Al-Qahtani and Mohammed A. Abufour
ABSTRACT HIC has been a major concern for the oil, gas and pet-
rochemical industry since the 1960s, in particular for oil
This article discusses the development and capabilities of an and gas companies operating in sour hydrocarbon regions.
engineering software created by Saudi Aramco for the pre- Following a series of pipeline ruptures at Aramco in 1974
diction of linear hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) growth (three ruptures occurred on a spirally welded API-5L-X42
rate in pipelines and plant vessel steels. Using a mechanistic sour gas transmission pipeline within 7 weeks of its com-
HIC model, a software prototype, named ProHICTM, was missioning), the company developed stringent material
developed and laboratory validated. This first prototype is specifications1 for sour service assets based on the work
being deployed for testing in practical field cases with a view developed earlier by British Petroleum and Sumitomo in
to improving the prediction accuracy. 1972. This work contributed to the development of the
The completion of this first version demonstrates that a NACE-TM-0284 standard test method2 (final version pub-
mechanistic modeling approach for HIC prediction is feasi- lished in 2011). This standard greatly influenced the steel
ble and can provide conservative crack growth rate estimates manufacturing industry and led to the development of HIC
as long as a strategy is in place for collecting critical model resistant steels, with greater steel cleanliness and more tightly
input parameters. This work also emphasizes the need to controlled microstructure. Today, this HIC qualification
include in future developments a means to determine the standard, in conjunction with the test acceptance criteria
coalescence of in-plane fracture toughness in a hydrogen given in NACE-MR-01753, is widely accepted and used for
environment for common steel grades used for pipeline and all new sour service steel procurements. To the authors’
plant vessels. best knowledge, there has been no documented case of HIC
caused failures of equipment (pipeline or plant vessel) manu-
INTRODUCTION factured from HIC resistant steel.
For non-HIC resistant steel equipment (also called dirty
The internal corrosion of carbon steels used in the oil and steels), most oil companies decided to keep operating this
gas and petrochemical industry produces atomic hydrogen as equipment while inspecting it more frequently to check the
a result of the cathodic corrosion reaction. The presence of progress of HIC damage. A Fitness-for-Service (FFS) assess-
hydrogen promoters, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), causes ment is also carried out on a regular basis, and mitigation
a significant part of the produced hydrogen to penetrate the and repair measures, such as internal coating (for vessels) or
bulk steel through an adsorption-absorption-diffusion mech- sleeving (for pipelines), are used as needed. In addition to
anism, while the balance combines into molecular hydrogen dealing with aging legacy equipment, companies are faced
and is released in the form of bubbles in the transported hy- with the increasing sourness of produced oil and gas world-
drocarbons. At the interface of existing macro-defects in the wide, which is raising a real concern about the ability of
steel, such as laminations or elongated nonmetallic inclusions non-sour service equipment — i.e., equipment originally de-
— typically manganese sulfides — the diffusing hydrogen signed to operate in non-H2S containing environments — to
is trapped and recombines to form high-pressure hydrogen handle a mildly sour environment without developing severe
gas. With time, the pressure buildup within these defects — HIC damage. For these reasons, HIC is reemerging as a topic
maintained by continuous charging flux from the corroding of interest to several oil and gas companies4-10.
wall — will trigger small cracks parallel to the pipe wall, Currently, one of the major challenges is the prediction
commonly called hydrogen-induced cracks (HICs). These of the remaining lifetime of HIC affected equipment, which
will grow, coalesce, and depending on the steel quality, may is critical for integrity management. The international FFS
lead to an advanced form of HIC called step-wise cracking standard API-57911, which is often used as a guideline for
(SWC). SWC, which progresses through the pipe thickness, FFS assessment of HIC affected equipment in the refinery
will eventually result in equipment failure. and petrochemical industries, clearly states that the remain-

ing lifetime of HIC affected equipment cannot be predicted conditions. Accordingly, priority was given in this work to
with enough confidence because of the absence of widely developing a mechanistic HIC model, i.e., a first principle
accepted analytical/numerical HIC growth rate prediction model, which captures the interaction between the different
models. physical and chemical phenomena that lead to HIC growth.
In an effort to fill this gap and support field operations, In addition, for the sake of technical feasibility and practical-
Saudi Aramco engaged in developing an in-house numer- ity in a field application, the model was limited to predicting
ical tool, named ProHIC™, to predict the growth rate of the growth of pre-existing HIC defects detected during non-
pre-existing HIC damage detected during nondestructive destructive inspections. Predicting the initiation of new HIC
inspections. Crack growth rate predictions from ProHIC™ defects, which is statistical in nature and highly dependent
would be eventually plugged into a commercial FFS assess- on the steel microstructure, is out of the scope of this work.
ment code to predict the remaining lifetime of HIC damaged
assets. Mathematical Formulation
This article summarizes the outcome of the first phase of
The technical foundations of ProHIC™ come from a mech-
this development, which focused on implementing the basic
anistic HIC model formerly published in Traidia et al.
equations governing the growth of a single HIC defect under
(2012)12. This model does not take into account the possible
known hydrogen charging flux. This article discusses the
coalescence of multiple HICs, which has been shown to re-
mathematical foundations of this single-defect model, while
duce the overall HIC damage growth rate, possibly through
providing some details on the numerical implementation
a crack shielding mechanism13. In other words, neglecting the
and laboratory validation of the model predictions. It also
beneficial interaction between different HICs would lead the
focuses on the technical challenges and proposed solutions
model to a conservative — worst case scenario — measure of
related to the practical use of the model in an industrial con-
the HIC growth rate.
text, and it concludes by detailing the limitations of the cur-
The time-dependent chemo-mechanical model developed
rent approach and highlighting the needs for future work.
in Traidia et al. (2012)12 is based on the Hydrogen Pressure
MODEL DESCRIPTION Theory14, which considers that hydrogen pressure buildup
within the existing HIC cavity is the main driving force for
Toward a Mechanistic Model HIC growth. Under this mechanism, a coupling of different
physics/analyses needs to be introduced, Fig. 1. A diffusion
In practice, when HIC is detected (and sized) on a pipeline analysis is first conducted to model hydrogen uptake and
or a pressure vessel, a FFS assessment is carried out to ensure transport from the inner wall — in contact with the sour
that the current operating pressure is below the maximum environment — to the bulk of the pipe material. This anal-
allowable operating and working pressure in the presence of ysis is necessary to accurately capture the distribution of
HIC. In addition, several mitigation techniques are imple- hydrogen concentrated around the crack tip and at the crack
mented to prevent further growth of the HIC damage. These flanks. The distribution at the crack flanks will locally con-
techniques include chemical treatment, internal coating trol the hydrogen recombination reaction occurring there,
(e.g., fusion bonded epoxy coatings), sleeving or ultimately and therefore control the amount of hydrogen gas trapped
repairing of the damaged pipe and/or vessel section. As a within the HIC cavity. The2.pressure kinetics within the HIC
1. H2 recombination on the crack surface H2 pressure build up with the cavity
consequence of this immediate
mitigation, the growth rate of the
HIC can hardly be monitored — it
is extremely difficult, if not im-
possible, to do so. This explains
the lack of published data on
field measured HIC growth rates
worldwide, which in turn has had
a great impact on the choice of the 4. Crack extension
model to be used for predicting 5. Updated 3. Updated

crack geometry stress field
HIC growth. Indeed, the absence
of such invaluable field data hin-
ders the development of empirical
models, which would correlate
field measured HIC growth rates
with the equipment material and
its operating and environmental Fig. 1. Illustration of the coupled stress-diffusion analysis used to simulate the growth of an individual HIC.
Fig. 1. Illustration of the coupled stress-diffusion analysis used to simulate the growth of
HIC.
𝜎𝜎ℎℎ = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐻𝐻2 , 𝐻𝐻2 𝐻𝐻2
𝜀𝜀 Ω ⊂ 𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛
𝜎𝜎ℎ 𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇 𝜀𝜀
𝜀𝜀𝜀𝜀 Γ
cavity are calculated from the current cavity volume and the 𝜎𝜎ℎ 𝜎𝜎 ==𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆/3𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 +Γ2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
𝜆𝜆,(𝜀𝜀)
total mass of hydrogen gas trapped inside the cavity. The 𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇𝜎𝜎 ℎ . Equations 3 and 4 are ordinary dif- 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻2
𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇
ferential equations 𝜎𝜎 (ODEs) defined for each HIC cavity −
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
, if 𝜑𝜑
calculated pressure is then used as an input — load on the 𝜀𝜀 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 )𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 = = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆(𝜀𝜀)ℎ
(𝜀𝜀)+ +2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 = { 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜎𝜎𝐻𝐻
(independently).
ℎ2 = 𝜎𝜎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 /3 Equation 3 is the equation-of-state for the 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
HIC flanks — to a finite element stress analysis. Depending 𝜎𝜎
𝜎𝜎 = = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (𝜀𝜀)
(𝜀𝜀) + + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀 0, if 𝜑𝜑 <
high-pressure 𝜎𝜎2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
ℎ = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 /3
hydrogen gas trapped inside the HIC cavity at
on the stress intensity level around the crack tip, the fracture 𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 𝜀𝜀 ) 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
= 1 + ) (𝑧𝑧 /𝑅𝑅 + 𝑧𝑧 )𝑝𝑝
pressure, 𝐻𝐻2 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻22,) which 1 accounts 2 𝐻𝐻for 2 the gas compressibility,
toughness of the steel can be reached, and the HIC crack 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 ) 𝜀𝜀
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻 )
𝐻𝐻22 , approximated 15, 16
by:
can further advance. The crack extension can be suppressed, 𝜎𝜎 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (𝜀𝜀) 2 )𝑎𝑎3
)+
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
)= 1+ (𝑧𝑧11/𝑅𝑅
/𝑅𝑅 + 𝑧𝑧 )𝑝𝑝 )𝑝𝑝
16(1−𝜈𝜈
𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝜇𝜇𝐻𝐻𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
𝜆𝜆, 𝑝𝑝 ≈𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻22) = 1 + (𝑧𝑧𝑝𝑝 𝐻𝐻2 + 𝑧𝑧22 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻22 (5)
however, when the increased volume of the cavity induces 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 )
2
= 1 + (𝑧𝑧3𝐸𝐸
/𝑅𝑅 + 𝑧𝑧 )𝑝𝑝 Ω∖Γ
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻22 ) = 1 +𝜆𝜆, (𝑧𝑧𝜇𝜇11 /𝑅𝑅 + 𝑧𝑧222)𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻 2 . The volume of the HIC
2
a meaningful drop in hydrogen pressure, requiring more 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 16(1−𝜈𝜈2 )𝑎𝑎 )𝑎𝑎33
𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻22𝜎𝜎) =𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎,
16(1−𝜈𝜈
cavity, 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎,
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
, which 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻
(𝜀𝜀) 𝐻𝐻22)+)depends
≈ ≈2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀 on the 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻current (5)Ω ⊂
(5)
crack length and𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛
hydrogen accumulation to reach again the critical pressure 16(1−𝜈𝜈 2 )𝑎𝑎3 3𝐸𝐸
2 3 3𝐸𝐸 22
𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎,
𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝
hydrogen 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻 )pressure,
≈ 𝜎𝜎 = can
16(1−𝜈𝜈 )𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 be
(𝜀𝜀) + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
either accurately (5)
(5)calculated
for crack growth. This whole loop is repeated in the model 𝐻𝐻22 ) ≈ 3𝐸𝐸 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻
𝐻𝐻22
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 𝐻𝐻
through ) =
2𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛
1
𝑛𝑛 ) +
integration(𝑧𝑧 1
3𝐸𝐸+ 𝑧𝑧 )𝑝𝑝
/𝑅𝑅 2 𝐻𝐻
of the displacement
2 jump over Γ or be
until the final condition is reached, e.g., achievement of a 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻2𝐻𝐻22
𝑛𝑛
approximated
𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻 — 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
assuming ) a penny-shaped crack of radius,
predefined exposure time. 𝐻𝐻22 16(1−𝜈𝜈 2 )𝑎𝑎𝐻𝐻32
𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎,, 𝑝𝑝and 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
𝐻𝐻
2 𝐻𝐻2
) ≈ )
linear = 1 +
elastic (𝑧𝑧 𝑝𝑝/𝑅𝑅
behavior
𝐻𝐻 + 𝑧𝑧 — )𝑝𝑝 by the(5) relationship𝜎𝜎
1 :
17ℎ
2 𝐻𝐻2
A more detailed description of the complete model can be 3𝐸𝐸 2
Saudi cavity
Aramco: Company General Use
1. H2 recombination on the crack surface
found in Traidia et al. (2012) . The following summarizes
12 1 + (𝑧𝑧1build
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻22.) H=2 pressure /𝑅𝑅 + 2 )𝑝𝑝the
up𝑧𝑧with 𝐻𝐻2
16(1−𝜈𝜈 2 )𝑎𝑎3 Saudi
Aramco: 𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 /3
General Use
the set of strongly coupled equations that form the basis of
𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻2 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝 ) ≈ 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 (5)
Company General Use
𝐻𝐻2 3𝐸𝐸 2
16(1−𝜈𝜈 )𝑎𝑎 3 (5)
the developed
∀ M ∈ ∀Ω HIC
∖ Γ∈model:
M Ω∖Γ 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) ≈
3𝐸𝐸
𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 𝜀𝜀 (5)
∀ M𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕∈ Ω ∖𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕Γ 𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻 𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻 𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻2 total amount of molecularSaudi
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = ∇. (𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 = ∇. −
(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶
𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 −C∇𝜎𝜎ℎ )C∇𝜎𝜎ℎ ) (1) (1) The hydrogen
Aramco: gas trapped
Company General inUse
∀ M𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕∀ M =
∀∈MΩ∈∖ΩΓ ∖ Γ ∈ ∇. Ω (𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶
∖𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕Γ −
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝐻𝐻𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅C∇𝜎𝜎
ℎ )
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (1) the gas cavity, 𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻2 is derived from the total mass conserva- 𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ∀−M𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
∈ 𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
Ω ∖𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻ΓC∇𝜎𝜎
=𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = ∇. (𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
∇.=(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 ∇. (𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 ∀ M−
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 −
𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
𝐻𝐻
∈ Ω𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
C∇𝜎𝜎
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ∖ ΓC∇𝜎𝜎 ℎ) ℎ ℎ )
ℎ ) 𝐻𝐻
𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
(1) (1) (1) tion equation:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
∇. 𝜎𝜎 = ∇. 0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜎𝜎=
= =∇. ∇. 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶
0 (𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐻𝐻(2) − 𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 C∇𝜎𝜎 )
ℎ (2) (1) (1) 𝜎𝜎 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (𝜀𝜀) + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
C∇𝜎𝜎 ℎ ) (1)
∀ M∇.∈𝜎𝜎∀Ω=HIC ∖0Γ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (2)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻2 1
∀ HIC = ∫Γ(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 ∙ 𝑛𝑛)dS𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻2 1 (6) (6)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
∇. 𝜎𝜎= ∀∇.=
∇. HIC
∇.
𝜎𝜎 0=(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 0 −
𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻
C∇𝜎𝜎 ) (2) (2) (1) 4. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
Crack extension = ∫Γ(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 ∙ 𝑛𝑛)dS (6)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜎𝜎 = 0 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ℎ (2) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻2 1𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 )
∀M∈Ω∖Γ∇. 𝜎𝜎 = 0 5. Updated (2) Equation
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻2 4,1 which is derived from a threshold
= ∫
formula-(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 ∙ 𝑛𝑛)dS
∀ HIC ∀∀HIC HIC 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ∇. 𝜎𝜎 = 0 (2) 𝜑𝜑(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻= ) =∫ 𝐺𝐺(𝑎𝑎,
3.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑Updated 2 Γ
𝑝𝑝∀𝐻𝐻2M 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, ∈𝑝𝑝∀= Ω𝑝𝑝HIC∖
𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, )
Γ = 𝑝𝑝 𝑛𝑛 ) 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
= 𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
𝑛𝑛
crack geometry
)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 ) (3) (3)
(2)
tion of the crack
2 (𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻∙ problem
growth
) − 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 12, is solved
2𝑛𝑛)dS
𝜑𝜑(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝 ) = (6)
stress
𝐺𝐺(𝑎𝑎,to field
𝑝𝑝 ) −𝐻𝐻𝐺𝐺2𝑐𝑐) = 1 + (𝑧𝑧1 /𝑅𝑅
determine
(1) 𝐻𝐻2𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
𝐻𝐻∇. 𝐻𝐻 Γ
2 (𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 𝐻𝐻2𝐻𝐻2− 𝐻𝐻2 𝐻𝐻 C∇𝜎𝜎2 ℎ )𝐻𝐻2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝐻𝐻2
𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ∀𝐻𝐻)2HIC = 𝑛𝑛 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ) (3)
∇. 𝜎𝜎 𝐻𝐻=2 0 = ∇. 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐻𝐻2(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 𝐻𝐻 𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉
−2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (2) 𝐻𝐻
C∇𝜎𝜎 𝐻𝐻2 ) (1) the amount of crack growth when the𝜑𝜑(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝
threshold ) = 𝐺𝐺(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) − 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐
𝐻𝐻2 func-
𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻HIC 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2𝑝𝑝)𝐻𝐻=)𝑛𝑛= 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
ℎ
(3) (3) 𝐺𝐺 𝜑𝜑(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝 ) = 𝐺𝐺(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝 ) − 𝐺𝐺
∀ 2𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝐻𝐻2𝑛𝑛 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) 𝐻𝐻 ) tion, 𝐻𝐻2 𝐻𝐻2𝐺𝐺 𝑐𝑐 , reaches zero — or 16(1−𝜈𝜈 2 )𝑎𝑎
𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻222 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻
𝐻𝐻
𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻22𝐻𝐻2 )2 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎,
= 𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻
𝑝𝑝222𝐻𝐻𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
𝐻𝐻 ) = 𝑛𝑛 )
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻222𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 ) (3) (3)(3) 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) ≈
∇. 𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻= 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐻𝐻2 𝐻𝐻2
(2) (3) equivalently when the energy release rate, 𝐺𝐺 , reaches the 3𝐸𝐸
2 0 𝐻𝐻 ) = 𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 𝐻𝐻2 )
2
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻2 2𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐
∇. 𝜎𝜎 =𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕− 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 (2)0 material 𝐺𝐺 fracture toughness, 𝐺𝐺 𝑐𝑐 .
− , if𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜑𝜑 2=, if0 𝜑𝜑 = 𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻2
𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻=∀){𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 HIC
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑛𝑛 𝐻𝐻{ 2𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 ) (3)(4) (4) 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐
∀ HIC 2
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
− 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝐻𝐻𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 , if 𝜑𝜑 = 0 𝐻𝐻 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2 𝐻𝐻
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 𝐶𝐶Γ𝐺𝐺
𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 = {𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 0, if 𝜑𝜑0,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕< if0 𝜑𝜑Fig. < 1. (4)
0 Illustration Boundary 𝑐𝑐 Conditions 𝐶𝐶Γ
− 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ,𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻if
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐻𝐻22 𝜑𝜑 = 0𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of the coupled stress-diffusion analysis used to simulate the 𝐶𝐶Γ growth of an individual
𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 = {= {− −𝐻𝐻 0,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕if 𝑝𝑝
2
,
𝜑𝜑− if
, if 𝜑𝜑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
<)𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜑𝜑=
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = 𝐻𝐻
0
=𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻0
0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 (4) (4) 𝜎𝜎 𝑉𝑉
𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 = { 𝑝𝑝𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ,
2HIC. if 𝜑𝜑
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 = 0 )
(4) (3) (4) 𝐶𝐶Γ𝐶𝐶Γ = 𝑆𝑆(𝑇𝑇)exp ( ℎ 𝐻𝐻
) √ 𝑓𝑓 (7)
0, 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎
2
𝜑𝜑=
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
if𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 < {0 𝐻𝐻
− 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
2 2 , if 𝜑𝜑 = 0 𝐻𝐻 2 (4) The axisymmetric geometry
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 and
𝐶𝐶Γ𝐻𝐻2= boundary
𝑆𝑆(𝑇𝑇)exp
𝜎𝜎 𝑉𝑉
conditions
( ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻 ) √associ-
𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻2
𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎0,𝑝𝑝𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕=
if
𝐻𝐻 ) {
𝜑𝜑 = < 𝑛𝑛 0
𝐻𝐻
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 𝐻𝐻 ) (3)(4) 𝜎𝜎 𝑉𝑉
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻0, if
2 𝜑𝜑 < 02 ated with the coupled PDEs, Eqns. 1 and 2,𝐶𝐶are=schematically
0, 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
if 𝜑𝜑 < 02
Γ 𝑆𝑆(𝑇𝑇)exp ( ℎ 𝐻𝐻 ) √𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻2
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
− 1Ω and
2
0, if 𝜑𝜑 < 0 𝜎𝜎 𝑉𝑉 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Equations
𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 = {Ω ∖ Γ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ∖ ,Γif2𝜑𝜑are =0
(4) 𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻2𝐶𝐶Γ = 𝑆𝑆(𝑇𝑇)exp ( ℎ 𝐻𝐻 ) √𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑓𝑓 2
(7)
partial differential 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 equa- 𝐻𝐻 2
Ω ∖ Γ 0,𝑛𝑛 if 𝜑𝜑 <𝑛𝑛 0𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻2 𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻2
tions
Ω ∖ Γ(PDEs) Ω ⊂ 𝑅𝑅defined Ω ⊂ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑on the , if 𝜑𝜑 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻2𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻= 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 exp[(𝑧𝑧1 /𝑇𝑇 + 𝑧𝑧2 )𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ]
Ω ∖∖ ΓΓ 𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎Ω=∖ {
Ωdomain, 𝐻𝐻2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
(4) 2 𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻2 = 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 exp[(𝑧𝑧1 /𝑇𝑇 + 𝑧𝑧2 )𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ]
𝑅𝑅 = {Ω−∖ΓΓ,𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
HIC 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 where
Ω ⊂𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 , if 𝜑𝜑 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻2 = 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 exp[(𝑧𝑧1 /𝑇𝑇 + 𝑧𝑧2 )𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2
Ω ⊂ 𝑅𝑅Γ and Γ comprise 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 0, if 𝜑𝜑 < 0
(4)
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
0, if 𝜑𝜑 < 0 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑝𝑝 exp [(𝑧𝑧 /𝑇𝑇 + 𝑧𝑧 )𝑝𝑝 ]
the∖Ω ⊂ 𝑅𝑅 Ω ⊂points 𝑅𝑅 𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻 1 2 𝐻𝐻
ΓΩ Γ ⊂of𝑅𝑅cracked
2 2 2
Ω set Ω ⊂ 𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛 of
𝜎𝜎
Γ bodyℎ — theℎ HIC sur-
the 𝜎𝜎
face. ΓΓ𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛 Γ1 describes
Ω⊂ 𝜎𝜎ℎEquation Ω ΓΓ
𝜎𝜎ℎ Fickian
the
𝜎𝜎 =
ℎ diffusion 𝜎𝜎 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖∖ℎ/3 = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖of/3
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎ℎℎ Ω ∖ Γ 𝜎𝜎ℎ
Γ
hydrogen
𝜎𝜎 ℎ = 𝜎𝜎assisted /3𝜎𝜎 by 𝑛𝑛 the
𝜎𝜎ℎ =ℎ 𝜎𝜎𝜀𝜀𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 /3𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖Ω𝜀𝜀⊂ℎ𝑅𝑅
internal hydrostatic
Ω𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎⊂ 𝑛𝑛
𝑅𝑅𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝜎 stress,
/3
𝜎𝜎ℎ ,𝜎𝜎 𝜎𝜎
𝜀𝜀 ℎℎℎ = =
defined Γ
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖/3
𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 /3
as ℎ 𝜎𝜎 = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 /3.
𝜀𝜀 𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇 𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇
Equation
𝜀𝜀 Γ 2 describes 𝜀𝜀 the me-
𝜎𝜎 ℎ = 𝜀𝜀 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 /3 𝜀𝜀equilibrium,
chanical static 𝜎𝜎
𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇𝜎𝜎 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 ℎ
(𝜀𝜀) +tensor, 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
where 𝜎𝜎ℎis the𝜎𝜎stress = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (𝜀𝜀) + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
𝜀𝜀 𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇 𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇
𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇
which, by assuming 𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇
𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖a/3linear
𝜎𝜎 = 𝜎𝜎 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
= 𝜎𝜎𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (𝜀𝜀) =2(𝜀𝜀) )+ + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
elastic 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 material
ℎ 𝐻𝐻 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖behavior
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 /3 )
𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇 𝜀𝜀 𝜎𝜎 =𝐻𝐻2𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (𝜀𝜀) + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
𝜎𝜎 =
law,𝜎𝜎is=related 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (𝜀𝜀) (𝜀𝜀) 𝜎𝜎
to the +
= + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
strain (𝜀𝜀) + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
tensor,𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 ) 𝜀𝜀
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
𝐻𝐻
𝐻𝐻2 2, through ) )
𝐻𝐻2 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2the = 1 + (𝑧𝑧
) =lame 11/𝑅𝑅 ++ (𝑧𝑧1𝑧𝑧/𝑅𝑅 2 )𝑝𝑝+ 𝐻𝐻2𝑧𝑧2 )𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2
𝜎𝜎 = 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (𝜀𝜀)
) 𝜆𝜆, + 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
𝜇𝜇 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀 𝐻𝐻 ) Fig. 2. Main boundary conditions associated with the coupled stress-diffusion analysis.
coefficients,
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻222 )
𝐻𝐻 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
, as 𝐻𝐻2
2 )
2 )𝑎𝑎3 Fig. 2. Main boundary conditions associated with the coupled stress-diffusion analysis.
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) 𝜆𝜆,=
𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎,
𝐻𝐻 ) 1=+
2 𝜇𝜇 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻
1(𝑧𝑧) +≈ 1𝑝𝑝 (𝑧𝑧
/𝑅𝑅 1+
16(1−𝜈𝜈 /𝑅𝑅≈ )𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧𝐻𝐻2𝑝𝑝2)𝑝𝑝2𝐻𝐻)𝑎𝑎2 3
𝑧𝑧2+16(1−𝜈𝜈 (5) (5)
𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝐻𝐻 ) (𝑧𝑧 𝐻𝐻 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2)𝑝𝑝
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
66 )WINTER 𝜎𝜎 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
=
2
𝐻𝐻(𝑧𝑧 )2=ARAMCO
2 (𝜀𝜀)
3𝐸𝐸1
+ + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀 3𝐸𝐸1 /𝑅𝑅 +OF
2
𝑧𝑧2TECHNOLOGY
𝐻𝐻2
𝐻𝐻
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻 ) = 2016
1
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝 + SAUDI
+𝐻𝐻(𝑧𝑧 ) /𝑅𝑅
= 1+ + 𝑧𝑧 (𝑧𝑧 )𝑝𝑝
JOURNAL
+ 𝑧𝑧222 )𝑝𝑝 /𝑅𝑅 + 𝑧𝑧 )𝑝𝑝
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻22 ) =16(1−𝜈𝜈 1 16(1−𝜈𝜈 113/𝑅𝑅 1 𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻 2 𝐻𝐻2
2
1
22)𝑎𝑎 2 )𝑎𝑎3 𝐻𝐻222
𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝)2𝐻𝐻
𝐻𝐻2𝐻𝐻
=≈)𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 𝑛𝑛≈ (𝜀𝜀) + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻 2 3 (5) (5)
− ,
𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 = 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
(4)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
0, if 𝜑𝜑 < 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻2
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
summarized in Fig. 2. − , if 𝜑𝜑 = 0 Symbol Description Value
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻2 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎 = {
1 charging
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
(4)
Hydrogen 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 is
= ∫Γ(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 directly modeled through
(6) an im-
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 hydrogen 2 0, ∙if𝑛𝑛)dS𝜑𝜑 < 0 D Diffusion coefficient 1.4×10-9 m2.s-1
posed concentration,
Ω ∖ Γ 𝐶𝐶0 , at the inner wall in𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 con-
𝐻𝐻2 1
= ∫Γ(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶
S ∙ 𝑛𝑛)dS Solubility(6) 6.5×10-6 mol.m-3.Pa-1/2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻2with1the sour environment. Note that 𝐶𝐶0 must be related
tact 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻𝜑𝜑(𝑎𝑎,2 =1 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻∫2 )(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶
= 𝐺𝐺(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) − 𝑛𝑛𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 (6)
to𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 the=operating
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2∫ Γ(𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 and ∙∙𝑛𝑛)dS
𝑛𝑛)dS
environmental
Ω ⊂ 𝑅𝑅 (6)
conditions, as will be z1
First compressibility
1.54×10-6 K.Pa-1
2 Γ
discussed in the next section. 𝜑𝜑(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) = 𝐺𝐺(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) − 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 constant
𝜑𝜑(𝑎𝑎, 𝐺𝐺 𝑝𝑝Ω ∖) Γ= 𝐺𝐺(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝 ) − 𝐺𝐺 Second compressibility
𝜑𝜑(𝑎𝑎, At 𝑝𝑝the 𝐻𝐻22)HIC
𝐻𝐻 = 𝐺𝐺(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻22)Γ ,−equilibrium
surface, 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 between the hydrogen z2 4.69×10-11 Pa-1
𝐺𝐺 constant
gas in the
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 Ω ⊂cavity 𝑅𝑅 and the diffusible hydrogen lattice is consid-
𝑛𝑛
Young’s modulus 200 GPa
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 this translates into𝜎𝜎an
E
ered; ℎ imposed hydrogen concentration
on Γ using Sievert’s law18, as follows: 𝐺𝐺 𝑐𝑐 ν Poisson’s ratio 0.3
𝐶𝐶 Γ
𝐺𝐺
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝜎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 /3 T Temperature 293 K
∀M∈Ω∖Γ
𝜎𝜎 𝜎𝜎 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐷𝐷𝜕𝜕𝑉𝑉 𝐶𝐶Γ
Table 1.(1)
𝐻𝐻
𝐶𝐶 =ℎ𝑆𝑆(𝑇𝑇)exp ( ℎ 𝜀𝜀𝐻𝐻 ) √𝑓𝑓𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐻𝐻2 = ∇. (𝐷𝐷∇𝐶𝐶 −(7)𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 C∇𝜎𝜎ℎ )
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶ΓΓ Γ
Material parameters of X60 pipeline steel in model
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (7) 𝜎𝜎 𝑉𝑉
𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 /3 𝐶𝐶Γ = 𝑆𝑆(𝑇𝑇)exp ( ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐻𝐻 )HIC
accelerated √𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻growth
2
(7)
tests by exposing controlled rolled
𝜎𝜎ℎ 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻
𝐶𝐶 𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻= 𝑆𝑆(𝑇𝑇)exp (𝜎𝜎ℎ 𝑉𝑉𝐻𝐻 𝜆𝜆,) √𝜇𝜇 𝑓𝑓 (7)
𝐶𝐶ΓΓ = 𝑆𝑆(𝑇𝑇)exp
where 2 is the( temperature-dependent
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ) √𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻22∇. 𝜎𝜎 = 0 (7)
hydrogen solubility(2) API-5L-X60 low sulfur CMn membranes having a 170 mm
𝜀𝜀 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
of the material (follows an Arrhenius relationship) and 𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻2 is radius and 7 mm thickness to a quite aggressive environment
𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻2 = 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 exp[(𝑧𝑧1 /𝑇𝑇 𝜎𝜎 + ∀)𝑝𝑝HIC
= 𝑧𝑧𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (𝜀𝜀) ] 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
2 +
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻22hydrogen
the fugacity, which 2can 𝐻𝐻be approximated18 by: — 0.2N H2SO4 — under cathodic polarization of -880 mV
𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇 𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻2 = 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 exp 𝑧𝑧2 )𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2such
vs. [(𝑧𝑧 1 /𝑇𝑇 + Under
Ag/AgCl. ] test conditions, a high subsurface
𝑓𝑓 = 𝑝𝑝 exp [(𝑧𝑧 /𝑇𝑇
𝑓𝑓𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻22 = 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻22exp[(𝑧𝑧11/𝑇𝑇 + 𝑧𝑧22𝐻𝐻)𝑝𝑝 +𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝑧𝑧 )𝑝𝑝)
2 𝑝𝑝
] .
𝐻𝐻2] 𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) = 𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) hydrogen(3) concentration was reached, estimated at 5.2 mol/
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝜎𝜎 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (𝜀𝜀) + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀 22
m , equivalent to 37 ppm, which indeed led to an acceler-
3
NUMERICAL IMPLEMENTATION 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) = 1 AND + (𝑧𝑧1VALIDATION
/𝑅𝑅 + 𝑧𝑧2 )𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ated HIC test. Using ultrasonic scanning — C-SCANs and
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 )
The chemo-mechanical model described in 2the B-SCANs — the authors provided information about the
16(1−𝜈𝜈
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 )𝑎𝑎3previous
Symbol Description
𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) ≈ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐻𝐻2 𝑝𝑝 Value (5)
𝜑𝜑 = 0-9 m2.s-1 location of selected HIC defects and the increase in their
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐻𝐻2
section 𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝
was first
𝐻𝐻2 ) =
implemented
1 + (𝑧𝑧1 /𝑅𝑅 + in the − 3𝐸𝐸element
)𝑝𝑝{finite , if1.4×10
package
D Diffusion 𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧2=
coefficient 𝐻𝐻2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
(4) as a function of time. Two different defects, namely D5
SCOMSOL Multiphysics ®
to assess the model
Solubility 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 accuracy
6.5×10-6 mol.mand -3.Paarea
-1/2
zminimize
𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻22 3
First16(1−𝜈𝜈
compressibility 0, if 𝜑𝜑1.54×10
< 0 -6 K.Pa-1 and D7, were selected from the described tests to validate
1 computational complexity.
)𝑎𝑎 A time-dependent
𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) ≈ constant 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 (5) the current model accuracy. Table 1 shows the value of the
analysis with an implicit3𝐸𝐸 time integration scheme was used
z2 Second compressibility 4.69×10-11 Pa-1 model parameters used for the simulation. Due to the uncer-
in coupling the structural mechanics module with both the Saudi Aramco: Company General Use
𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻2 constant
diffusion-reaction module modulus
and the distributed ODE module. tainty and absence of published data on fracture toughness
E Young’s Ω∖Γ 200 GPa
νCoupling variables Poisson’s
were usedratio to evaluate numerically the 0.3 in the segregation zone of CMn steels — preferable initiation
THIC cavity volume, Temperature
which wasΩrevealed ⊂ 𝑅𝑅 𝑛𝑛 to be very 293
close sites for HIC — KIH was used as a fitting parameter.
toK General
Saudi Aramco: Company Use
the analytical approximation given in Eqn. 5, as well as the Figure 3 compares the experimental and calculated crack
Table 1. Material parameters of X60 pipeline steel in model
flux of hydrogen through the Γ . growth curves for both defects, D5 and D7. This figure
A review of the published literature showed a relevant shows that the predicted crack growth rates are in quite
𝜎𝜎
case study, which has been usedℎ to test the capabilities of good agreement with the experimental measurements. The
the proposed HIC model. Brouwer et al. (1995)19 conducted comparison also shows that the model tends to overestimate
𝜎𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 /3
Experiment19 𝜀𝜀 Experiment19
Simulation: KIH = 345 N/mm 3/2
Simulation: KIH = 345 N/mm3/2
𝜆𝜆, 𝜇𝜇
Cracked Area (mm2)
Crack Area (mm2)
𝜎𝜎 = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 (𝜀𝜀) + 2𝜇𝜇𝜀𝜀
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 )
Defect D5
𝑅𝑅(𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻2 ) =Saudi (𝑧𝑧1 /𝑅𝑅 Company
1 +Aramco: + 𝑧𝑧2 )𝑝𝑝General Use Defect D7
𝐻𝐻2
16(1−𝜈𝜈 2 )𝑎𝑎3
𝑉𝑉(𝑎𝑎, 𝑝𝑝𝐻𝐻Saudi
2
) ≈Aramco:
3𝐸𝐸Company
𝑝𝑝 2GeneralUse
(a)𝐻𝐻General
Use (5) (b)
𝑛𝑛𝐻𝐻2
Time (hours) Time (hours)
Fig. 3. Comparison of calculated crack growth curves for defect D5 (a) and defect D7 (b) withSaudi
experimental
Aramco: crack growth
Company curvesUse
General
19
.
experimental crack growth curves19.

Simulation: KIH = 345 N/mm3/2
the HIC growth rate at longer exposure times. This may be even with low computing resources.
Cracked Area (mm2)

explained by two different factors. First, the model assumes 2. The software input parameters must be easy for nonex-
a constant subsurface hydrogen concentration throughout perts to understand and access, and must be readily avail-
the simulation, whereas in the experiment, since the pH is able in the field.
not controlled, the hydrogen charging at the entry surface
tends to decrease with time due to the continuous consump- User-Friendly Application
tion of hydrogen ions. This was confirmed by analyzing the
measured permeation current curves, where after 20 hours of Since most computers in the field (if not all) do not have
exposure time the hydrogen flux starts to decrease — see Fig. the capacity to run a Finite Element (FE) package such as
5 in Brouwer et al. (1995)19. The second reason that may Defect D7
COMSOL Multiphysics® (which requires an extra software
explain such a discrepancy was indicated in the case study19 license, and high performance computers), the original FE
when metallographic examinations of the HIC defects re- model could not simply be distributed for field tests. To
vealed that when HIC is initiated in the bainitic bands of the solve this issue, a surrogate HIC model was developed using
(b) . The idea was to generate a database
a similar approach 20
segregation zone, it tends to stop (slow) at the edge of the
band. In other words, the crack enters a region with higher of massive parametric simulation results using the original
fracture toughness, resulting in a slower crack growth. This FE model, then develop a surrogate model — expert sys-
observation clearly highlights the key role played by fracture tem — that fits the results contained in the database. The
Time (hours)
toughness in the model prediction accuracy. fitting process was done such that the surrogate model con-
serves the same accuracy as the original FE model, but at a
SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT far less computing cost and with no need for a FE solver,
which made it the ideal candidate for the development of
Fig. 3. Comparison of calculated crack growth
The HIC model developed in this study was used to build the curves forof defect
field version ProHIC™.D5This(a) andwasdefect
process D7
done using (b) with
a user-friendly HIC prediction software, named ProHIC™. MATLAB software, since use of the MATLAB runtime en-
® ®
experimental crack growth curves . 19
This preliminary laboratory validated version of the software vironment is free, once the model had been packaged into a
is to be used in practical field cases by field engineers so as standalone executable.
to collect as much feedback as possible to assess the model For the development of the graphical user interface, the
limitations and give directions for future developments. challenge was to create an environment that would meet
During the software development phase, two key objectives the needs of both beginners and experts alike, while allow-
were kept in mind: ing them to be optimally productive. Therefore, ProHIC™
comes with two different modes: basic and advanced.
1. The software must be able to run smoothly on ordinary The basic mode interface, Fig. 4, deals with one feature
computers used by nonexperts and must be functional (HIC) at a time and assumes that the end-user has already
Fig. 4. ProHIC™ basic mode interface.
Fig. 4. ProHIC™ basic mode interface.

sized the feature — length and depth — on the nondestruc- temperature, etc. — and feature dimensions, either values for
tive testing (NDT) map. The interface, which is simple, is HIC length and depth or a C-SCAN image. For example, the
divided into three panes. The left pane contains two images program uses functions for hydrogen solubility and hydrogen
that provide a handy reference when using the software, with diffusivity vs. temperature that are hidden from the user, de-
some of the parameters labeled. The middle pane is where spite being important to the model.
all the values are input. The hydrogen permeation rate can Among all the simulation inputs, two parameters are very
either be “measured” or “calculated” (as elaborated in the important to the model and are at the same time quite diffi-
next section), and each option is selected from a drop-down cult to measure: the hydrogen charging flux, JH, and the steel
menu. The green run button is used to start the calculation, fracture toughness, KIH. The first parameter, JH, which is
and the terminal informs the user of changes made. The right used to calculate the subsurface hydrogen charging concen-
pane contains two graphs that show the blister diameter and tration, C0, via Fick’s law, can be entered using two different
the blister internal pressure as a function of time. methods; the value is either measured or calculated. The
Figure 5 shows the advanced mode interface of ProHIC™. measured method allows the end-user to input the field mea-
This mode, designed for more experienced end-users, embeds sured value of JH (in pL/cm2/s) using one of the numerous
an image processing capability to directly pre-process NDT available techniques as described in NACE-1C184 (2008)21.
scans within ProHIC™ and extract the geometric features In particular, the Hydrosteel™ probes from ion science
of interest for the simulation. The end-users can import have shown good results for field measurement of hydrogen
multiple ultrasonic testing C-SCANs in image format, select charging flux22.
the contours of the different HIC features and assign them
different tags. The end-user selections are then used as geo- Hydrogen Permeation
metric inputs to carry out the prediction. At the end of the
simulation, the evolution with time of the circumferential If field measurements of JH cannot be carried out, a value
and longitudinal lengths (referred to as c and s, respectively, can be estimated with the calculated method, which makes
in API-57911) are plotted and displayed visually on the NDT use of an analytical relationship proposed by Traidia et al.
map for each HIC feature. (2012)12 and built upon laboratory experiments carried out
earlier23. This relationship gives a conservative estimate of
Field Input Parameters the hydrogen permeation flux through the pipe wall, based
on the known partial pressure of H2S and pH. Note that the
Most of the model input parameters can be entered manually pH is automatically calculated by the program from H2S and
by the end-user or calculated by the software, e.g., feature carbon dioxide contents, temperature and pressure, using a
length and depth in the advanced mode. To avoid confusion correlation issued from the CORMED model24.
and maintain trust in the software’s efficacy, only the main The second critical input is the Mode I steel fracture
inputs easily accessible to field engineers are required from toughness in a hydrogen environment, KIH. This might seem
the end-user. These include operating conditions — pressure, easy to access from the material data sheet of the damaged
Fig. 5. ProHIC™ advanced mode interface.
Fig. 5. ProHIC™ advanced mode interface.

Fig. 6. Compact tension fracture specimen orientation with a pre-crack perpendicular to the pipe wall (left) and a pre-crack parallel to the pipe wall (right).
Fig. 6. Compact tension fracture specimen orientation with a pre-

equipment. In reality, it is the most difficult data to deter- conservative (worst case scenario) estimates of crack
and a pre-crack parallel to the pipe wall
mine. Indeed, since it is well established that HIC initiates
(right). growth rates.
and propagates in a plane parallel to the pipe wall, the frac- • The hydrogen charging flux from the corrosion wall
ture toughness, KIH, used in ProHIC™ must be measured on and the in-plane steel fracture toughness in a hydrogen
a test specimen with a pre-crack parallel to the pipe wall, environment are the two key parameters controlling
Fig. 6. the growth rate of HIC. The former can be directly
Experimental values of such fracture toughness are ex- measured in the field using commercial non-intrusive
tremely rare in (if not absent from) the open literature, and hydrogen probes, whereas the latter would require
published values are often limited to configurations where back calculation by fitting software predictions to pre-
the pre-crack is perpendicular to the pipe wall (pipe failure), vious inspection records.
as highlighted by Brouwer et al. (1995)19. This lack of data
• Directions of future research and development include:
is in part due to the impossibility of extracting a full frac-
(1) laboratory measurement of the in-plane steel frac-
ture toughness test specimen from the pipe wall — limited
ture toughness for a variety of steel grades in hydrogen
in thickness to about 35 mm for a gas transmission line. To
environments, (2) modeling of multiple crack coales-
solve this issue, we suggest that the end-user get data from
cence and growth into SWC, an advanced stage of
at least two available inspection records on a specific HIC
HIC, and (3) coupling of crack growth rate predictions
location, then determine the field measured HIC growth rate to standard FFS calculations to determine the remain-
— the difference in the crack length divided by the differ- ing lifetime of HIC affected pipe sections.
ence in the time between inspections — and eventually use
ProHIC™ to back calculate the value of KIH to one that best ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
fits the field-based estimation of crack growth rates. That
KIH value then would become characteristic of the current The authors would like to thank the management of Saudi
pipeline of interest and extend to pipelines made of the same Aramco for their support and permission to publish this
steel, which means it can be used as an input to make new article. We would also like to thank Abdelmounam Sherik,
predictions for other HIC affected locations. Sebastien Duval, Ihsan Al-Taie, Arnold Lewis, Jaime Perez,
Abduljaleel Rasheed, Abdullatif Abdulhadi and Abrar Zainal
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK for their support and contributions.
The present work summarizes the main development steps REFERENCES

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6. Smanio, V., Cassagne, T., Ropital, F., Kittel, J., 18. Krom, A.H.M., Bakker, A. and Koers, R.W.J.: “Modeling
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Induced Crack Growth in the Wall of Pipelines and

BIOGRAPHIES Mohammed A. Abufour joined Saudi
Aramco in 1984. He has over 28 years
Dr. Abderrazak Traidia is a Research of nondestructive testing (NDT)
Scientist in the Oil & Gas Network experience in the oil and gas industry.
Integrity Division of Saudi Aramco’s Currently, Mohammed serves as
Research and Development Center director-at-large of the American
(R&DC), and Team Leader of the Society of NDT (ASNT) and is a
Modeling & Prediction Team at the member of the Certification Management Council (CMC)
R&DC. In this role, he is responsible of ASNT. He is the first technician from outside the USA
for developing numerical prediction models (mechanistic, to receive the ASNT Technician of the Year Award, which
empirical and statistical) to support decision making in he won in 2006; he also received ASNT’s fellow award in
asset integrity management. Common issues include 2012. In addition, Mohammed also holds ASNT Level III
hydrogen-related damage mechanisms, localized corrosion, certification in ultrasonic, magnetic particle and visual
stress corrosion cracking and composite materials damage. testing methods.
Abderrazak’s main area of expertise is in experimental and He has participated in many technical conferences and
computational hydrogen embrittlement of carbon steels has presented more than 15 technical papers. Mohammed
used in the oil and gas industry. Prior to joining Saudi is also a technical advisor on NDT programs for several
Aramco, he worked for 3 years as scientist in the French local colleges. In addition, he provides technical mentoring
nuclear industry on computational welding mechanics. to high school and college students, encouraging their
Abderrazak received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in interest in the NDT field.
Mechanical Engineering, with a major in Computational Mohammed received his B.S. degree in Nondestructive
Mechanics, from Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, France. Technology from the University of Northampton,
Northampton, UK.
Kaamil M. Shibly is a Laboratory
Scientist in Saudi Aramco’s Oil and
Gas Network Integrity Division. He
joined Saudi Aramco in 2015 and has
been supporting research efforts to
model the growth rate of
hydrogen-induced cracks and
step-wise cracking.
In 2012, Kaamil received his B.Eng. degree in
Mechanical Engineering from the University of Hong
Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong. In 2015, he received his
M.S. degree in Materials Science and Engineering from
King Abdullah University of Science and Technology,
Thuwal, Saudi Arabia.
Abdulrahman S. Al-Qahtani is an
Internal Corrosion Engineer in the
Pipelines Technical Support Division
of Saudi Aramco’s Pipelines,
Distribution and Terminals Projects
and Technical Support Department.
Prior to joining Saudi Aramco in
2009, he worked as a Process Engineer in one of SABIC’s
petrochemical affiliates. After joining Saudi Aramco,
Abdulrahman worked in the field of in-line inspection
technologies, pipelines maintenance and pipelines operation
engineering. Currently, he is working as the Team Leader
of the Pipelines Internal Corrosion Group under the
Pipelines Specialists Unit, providing technical support to
the Pipelines Department on new projects and routine
maintenance and operations.
Abdulrahman had an internship assignment working
for 1 year with DNV GL, in Ohio, in the field of pipelines
internal corrosion.
He received his B.S. degree in Applied Chemical
Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia.

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A New Approach of Pressure Profile and Oil Recovery during Dual and Single Coreflooding of Seawater and CO2
Injection Process for a Carbonate Reservoir
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0.06Company General Use

Grid Design and Hydrogeologic Parameters

view of the lithofacies distribution in the model.

demonstration purposes. A larger value for the injection rate Fig.

by assigning a very large (infinite) volume to the boundary (a)

element, as well as its thermodynamic conditions, such as

temperature and pressure, is therefore kept essentially un- (c)

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0 2.9 5.8 8.7 11.6 Perm

The reactive specific surface area in natural geologic me-

paths. The first is at a depth of -17 m to -19.3 m, with the 0

a high pH (~7), which is influenced mainly by the injection (c)

0 4.5 9 13.5 18 Perm

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ABSTRACT has led to a better reservoir description and an improved

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22𝑞𝑞 ∑𝑗𝑗WINTER 𝐸𝐸𝑗𝑗 (𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

Tracer qualification is one of the requisite steps in the devel-

• Thermal stability experiments.

Table 1. Results from the K-value experiments

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• Sampling frequency was designed to ensure that early or residence

(𝑡𝑡)/𝑀𝑀 between ∑𝑗𝑗 ∫−∞