International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 77 – 82

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhydene

Performance and emissions characteristics of a hydrogen enriched

LPG internal combustion engine at 1400 rpm
Gyeung Ho Choia , Yon Jong Chungb , Sung Bin Hanc,∗
a Department of Mechanical & Automotive Engineering, Keimyung University, 1000 Sindang-Dong, Dalseo-Gu, Daegu 704-701,
Republic of Korea
b Department of Automotive Engineering, Daegu Mirae College, 270 Pyungsan-Dong, Daegu 712-716, Republic of Korea
c Department of Mechanical Engineering, Induk Institute of Technology, San 76 Wolgye-Dong, Nowon-Gu, Seoul 139-749, Republic of Korea

Received 20 May 2004; accepted 7 June 2004

Available online 20 August 2004

Abstract
Environmental concerns and depletion in petroleum resources have forced researchers to concentrate on finding renewable
alternatives to conventional petroleum fuels. Hydrogen is thought to be a major energy resource of the future due to its clean
burning nature and eventual availability from renewable sources. Hydrogen is widely regarded as a promising transportation
fuel because it is clean and renewable.
The authors manufactured a high accuracy heavy-duty variable compression ratio single cylinder engine to investigate its
performance and emissions characteristics. The test engine was run at 1400 rpm with a compression ratio of 8. Spark timing
was set to MBT (minimum spark advance for best torque). This paper investigates the effects of hydrogen enriched LPG
fueled engine on exhaust emission, thermal efficiency and performance.
䉷 2004 International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Liquefied petroleum gas; Compression ratio; Minimum spark advance for best torque (MBT); Relative air–fuel ratio; Thermal
efficiency

1. Introduction The automotive engineering has undergone continuous

Environmental issues such as the global green house ef-
fect caused by carbon dioxide and the alternative fuel, we
have been studying the hydrogen fueled engine. Because of
excellent ignitability and high adiabatic flame temperature
of hydrogen fuel, the ignition delay period, flame develop-
ment angle, rapid burning angle and overall burning angle
in hydrogen fueled engine is remarkably shorter than those
of gasoline, diesel engine [1].
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +82-2-950-7545; fax: +82-2-950-
7559.
E-mail address: sparkengine@empal.com (S.B. Han).
improvements, but at the same time, various global envi-
ronmental issues related to vehicle use are becoming more
serious. With the increasing need to both conserve fossil
fuel and minimize toxic emissions, much effort is being fo-
cused on the advancement of current combustion technol-
ogy. The pollution levels recorded in large urban areas are
rising concerns for public health and substantial reductions
in pollutant emissions have become an important issue [2].
From an environmental point of view there is an increas-
ing interest among the suppliers to investigate LPG as a
transportation fuel. It was found that the liquid petroleum
gas, roughly a mixture of propane and butane, which gives a
benefit in terms of toxic hydrocarbons emissions and ozone

0360-3199/$30.00 䉷 2004 International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2004.06.009
78 G. Ho Choi et al. / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 77 – 82

Table 1
Specification of test engine

Engine type OHV

Number of cylinder 1
Bore 130 mm
Stroke 140 mm
Displacement 1,858.2 cc
Range of compression ratio 7–14
Intake valve
Open BTDC 18
Close ABDC 50

Exhaust valve
Open BBDC 50
Close ATDC 18
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus.
Valve clearance 0.4 mm at Intake
0.6 mm at Exhaust

formation due to its composition and CO2 emission levels
[3].
Hydrogen, as an energy medium, has some distinct
benefits for its high efficiency and convenience in storage,
transportation and conversion [4]. Hydrogen has much
wider limits of flammability in air than methane, propane
or gasoline and the minimum ignition energy is about an
order of magnitude lower than for other combustibles [5,6].
Thomas et al. [7] described that hydrogen is the primary
fuel options under consideration for fuel cell vehicles. The
ideal fuel would eliminate local air pollution, reduce green-
house gas emissions and oil imports [8,9].
Liquid Propane Injection (LPI) is a more improved system
in engine-out emissions and fuel consumption. LPI system
can increase engine power by the decrease of combustion
temperature according to vaporization heat and the inertia
effect [10].
The objective of this paper is to clarify the effects of hy-
drogen enriched LPG fueled engine on exhaust emission,
thermal efficiency and performance. The concept of hydro-
gen enriched LPG fueled engine can be essentially char-
acterized as low emissions and reduction of backfire for
hydrogen engine [11]. The authors manufactured a high ac-
curacy heavy-duty variable compression ratio single cylinder
engine (VCSCE) to investigate its performance and emis-
sions characteristics.
2. Experimental apparatus and procedure
Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of the experimental
apparatus. The engine was coupled to a dynamometer to
control the engine speed and load. Oil temperature, coolant
temperature, exhaust temperature, inlet pressure and exhaust
pressure were measured with various sensors. The exhaust
gas constituents (CO, CO2 , THC, O2 , NOx ) were measured
in this research project by a gas analyzer (Mexa 9100DEGR,
Horiba).
Number of balance shaft 2
Length of connecting rod 260 mm
Signal from the crankshaft position sensor (CPS) installed
on the crankshaft pulley and the hall sensor installed on the
cam-shaft pulley is sent to the ignition control device, which
then determines the amount of electric energy to be sent to
the combustion chamber and controls the ignition timing.
In order to determine the ideal compression ratio, the
experimental engine was developed. The VCSCE used in
this experiment was a 6 cylinder 12 L diesel engine that had
been modified into a single cylinder spark ignition engine.
Major steps in the engine’s fabrication are outlined below,
and the specifications are listed in Table 1.
(i) The cylinder head was altered so that a spark plug could
be inserted in the place of the injection nozzle, and the
piston was modified into a bath tub type. In order to take
advantage of the squish effect that occurs at the end of
the compression process and subsequently optimize the
mixture formation, a bath tub type piston was made.
(ii) A new crankshaft and crankcase were developed. A new
flywheel was made so that the desired RPM could be
obtained.
(iii) A balance shaft and a flywheel were made to minimize
vibration and acceleration, and the cooling and lubri-
cation system were placed externally in order to more
precisely determine engine performance.
All experiments were conducted at 1400 rpm, minimum
spark advance for best torque (MBT), wide open throttle
(WOT), and a compression ratio of 8. Because the compo-
sition of the combustion products is significantly different
for air–fuel mixture, and because the stoichiometric air–fuel
ratios depends on fuel composition. The relative air–fuel
ratio
is the reverse of fuel–air equivalence ratio . The
 G. Ho Choi et al. / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 77 – 82 79

Table 2
Characteristics of LPG and hydrogen Solenoid Flashback Pressure
Flow Meter
valve Arrestor Regulator
C4 H10 H2
Solenoid Pressure Pressure
Theoretical air–fuel ratio 15.5 34.3 Injector
valve Regulator gauge
Lower heat value (MJ/kg) 45.84 120
Flammability limits 0.4–1.7 0.12–10.12
Density (kg/m3 ) 2.64 0.0899 Manual
Throttle
Adiabatic flame temperature ◦ C 1990 2384 Body
valve
Turbulent burning velocity (m/s) 0.4 1.7
Autoignition temperature ◦ C 585 450

Hydrogen
To Engine

Bomb

Bomb
LPG
Fig. 3. The fuel supply system.

Fig. 2. Flowchart for relative air–fuel ratio measurement.

Fig. 4. Variation of brake mean effective pressure with relative
air–fuel ratio.

relative air–fuel ratio
is the ratio of the actual air/fuel ratio

to the stoichiometric air–fuel ratio. The compression ratio
of 8 was selected to minimize abnormal combustion. Upon
determining the normal operation of the engine, LPG was
supplied to achieve a relative air–fuel ratio of 0.8. To main-
tain equal heating value, the amount of LPG was decreased,
and hydrogen was gradually added. In a similar manner, the
relative air–fuel ratio was increased from 0.8 to 1.5 in incre-
ments of 0.1, and the ignition timing was controlled to be at
MBT each time. The characteristics of LPG and hydrogen
are listed in Table 2.
A desired mixture of LPG and hydrogen was used as the
fuel system, and the fuel rate was controlled with a duty
drive and a solenoid valve. LPG consumption was measured
via a balance scale with a degree of precision of 1 g. High
purity hydrogen at 200 bar was flown through the pressure
controller, the mass flow meter, the solenoid valve, and the
flame arrestor on its way to the intake. Figs. 2 and 3 show
the flowchart for determining more accurately the relative
air–fuel ratio and the fuel supply system, respectively. As
seen in the figure, if the relative air–fuel ratio and the LPG
consumption rate do not reach target values, the duty and
main jet are controlled accordingly.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Performance
Figs. 4–6 indicate some of the test results on the perfor-
mance characteristics such as brake mean effective pressure
(BMEP), brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and brake
thermal efficiency of the test engine.
As shown in Figs. 4–5 4,5, in general, BMEP and ther-
mal efficiency decrease with the increase of hydrogen sup-
plement rate. The reason for the decreases in BMEP and
thermal efficiency could be that the lack of oxygen increase
with the increase of hydrogen supplement rate in the rich
mixture zone and result the imperfect combustion. But there
80 G. Ho Choi et al. / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 77 – 82

Fig. 7. Variation CO2 emissions with relative air–fuel ratio.

Fig. 5. Variation of thermal efficiency with relative air–fuel ratio.

Fig. 6. Variation of brake specific fuel consumption with relative Fig. 8. Variation CO emissions with relative air–fuel ratio.
air–fuel ratio.

is no difference in power and thermal efficiency in the lean

mixture zone. The reason for this result could be that the
sufficient oxygen was supplied and hydrogen does much for
the fast combustion because hydrogen has four times higher
burning velocity.
As shown in Fig. 5, thermal efficiency decreases with the
addition of hydrogen. At
= 1, thermal efficiency shows
decrease of about 5% with the addition of 20% hydrogen.
The reason for this decrease in thermal efficiency could be
that the hydrogen fuel burns all at once.
Fig. 6 shows fuel consumption as a function of relative
air–fuel ratio with the addition of 0%, 10% and 20% H2
at 1400 rpm, MBT, and a compression ratio of 8. Fuel con- Fig. 9. Variation of O2 emissions with relative air–fuel ratio.
sumption that depends on thermal efficiency is defined as
the mass flow rate per hour, and it may depend on the in-
crease of brake power rather than the increase of fuel quan- and 20% H2 at 1400 rpm, and a compression ratio 8. The
tity. The reason for lower fuel consumption with increased CO emissions decrease if the relative air–fuel ratio (
=
hydrogen additions compared to LPG combustion would be 1/ = (air/fuel)actual /(air/fuel)stoichiometric ) is increased
the fast flame propagation velocity of hydrogen. from 0.76 to 1.3. There is no difference of CO emissions as
hydrogen is added. For rich relative air–fuel ratios around
3.2. Emissions
= 0.8, CO emissions exhibit a maximum value, and it ap-
pears that there is almost zero CO emission above
= 1.2.
Figs. 7–9 show CO, CO2 and O2 emissions as a func- The figure shows that a great quantity of CO emissions are
tion of relative air–fuel ratio with the addition of 0%, 10% produced with the rich air–fuel mixture, since an insufficient
 G. Ho Choi et al. / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 77 – 82
Fig. 10. Variation of total hydrocarbon emissions with relative
air–fuel ratio.
Fig. 11. Variation of NOx emissions with relative air–fuel ratio.
supply of air prevents all carbon of the fuel from becoming
the perfect combustion gas CO2 . Therefore, CO emissions
can be represented as a function of the relative air–fuel ratio
and might be considerably affected by it. It was expected
that CO emissions might decrease with the addition of hy-
drogen, but the oxygen amount decreases around the rich
and stoichiometric conditions as the hydrogen supplement
rate is getting higher.
Fig. 10 shows THC emissions as a function of relative
air–fuel ratio with the addition of 0%, 10% and 20% H2 at
1400 rpm, MBT, and a compression ratio of 8. THC emis-
sions decrease if the relative air–fuel ratio is increased from
0.75 to 1.3, and the THC emissions also decreases as hy-
drogen is added. Also, THC emissions tend to be similar to
CO emissions as the ratio is increased from 0.76 to 1.3. In
general, THC emissions from within quench regions in en-
gines are expelled during the exhaust process. With slightly
lean mixtures, although the quench zone is large, the excess
oxygen destroys much of the THC emissions when they are
mixed later in the exhaust system. With very lean mixtures,
combustion generally becomes erratic and the amount of
THC emissions increases.
Fig. 11 shows NOx emissions as a function of relative
air–fuel ratio with the addition of 0%, 10% and 20% H2 at
1400 rpm, MBT, and a compression ratio of 8. In this exper-
81
Fig. 12. Variation of heat release with crank angle.
Fig. 13. Variation of cylinder pressure with crank angle.
iment, NOx emissions is the maximum at around
(relative
air–fuel ratio) = 1.2, and the addition of 20% hydrogen re-
sults in about 20% increase in the amount of NOx emissions
compared to that of pure LPG combustion. NOx emissions
ought to depend on the fast combustion of hydrogen fuel
and the higher maximum temperature and pressure in the
cylinder compared to LPG combustion. Increase of NOx
emissions on the addition of hydrogen compared to that of
pure LPG combustion depend on the flame temperature of
hydrogen fuel that is higher than LPG fuel, and the higher
maximum temperature in the cylinder as compared to LPG
combustion. But the amount of NOx emissions are high in
the addition of 10% hydrogen at around
= 0.9–1.15 as
compared to the pure LPG fuel.
3.3. Combustion parameters
Figs. 12–14 show the results of all experiments. Fig. 12
is the heat release as a function of crank angle. Heat release
rate was calculated by making a first law analysis of the
average pressure versus crank angle variation for 250 cycles.
Fig. 13 shows the measured cylinder pressure versus crank
angle. For the calculation the contents of the cylinder were
assumed to behave as an ideal gas with the specific heat
being dependent on temperature.
82 G. Ho Choi et al. / International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 30 (2005) 77 – 82
Fig. 14. Variation of cumulative heat release with crank angle.
The cumulative heat release was then calculated (see
Fig. 14). The start of combustion was determined from the
rate of pressure rise variation. In general, heat release, cylin-
der pressure and cumulative heat release increase with the
increase of hydrogen supplement rate, but the ignition tim-
ing decreases with the increase of it.
4. Conclusions
This study is to clarify the effects of a hydrogen en-
riched LPG fueled engine on exhaust emission, thermal
efficiency and performance. The results obtained are as
follows.
(1) BMEP and thermal efficiency decrease with the in-
crease of hydrogen supplement rate. There are no merits of
the hydrogen enriched LPG engines for BMEP and thermal
efficiency. Heat release, cylinder pressure and cumulative
heat release decrease with the increase of hydrogen supple-
ment rate.
(2) There is no difference in the CO emissions as hydro-
gen is added, but the oxygen amount decreases around the
rich and theoretical air–fuel ranges as the hydrogen supple-
ment rate is getting higher. CO2 emissions increase with the
increase of hydrogen supplement rate.
(3) THC emissions decrease if the relative air–fuel ratio
is increased from 0.76 to 1.3, and the THC emissions also
decreases as hydrogen is added. Also, THC emissions tends
to be similar to CO emissions as the ratio is increased from
0.76 to 1.3.
(4) NOx emissions are high in the addition of 10% hy-
drogen at
= 0.9–1.15 as compared to the pure LPG fuel.
NOx emissions is the maximum at around
(relative air–fuel
ratio) = 1.2, and the addition of 20% hydrogen results in
about 20% increase in the amount of NOx emissions com-
pared to that of pure LPG combustion.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Ministry of Science &
Technology (MOST) and the Korea Science and Engineering
Foundation (KOSEF) through the Center for Automotive
Parts Technology (CAPT) at Keimyung University, Korea.
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