CHE 413

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA III

 COURSE OUTLINE

• Mass transfer: Fick's law, diffusion in stationary media,

additivity of resistances, diffusion of vapours.
• Convection: Principles of free and forced convection.
Determinations of film transfer coefficients.
• Heat exchanger design.
• General diffusion and convection equations
• Navier-Stokes equation, problems formation and
solution.
• Radiation: Mechanism of radiative heat transfer, shape
factors, heat exchange between radiating surface,
radiating networks.
• Boiling and Condensation: Different phase of boiling,
heat transfer coefficient, condensation number, and
boiler design.
 TEXTS
• Mass Transfer Operation by R.T. Trebay, Published by McGraw-Hill
• Process Heat Transfer By D.O. Kern Published by McGraw-Hill
• Heat Transmission by Williams H. McAdams published by McGraw-Hill
• Fluid Mechanism and Heat Transfer by J.M. Kay Published by Cambridge
University Press.
• Heat Exchanger: Design and Theory Source Source Book by N. Afgan
and E. U. Schlunder, Scripa, Published by Book Company, Washington
D.C.
• Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles by Christie John
Geankoplis. Published by Prentice-Hall of India.
 PHENOMENOLOGICAL LAWS
• What conserved quantities are often transported in
industrial process plants?
• It is known that the quantity: mass, energy and
momentum; can neither be created nor destroyed.
• The arising conservation laws, can therefore be used, to
account for the conserved quantities, in a given process.
• Thus, we can carry out a balance on a conserved quantity
entering a system.
 WHEN WILL A PROCESS OCCUR
• It is necessary to know if a process will occur before an
account of the quantities involved in the process can be
given.
• It may also be necessary to know the process direction.
• The 2nd law of thermodynamics helps to give the
condition and direction for a natural spontaneous
process to take place.
 2nd LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• One expression of the law states that every natural
thermodynamic process proceeds in the sense in which
the sum of the entropies of all bodies taking part in the
process is increased.
• Entropy is a measure of “disorder” or “randomness” of a
system.
• The law implies that for a natural process to occur, there
must be room to increase the entropy of the system.
 AT WHAT RATE WILL A PROCESS OCCUR

• In addition to knowing the condition for a process to

occur and accounting for the conserved quantities
involved, for a comprehensive analysis, it is necessary
to determine the rate at which the process occurs.
• For conserved quantities, transport laws govern the
rate of transfer.
• The conservation laws, thermodynamic laws and
transport laws are phenomenological laws.
• These laws are based on observable phenomena and logic
and can not be derived from more fundamental
principles.
• The laws give the basis of quantitative analysis of physical
and chemical processes.
• They are therefore necessary tools used in the design of a
process plant.
 GENERAL DIFFUSION AND CONVECTION
EQUATIONS
• The conserved quantity, mass and momentum
transfer are phenomena that occur only in fluid.
• Heat transfer takes place in both fluid and solids as
well as in vacuum (radiation).
• Note that there are other conserved quantities e.g.,
electric charge, not of primary concern to us here.
• In fluids and solids, it is required that there be a
contact between the source and the medium through
which the transport occurs.
• In this case, the medium’s particles, either on a
microscopic or macroscopic scale, are involved in the
transport.
The mechanism of transport of conserved quantities in
fluids and solids, where contact is required, can
generally be grouped into two:
1. DIFFUSION
The transfer could be as a result of microscopic
intermolecular interactions.
This transfer is generally referred to as diffusion.
• This transfer occurs in a stationary medium or in
moving fluid where all fluid elements move in a
straight, smooth streamlines in direction (x) normal to
the transport direction, i.e. laminar flow,
• In the laminar flow, the velocity is sufficiently small
and dominated by viscous stabilizing forces.
• The mechanism for the transport of the conserved
quantity, R, is the intermolecular forces of attraction
between molecules or groups of molecules.
• In fluid, molecular particles carry along the conserved
quantities with them as they move randomly, Brownian
motion, leading to the conserved quantity’s transport.
In solid, the transport is due to molecular vibration.
This mechanism of transfer is also called molecular or
microscopic transfer or sometimes, statistical transport.
2. CONVECTION
• Another means of transport of a conserved quantity,
R, is by bulk motion of the medium’s particles,
carrying R along.
• This occurs in fluids in turbulent flow, on a ‘‘turbulent
convective’’ scale.
• In convective transfer, the mechanism for transport is
the result of the motion of turbulent eddies in the
fluid that move in three directions and carry R along.
• Convective transfer may be free (natural) of forced
convection. (Find out the difference)
• Molecular transport is usually much smaller than
convective transport, unless very low flow velocities
occur.
• For this reason molecular transport in the direction of
flow can mostly be neglected.
 GENERAL RATE EQUATION
• The rate at which any conserved quantity, R, is
transported, in a continuous medium, is governed by
a phenomenological law.
• This law may be expressed in the general form as:
Driving force
• Rate of transport = =
Resistance
=Driving force x Conductance (1)
The general rate law applies to transport on both
microscopic molecular scale (diffusion) and
macroscopic turbulent scale (convective).
The rate of transport of R per unit area normal to the
direction of transport is called the flux of R.
 MOLECULAR (DIFFUSION) TRANSPORT
MODELS
• For microscopic molecular transport, i.e., diffusion,
the driving force for the transport is the negative of
the gradient (with respect to the direction of
transport) of the concentration of R.
• Thus, the general rate equation for molecular
diffusion transport may be given as Equation 2.
• For one dimensional gradient, in y direction, the
diffusion rate equation can be expressed in the form:
−d(conc. of R)
• Flux of R in the y direction = KT (2)
dy

• Where KT is the transport coefficient for the quantity R.

• For microscopic (molecular) transport, KT is a property
only of the medium (i.e. the material).
• The negative sign implies R, flows from a region of
high concentration to a region of low concentration.
• Equation (2) may be applied to each of the conserved
quantities, mass, thermal (heat) energy and
momentum.
• The corresponding expressions obtained are referred
to as Ficks law of diffusion, Fourier law of heat
conduction and Newton’s law of viscosity respectively.
• FOURIER’ S LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION
• If the flux of heat in the y direction is denoted by qy, then the
transport law can be written as:
𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐.𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡)
• 𝑞𝑦 = − 𝛼𝑇
𝑑𝑦
𝑑 (𝑚𝑐𝑣 𝑇)/𝑣𝑜𝑙
= − 𝛼𝑇
𝑑𝑦
𝑑(𝜌𝑐𝑣 𝑇)
𝑞𝑦 = − 𝛼𝑇 (3)
𝑑𝑦
• Where ∝T is called the thermal diffusion coefficient,
m = mass and
(ρcvT) is the “concentration of heat”.
• Because the density (ρ) and heat capacity (Cv) are
assumed to be independent of position, this equation
can be written in simpler form:
𝑑𝑇
𝑞𝑦 = −𝐾 𝑊 𝑚2 (4)
𝑑𝑦
• Where K =𝛼 𝑇 ρcv is the thermal conductivity of the
medium.
• This law is known as Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
• FICK’S LAW
• Sometimes, when working with mass transfer, mole
instead of mass is used.
• If the molar flux of A in the y direction is denoted by nA,y,
then the transport law is given by:
𝑑𝐶𝐴
nA,y = −𝐷𝐴𝐵 (5)
𝑑𝑦
Where DAB is the diffusivity of the species A in the medium
B.
Equation (5) is known as Fick’s law of diffusion.
𝐶𝐴 is the molar concentration.
• Where mass is specifically referred to, Equation (5) may
also be written as:
𝑑𝜌𝐴
• 𝑛𝑚𝐴,𝑦 = −𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝑘𝑔 𝑚2 (6)
𝑑𝑦

• Where 𝑛𝑚𝐴,𝑦 is the mass flux and 𝜌 is density.

• If mole is required, Equation (5) may also be written
in terms of molar flux, 𝑛𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐴,𝑦 , where the
concentration, 𝐶𝐴 , is molar concentration as given by
Equation (7):
𝑑𝐶𝐴
• nmolA,y = −𝐷𝐴𝐵 (7)
𝑑𝑦

• Thus the driving force for molecular mass transfer is

the mass or mole concentration difference (gradient).
• NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY
• Since ‘‘x-momentum’’ at any point where the local
velocity is 𝑣𝑥 is 𝑚𝑣𝑥 , the concentration of momentum
must be 𝜌𝑣𝑥 .
• If we denote the flux of x-momentum in the y direction
by 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , the transport equation is given by:
𝑑 𝜌𝑣𝑥
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜈 (8)
𝑑𝑦
• where 𝜈 is called the kinematic viscosity.
• Because the density is assumed to be independentof
position, Equation (8) can also be written as:
𝑑𝑣𝑥 2
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = −𝜇 𝑁 𝑚 (9)
𝑑𝑦
• where 𝜇 = 𝜌𝜈 is the viscosity (or sometimes called the
dynamic viscosity).
• The momentum flux, 𝜏𝑦𝑥 is same as the shear stress
exerted in the x-direction on a fluid surface of constant
𝑦 by the fluid in the region of lesser 𝑌.
• It may be seen from Equation (9) that velocity
gradient is the driving force for momentum transport.
• Equation (9) applies for laminar flow in the x direction
and is known as Newton’s law of viscosity.
• It applies directly to a class of (common) fluids called
Newtonian fluids.
 TURBULENT MACROSCOPIC (CONVECTIVE)
TRANSPORT MODELS
• At high fluid velocity, destabilizing inertial forces
overcome the viscous forces and the flow becomes
turbulent.
• Under turbulent conditions, a three-dimensional
fluctuating flow field develops that results in a high
degree of mixing or ‘‘convection’’ due to the bulk
motion of the turbulent eddies.
• As a result, the flow is highly mixed, except for a
region near solid boundaries that is called the
boundary layer 𝛿 .
• The fluid velocity approaches zero at a stationary
boundary, and thus there is a region in the immediate
vicinity of the wall that is laminar.
• Consequently, the major resistance to transport in
turbulent (convective) flow is within this boundary
layer.
• The size of the boundary layer depends upon the
dynamic state of the flow field as well as fluid
properties.
• In turbulent flows boundary layer is typically quite
small relative to the dimensions of the total flow area.
• Thus, the general transport models for the turbulent
convective transport of heat and mass can be
expressed as follows:
 ∆𝑇
• Heat flux: 𝑞𝑦 = 𝐾𝑒 = ℎ ∆𝑇 (10)
𝛿

∆𝐶𝐴
• Mass flux: nA,y = 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐾𝑚 ∆𝐶𝐴 (11)
𝛿

• where 𝐾𝑒 is a turbulent or ‘‘eddy’’ thermal

conductivity, 𝐷𝑒 is a turbulent or ‘‘eddy’’ diffusivity,
and 𝛿 is the boundary layer thickness.
• Since 𝐾𝑒 , and 𝐷𝑒 depend on the dynamic state of flow
as well as the fluid properties, they are combined with
𝛿 into the terms ℎ, the heat transfer coefficient, and
𝐾𝑚 , the mass transfer coefficient, respectively.
• ℎ and 𝐾𝑚 are the convective (turbulent) transport
coefficients for heat and mass respectively.
• For convective (turbulent) momentum transport, it is
somewhat more complex because of the tensor character
of momentum flux.
• Newton’s second law provides a correspondence between
a force in the 𝑥 direction, 𝐹𝑥 , and the rate of transport of
𝑥-momentum.
• For continuous steady flow in the 𝑥 direction at a bulk
velocity 𝑉𝑥 in a conduit of cross-sectional area 𝐴𝑥 , there is
a transport of 𝑥 momentumin the 𝑥 direction given by:
 𝑑(𝑚 𝑉𝑥 )
• 𝐹𝑥 = = 𝑚𝑉𝑥
𝑑𝑡
= 𝜌𝑉𝑥 𝐴𝑥 𝑉𝑥
= 𝜌𝑉𝑥2 𝐴𝑥 (12)
• The corresponding flux of 𝑥 -momentum in the 𝑥
𝐹𝑥
direction is = 𝜌𝑉𝑥2
𝐴𝑥
• This 𝑥 -momentum is also the driving force for
convective transport of 𝑥 -momentum in the 𝑦
𝐹𝑥
direction (toward the wall), i.e., 𝜏𝑦𝑥 =
𝐴𝑦
• Therefore, the convective flux of x-momentum from
the fluid to the wall (or the stress exerted by the fluid
on the wall) can be expressed as:
𝑓
• Momentum flux: 𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜏𝑤 = 𝜌𝑉𝑥2 (13)
𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 2
• where 𝑓 is called the Fanning friction factor (other
definitions of the friction factor are also used, which
differ by a factor of 2 or 4 from the Fanning friction
factor).
• Like the heat and mass transfer coefficients, the
friction factor depends upon dynamic flow conditions
as well as upon fluid properties.
 ASSIGNMENT
1) A property is being transported through a fluid at steady state
through a constant cross- sectional area. At a point 1 the concentration
𝐶1 is 2.78 𝑋 10−2 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑚3 and 1.50 𝑋 10−2 at Point
2 distance of 2𝑚 away. The diffusivity, 𝐷, depends on concentration 𝐶
as follows:
• 𝐷 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ∙ (𝐶) = 0.150 + 1.65𝐶
• (a) Derive the integrated equation for the flux in terms of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 .
Then calculate the flux.
• (b) Calculate 𝐶 at y = 1.0 𝑚 and plot 𝐶 versus 𝑦 for the three points.
• 2) A property is being transported by diffusion through a
fluid at steady state. At a given point 1 the concentration
is 1.37 𝑋 10−2 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑚3 and
0.72 𝑋 10−2 at point 2 at a distance 𝑦2 = 0.40 𝑚. The
2
diffusivity 𝐷 = 0.013 𝑚 𝑠 and the cross sectional area
is constant.
a) Calculate the flux.
b) Derive the equation for 𝐶 as a function of distance.
c) Calculate 𝐶 at the midpoint of the path.
 MICRO BALANCE
• In some cases the concentration, temperature and flow
velocity distributions in a system can be calculated by
starting with the principle of conservation.
• This principle is applied to every small volume element
of the system.
• This leads to the microbalances and the resulting
equations are differential equations.
• The general conservation law (for a non-reacting
system) is:
• Rate of X into the system – Rate of X out of the
system = Rate of accumulation of X in the system
------------ (1)
•
• where X is the conserved quantity, i.e., mass, energy,
or momentum.
• The system is not the ‘‘containing vessel’’ (e.g., a pipe,
tank, or pump) but is the property contained within
the designated boundary.
• The equation derived from mass balance is called
continuity equation and that derived from
momentum balance is called the equation of motion,
while that derived from energy balance is called
equation of energy.
 THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY IN AN
ISOTHERMAL SYSTEM
• The continuity equation is a mathematical statement
of the law of conservation of mass which states that
the mass of a system is constant.
• The differential form of equation of continuity is
developed by writing a mass balance over a volume
element ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 fixed in space, (micro balance),
through which a fluid is flowing.
• Z ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦, ∆𝑧

𝜌𝑣𝑥
• 𝑥
𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑥+∆𝑥

Y ∆𝑧
∆𝑦

𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∆𝑥
X
• Figure 1: Fixed volume element ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 through which a fluid is flowing.
•
• The conservation of mass through the volume
element implies:

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓

• 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 - 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (2)
𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝑁 𝑂𝑈𝑇
• Writing this mathematically: First consider the two
shaded faces, which are perpendicular to the X-axis.
• The rate of mass entering volume element through
the shaded face at 𝑥 = 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑥 ∙ ∆𝑦∆𝑧 (3)
• The rate of mass leaving volume element through the
shaded face at 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 = 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑥+∆𝑥 ∙ ∆𝑦∆𝑧 (4)
• Where 𝑣𝑥 is the velocity in 𝑥 direction.
• Similar expressions may be written for mass entering
and leaving in the 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions.
𝜕𝜌
• Rate of mass accumulation = ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 (5)
𝜕𝑡
• The mass balance equation then becomes:
𝜕𝜌
• ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 = ∆𝑦∆𝑧 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑥 − 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑥+∆𝑥
𝜕𝑡

+ ∆𝑥∆𝑧 𝜌𝑣𝑦 − 𝜌𝑣𝑦

𝑦 𝑦+∆𝑦
+ ∆𝑥∆𝑦 𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑧 − 𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑧+∆𝑧 (6)
By dividing the entire equation (6) by ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 and the
limit as ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑧 tends to zero, using the
definition of derivative, we get:
 𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑧
• =− + + (7)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• This is the equation of continuity which describes the

time rate of change of the fluid density at a fixed point
in space.
• This equation can be written more concisely by using
vector notation as follows:
𝜕𝜌
• = − 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝑣 (8)
𝜕𝑡

• Here 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝑣 is called the “divergence” of 𝜌𝑣

sometimes written as: div “𝜌𝑣”.
• The vector notation on the right side of Eq. (8) comes
from the fact that 𝑣 is a vector.
• Equation (7) tells us how density 𝜌 changes with time
at a fixed point resulting from the changes in the mass
velocity 𝜌𝑣.
• Equation (7) may be converted to another form by
using product rule:
 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
• = −𝜌 + + − 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑣𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(9)
• Rearranging Eq. (9) gives:
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑧
• + 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑣𝑧 = −𝜌 + +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(10)
• This may be written as:
𝐷𝜌 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑧
• = −𝜌 + + = −𝜌 𝑉 ∙ 𝑣 (11)
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐷𝜌
• Where is the substantial time derivative.
𝐷𝑡

• A very important special form of the equation of

continuity is that for a fluid of constant density, 𝝆 i.e.
𝐷𝜌
=0
𝐷𝑡
• Hence, Eq. (11) becomes:
𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑧
• 𝑉∙𝑣 = + + =0 (12)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜌
• For steady state flow, =0
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌
• For incompressible flow, = = =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐷𝜌
• Therefore for a steady state, incompressible flow becomes:
𝐷𝑡
𝐷𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦 𝜕𝑣𝑧
• = + 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑣𝑧 = 0 = −𝜌 + +
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• This leads to Eq. (12) above.

 EXAMPLE
• 1) The 𝑥 −component of the velocity vector of a flow field is
𝑢 = 𝑥𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 𝑥 2 . If the velocity satisfies the continuity
equation for steady incompressible flow, determine the
expression for 𝑣.
• SOLUTION:
• For 2-dimensional steady incompressible flow, the continuity
equation is:
𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦
+ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 𝜕𝑣𝑥
= 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥
𝜕𝑥
• Substituting and integrating,
1 3
𝑣𝑦 = − 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶
3
• Where 𝐶 is the constant of integration
• Assuming the boundary condition at 𝑦 = 0, 𝑣 =
0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐶 = 0 and
1 3
𝑣𝑦 = − 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦
3
 𝜕𝑣𝑦 2
∴ = − 𝑦 + 2𝑥
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑦
On summing and , we see that the continuity is
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
satisfied
 CONTINUITY EQUATION IN CYLINDRICAL
COORDINATES
• It is often convenient to use cylindrical coordinate to solve
the equation of continuity if fluid is flowing in a cylinder.
The relations between rectangular 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and cylindrical
𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 coordinates are:
• 𝑥 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 y = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑧=𝑧

−1 𝑦
•𝑟 = + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 𝜃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (13)
𝑥
• Using the relations in Eq. (13) with Eq. (7) the equation
of continuity in cylindrical coordinates may be given as:
𝜕𝜌 1 𝜕 𝜌𝑟𝑣𝑟 1 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝜃 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑧
• + + + =0 (14)
𝜕𝑡 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

• For steady incompressible flow, where density 𝜌, is

constant, the equation becomes:
𝑣𝑟 𝜕𝑣𝑟 1 𝜕𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝑧
• + + + =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
 QUESTION

• An incompressible fluid flows past one side of a flat

plate . At the leading edge of the plate the flow is
uniform at the free stream velocity 𝑣𝑥0 . There is no
velocity in the z direction. The y direction is the
perpendicular distance from the plate. Analyze this
case using the equation of continuity.
 ASSIGNMENTS (CONTINUITY EQUATION)
1) The velocity components for a two-dimensional flow are:
𝑣𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 +𝑦 2 and 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑦 − 𝑦3. Check if the
flow field satisfies the condition for steady incompressible
flow.
2) Is it possible to represent a steady incompressible flow with
the velocity vector
𝑣 = 𝑖 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 + 𝑗 𝑥 + 𝑦 3 − 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑘 −𝑥𝑧 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 2
3) Determine the 𝑧 −component of the velocity vector for an
incompressible flow if 𝑣𝑥 = 2 and 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑦 for 𝑣𝑧 = 0 at
the origin of flow.
4) A steady incompressible flow over a plane is described by
the velocity components 𝑣𝑟 and 𝑣𝜃 . Determine 𝑣𝑟 if 𝑣𝜃 =
𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
5) Given that 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑣𝑦 satisfy the continuity equation for
incompressible flow, if 𝑣𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 ,
deduce the expression for 𝑣𝑦 .
6) For a steady flow, 𝜌 = 1 + 𝑎𝑥, 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑦. Show
that
1+2𝑎𝑥
𝑣𝑧 = −𝑧 1 +
1+𝑎𝑥
7) A one dimensional flow was found to have a non-
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡
uniform density as represented by: 𝜌 = 𝑒 with initial
𝜋
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1 for 𝑡 = , 𝑥 = 0. What is the velocity of this
2
flow as a function of position and time.
Ans 𝑣 = 𝑥 sin 𝑡 + 1
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION
• Equation of motion is the conservation of momentum
equation and may be written as:

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

• 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 + 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 =
𝐼𝑁 𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 (15)
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Note that Eq. (15) arises from Newton’s 2nd law which states
that the time rate of change of momentum of a system is
equal to the summation of all forces acting on the system
and takes place in the direction of the net force.
• Eq. (15) may thus also imply that
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓
• 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 +
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝐼𝑁
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Force may act on the system by these means:
• (1) Pressure force and
• (2) Gravitational force.
• Also, momentum transfer may occurs by these
mechanisms:
• (1) molecular transport (diffusion), due to velocity
gradient, in laminar flow and
• (2) convective transport due to bulk flow, in turbulent
flow.
• First, considering only the 𝑥 component of the flow.
• The 𝑦 and 𝑧 components can be described in an
analogous manner.
• The rate at which the 𝑥 component of momentum
enters the face at 𝑥 in the 𝑥 direction by convection is
𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥 𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧.
• The rate at which it leaves the face at 𝑥 + ∆𝑥 is
𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥 𝑥+∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧.
• The 𝑥 component of momentum entering the face at 𝑦
is 𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑥∆𝑧.
𝑦
• The 𝑥 component of momentum leaving the face at y +
∆𝑦 is 𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑥∆𝑧.
𝑦+∆𝑦
• Also, the 𝑥 component of momentum entering the face
at 𝑧 is 𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑣𝑥 𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 and
• The 𝑥 component leaving the face at z + ∆𝑧 is
𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑣𝑥 𝑧+∆𝑧 ∆𝑥∆y.
• Hence, the net convective 𝑥 momentum flow into the
volume element ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧 is:
• 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥 𝑥 − 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥 𝑥+∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧 +
𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑥 − 𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑥∆𝑧 +
𝑦 𝑦+∆𝑦
𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑣𝑥 𝑧 − 𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑣𝑥 𝑧+∆𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 (16)
• The rate at which the 𝑥 component of momentum enters
the face at 𝑥 by molecular transport is 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧.
• The rate at which it leaves the face at 𝑥 + ∆𝑥
is 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝑥+Δ𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧.
• The 𝑥 component of momentum entering the face at 𝑦 is
𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∆𝑥∆𝑧.
𝑦
• The 𝑥 component leaving the face at y + ∆𝑦 is
𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∆𝑥∆𝑧.
𝑦+∆𝑦
• Writing similar equation for the remaining faces, the
net 𝑥 component of momentum transport by
molecular transfer is:
• 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝑥 − 𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝑥+∆𝑥 ∆𝑦∆𝑧 +
𝜏𝑦𝑥 − 𝜏𝑦𝑥 ∆𝑥∆𝑧 +
𝑦 𝑦+∆𝑦
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑧 − 𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝑧+∆𝑧 ∆𝑥∆𝑦 (17)
• The net fluid-pressure force acting on the element in the
𝑥 direction is the difference between the forces acting at
𝑥 and 𝑥 + Δ𝑥:
𝑃𝑥 − 𝑃𝑥+Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦Δ𝑧 (18)
• To obtain the gravitational force acting on a unit mass in
the 𝑥 direction, 𝑔𝑥 is multiplied by the mass of the
element to give:
𝜌𝑔𝑥 Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦 Δ𝑧 (19)
• The rate of accumulation of 𝑥 momentum in the
element is:
𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑥
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦 Δ𝑧 (20)
𝜕𝑡
Substituting Eqs. (16)-(20) into (15), dividing by
Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦 Δ𝑧 and taking the limit as Δ𝑥, Δ𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Δ𝑧
approach zero, we obtain the 𝑥 component of the
differential equation of motion:
 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑥 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑣𝑥
• =− + + −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜕𝑃
+ + − + 𝜌𝑔𝑥 (21)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥
• The 𝑦 and 𝑧 components of the differential equation of
motion are, respectively:
𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑦 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑣𝑦
• =− + + −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜕𝑃
+ + − + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 (22)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
• And
𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑧 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑦 𝑣𝑧 𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑧 𝑣𝑧
• =− + + −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝑃
+ + − + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 (23)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
• We can use Eq. (7), the continuity equation with Eq.
(21) to obtain an equation of motion for the 𝑥
component and also for the 𝑦 and 𝑧 components, with
Eq. (22) and (23) respectively as follows:
 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥
•𝜌 + 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑣𝑧 =− + +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 EQUATION OF MOTION (CYLINDRICAL
COORDINATE)
• If instead of a Cartesian volume element in rectangular
coordinates, a volume element is considered the
following micro momentum balances are obtained:
• In the 𝑟 −direction
𝜕𝑣𝑟 𝜕𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝜃2 𝜕𝑣𝑟 1 𝜕 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑟
•𝜌 = −𝜌 𝑣𝑟 + − + 𝑣𝑧 − −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
1 𝜕 𝜏𝑟𝜃 𝜏𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜏𝑟𝑧 𝜕𝑃
+ − − + 𝜌𝑔𝑟 (27)
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟
• In the θ −direction
𝜕𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝜃 𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝜃 𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝜃
•𝜌 = −𝜌 𝑣𝑟 + − + 𝑣𝑧 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕 𝑟 2 𝜏𝑟𝜃 1 𝜕 𝜏𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜏𝜃𝑧 1 𝜕𝑃
2 − − − + 𝜌𝑔𝜃 (28)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
• In the z −direction
𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝑧 1 𝜕 𝑟𝜏𝑟𝑧
•𝜌 = −𝜌 𝑣𝑟 + − + 𝑣𝑧 − +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
1 𝜕 𝜏𝜃𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝑃
+ − + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 (29)
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
• These micro momentum balances can also be
formulated in spherical coordinates.
• The above momentum balances in terms of shear
stresses are valid for all fluids, because the shear
stress are independent of the rheological behavior of
the fluid.
• In the special case of Newtonian liquids 𝜏 is
proportional to the velocity gradient.
• Thus, for Newtonian fluid, for example,
𝜕 𝜌𝑣𝑦
• 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −𝜐
𝜕𝑥
• Where density, 𝜌, does not vary with direction 𝑥, then
𝜕 𝑣𝑦
• 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = −𝜇 (30)
𝜕𝑥
• where 𝜇 = 𝜐 𝜌
𝜕𝑣𝑦
𝜕 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕 −𝜇 𝜕2 𝑣𝑦
𝜕𝑥
• Thus, = = −𝜇 (31)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2
• Similar expressions apply to other shear stresses.
 NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS
• When the density, 𝜌, and viscosity, 𝜇, are constant, Eq.
(24)- (29) can be simplified to obtain equations of
motion for Newtonian fluids.
• The resulting simplified equation are also called
Navier-Stokes Equations.
 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕𝑣𝑥 𝜕2 𝑣𝑥 𝜕2 𝑣𝑥
•𝜌 + 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑣𝑧 =𝜇 + +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
 EQUATION OF MOTION IN CYLINDRICAL
COORDINATES
• The following equations in cylindrical coordinates are
for Newtonian fluids for constant 𝜌 and 𝜇 for the 𝑟, 𝜃
and 𝑧 components, respectively:
𝜕𝑣𝑟 𝜕𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝜃2 𝜕𝑣𝑟 𝜕𝑃
•𝜌 + 𝑣𝑟 + − + 𝑣𝑧 = − +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟
𝜕 1 𝜕 𝑟𝑣𝑟 1 𝜕2 𝑣𝑟 2 𝜕𝑣𝜃 𝜕2 𝑣𝑟
𝜇 + − + + 𝜌𝑔𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃2 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 2
 𝜕𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝜃 𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝜃 𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝜃 1 𝜕𝑃
•𝜌 + 𝑣𝑟 + − + 𝑣𝑧 = − +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕 1 𝜕 𝑟𝑣𝜃 1 𝜕 2 𝑣𝜃 2 𝜕𝑣𝑟 𝜕 2 𝑣𝜃
𝜇 + 2 2 + 2 + 2 + 𝜌𝑔𝜃
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝑣𝜃 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑣𝑧 𝜕𝑃

•𝜌 + 𝑣𝑟 + + 𝑣𝑧 =− +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑣𝑧 1 𝜕2 𝑣𝑧 𝜕2 𝑣𝑧
𝜇 𝑟 + 2 2 + 2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
Exercise
Derive the equation giving the velocity distribution at
steady state for laminar flow of a constant-density fluid
with constant viscosity flowing between two flat and
parallel plates. The two plates will be considered to be
fixed and of infinite width, with the flow driven by the
pressure gradient in the 𝑥 −direction.
 NAVIER STOKE ASSIGNMENTS
1) A Newtonian fluid is confined between two parallel and
vertical plates. The surface on the left is stationary and the
other is moving up vertically in the 𝑦 −direction at a constant
velocity 𝑣𝑜 . The thickness of the fluid is 𝐻 in the 𝑥 −direction.
Assuming that the flow is laminar, solve for the velocity
profile.
2) Derive the equation for steady-state viscous flow in a
horizontal tube of radius 𝑟0 , where the tube is far from the
tube inlet. The fluid is incompressible and 𝜇 is a constant. The
flow is driven in one direction by a constant-pressure gradient.
3) Derive the equation for steady-state laminar flow
inside the annulus between two concentric horizontal
pipes. The radius of the inner tube is 𝑟1 and the outer
tube 𝑟2 . This type of flow occurs often in concentric-
pipe heat exchangers.
 RADIATION
• In the transport of heat via conduction and convection,
the mechanisms of transport require the motion of the
particles of the intervening mediums, either on a
microscopic or macroscopic scale.
• The physical contact of the intervening medium between
the heat source and receiver is therefore necessary.
• Thus, there exits thermal energy distribution from the
heat source through the intervening medium to the heat
sink.
• It has been observed however, that if bodies are
physically isolated from their surroundings, such as in
a vacuum, heat transfer may as well occur.
• In this case the mechanism of heat transport does not
require physical contact or intervening medium.
• This mechanism of heat transport is referred to as
THERMAL RADIATION.
• The energy released by a radiating surface is in the form
of successive and separate (discrete) packets or quanta
of energy called photons.
• The photons are propagated through space as rays; the
movement of swarm of photons is described as the
electromagnetic waves.
• The photons, as carriers of energy travel with unchanged
frequency in straight paths and with speed equal to that
of light.
• When the photons get to the receiving surface, there
occurs reconversion of wave motion into thermal energy.
• Electromagnetic waves are emitted as a result of
vibrational and rotational movements of the molecular,
atomic or sub atomic particles comprising the matter.
• The emission occurs when the body is excited by an
oscillating electrical signal, electronic or neutronic
bombardment, chemical reaction etc.
• The emission of thermal radiations is associated
with thermally excited conditions which depend
upon the nature of surface and its absolute
temperature.
• Electromagnetic radiations include Gamma rays,
X-rays, ultraviolet, visible, thermal radiation,
infrared, microwave etc.
• The distinction between one form of radiation and
another lies only in in its frequency and wavelength which
are related by:
𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝜆 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
• Consequently, longer wavelength corresponds to lower
frequencies and vice versa.
• A high temperature body will have a high frequency
quantum and so shorter wavelengths.
• Each photon can be thought of as a particle having mass
𝑚, energy 𝑒 and momentum = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑒 = 𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ𝑓
Where the Plank’s constant ℎ has a value
−34
6.625 𝑋 10 𝐽 𝑠
• Thermal radiation is usually defined as that portion of
the radiant energy spectrum between wavelength of
1 𝑥 10−1 and 1 𝑥 102 micron (micrometer).
• Thermal radiation includes the entire visible and
infrared and a part of the ultraviolet spectrum.
• The sun with an effective surface temperature of
5600 𝑜𝐶 emits most of its radiation at the extreme
lower end of the spectrum 0.1 𝑡𝑜 4 𝜇𝑚.
• Most solids and liquids have a continuous spectrum;
they emit radiation of all the wavelengths.
• Gases and vapours radiate energy only at certain bands
of wavelength and hence are called the selective
emitters.
• The emission of thermal radiation depends upon the
nature, temperature and state of the emitting surface.
• With gases however, the dependence is also upon the
thickness of emitting layer and the gas pressure
• Heat transfer by radiation is encountered in boiler
furnaces, billet reheating furnaces and other types of
heat exchangers.
• The design and construction of engines, gas turbines,
nuclear reactors and solar collectors is also
significantly influenced by the radiation heat transfer.
 ABSORPTIVITY, REFLECTIVITY AND
TRANSMISSIVITY
• The total radiant energy 𝑄𝑜 , impinging upon a body
would be partially or totally absorbed by it 𝑄𝑎 ,
reflected from its surface 𝑄𝑟 , or transmitted
through it 𝑄𝑡 in accordance with the characteristics
of the body.
• Thus,
𝑄𝑎 + 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑄𝑡 = 𝑄𝑜
• Dividing throughout by 𝑄𝑜
𝛼+𝜌+𝜏 =1
• Where
• 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
• 𝜌 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝜏 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
• The value of 𝛼, 𝜌, 𝜏 depends on the nature of the surface of
the body, its temperature and the wavelength of the
incident rays.
 BLACK BODY RADIATION
• Black surfaces are effective absorbers of radiation in the
wavelength that are encountered in heat transfer.
• Accordingly the name black body is assigned to a perfect
absorber of radiation.
• The thermal radiation impinging upon a black body are
totally absorbed by it; the radiation are neither reflected
from the surface nor transmitted through it.
• For a black body 𝛼 = 1 and 𝜌 = 𝜏 = 0.
• In actual practice there does not exit a perfectly black
body which will absorb all the incident radiations.
• The absorptivity of a surface depends upon the
direction of incident radiation, temperature of the
surface, composition and structure of the irradiated
(receiving) surface and the spectral distribution of
incident radiation.
 GRAY BODY
• When a surface absorbs a certain fixed percentage of
impinging radiations, the surface is called the gray body.
• The absorptivity of a gray body is necessarily below unity,
but it remains constant over the entire range of
temperature and wavelength of incident radiation.
• This condition of constant absorptivity is not satisfied by
the real materials and as such a gray body remains a
hypothetical concept like the black body.
 SPECULAR AND ABSOLUTELY WHITE BODY
• A body that reflects all the incident thermal radiations is
called a specular body (if the reflection is regular) or an
absolutely white body (if the reflection is diffused).
• For such bodies 𝜌 = 1, and 𝛼 = 𝜏 = 0.
• Regular (specular) reflection implies that the angle
between the reflected beam and the normal to the
surface equals the angle made by the incident radiation
with the same normal.
• Refection from highly polished and smooth surfaces
approaches specular characteristics.
• In a diffused reflection, the incident beam is reflected
in all directions i.e., there is directional independence
of the reflected beam.
• Most of the engineering materials have rough
surfaces, and these rough surfaces give diffused
reflections.
 TRANSPARENT OR DIATHERMANEOUS BODY
• A body that allows all incident radiations to pass through it
is called transparent or diathermanous.
• For such bodies 𝜏 = 1, and 𝛼 = 𝜌 = 0.
• Atmospheric air is diathermanous; therefore it is not
heated by sunshine, but by long wave heat reflected by soil
and especially, water on the Earth surface.
• Water, on the contrary, is not diathermanous, and is heated
by sunshine directly.
• Transmissivity varies with wavelength of incident
radiation. A material may be non-transparent for a
certain wavelength band and transparent for another.
• A thin glass plate transmits most of the thermal
radiations from the sun, but absorbs in equally great
measure the thermal radiations emitted from the low
temperature interior of a building.
• Most of the solids and liquids encountered in
engineering are non- transparent (opaque,
athermanous) to thermal radiations.
• Thus for opaque bodies, 𝜏 = 0, and
• 𝛼 + 𝜌 = 1.
• This shows that good absorbers are bad reflectors.
• Gases have relatively high transmissivity and reflect
very little of radiation impinging on the interface.
• Hence, for gases, reflectivity may be neglected such
that:
•𝛼 + 𝜏 = 1
• Consider a large hollow sphere or cylinder provided with
only one small opening and maintained at uniform
temperature.
• The inner surface is coated with lamp black that absorbs
about 95% of incident radiation.
• A beam of thermal radiation entering the hole strikes the
inner surface.
• The major portion of the radiation is absorbed and only a
small fraction is reflected.
• The weak reflected rays again strikes the inner surface and
its partly absorbed and partly reflected again.
• Likewise the reflected radiation is successively absorbed
and finally when it escapes out, it has only a negligible
amount of energy associated with it.
• A small hole leading into a cavity thus acts very nearly as a
black body with absorptivity, 𝛼 = 1, because all the radiant
energy entering through it gets absorbed.
• The smaller the opening, the better the approximation to
black body behavior.
 Emissive Power, Radiosity, and Irradiation
• Emissive Power:
• Total emmisive power, denoted by the symbol 𝐸, is the
term used to denote the total emitted thermal radiation
leaving a surface, per unit time, per unit area of emitting
surface.
• Emmisive power consist of only original emission from a
surface and does not include any energy leaving a surface
as a result of reflection of some incident radiation
• Emmisive power is found to be dependent upon the
temperature of the emitting surface, the substance of
which the surface is composed, and the nature of the
surface structure (i.e roughness, etc.).
• The emission may be directionally preferential, i.e.
directional dependence.
• Emmission may also be concentrated in certain
wavelength bands, i.e. spectral dependence, within
the thermal radiation spectrum.
• Emissive power is the radiant energy flux.
𝑞
• Thus, 𝐸 =
𝐴
• Where 𝑞 = rate of heat flow
𝐴 = 𝑆𝑢𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
• For surfaces with temperature-independent physical
properties, the emissive power is proportional to the
fourth power of the surface temperature. Thus,
4
𝐸𝛼𝑇
• The basic rate equation for radiation transfer is based on
Stefan-Boltzman law which states that the amount of
radiant energy emitted per unit time from unit area of
black surface is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.
4
𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑏 𝑇
• Where 𝜎𝑏 is the radiation coefficient or the Stefan-
Boltzman constant.
−8 2 4
• 𝜎𝑏 = 5.67 𝑥 10 𝑊 𝑚 𝐾
• Normally a body radiating heat is simultaneously
receiving heat from other bodies as radiation.
• Consider that surface 1 at temperature 𝑇1 is completely
enclosed by another black surface at temperature 𝑇2 .
• The net radiant heat flux is then given by:
4 4
𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜎𝑏 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
Very often the emission of radiant energy from cooler
bodies can be neglected in comparison with convection
and conduction.
• Radiosity
• Radiosity is the term used to indicate the total radiant energy
leaving a surface, per unit surface area.
• The symbol 𝐽 is used to denote the radiosity.
• This quantity differs from emissive power in that radiosity
includes reflected energy as well as the original emission.
• Total radiosity of a surface element consists of all the
radiation leaving a surface, regardless of any directional
dependence or spectral preference.
 IRRADIATION

• Irradiation, G, is the term used to denote the total

radiation incident upon a surface per unit time, per
unit area of irradiated surface.
• The irradiation incident upon a surface is the result of
emission and reflection from other surfaces.
 KIRCHOFF’S LAW
• The radiation of one wavelength is called
monochromatic radiation, while the dependence of
radiation on wavelength is termed spectral.
• Consider an enclosure filled with monochromatic
radiation, and a monochromatic opaque body
𝜏 = 0 , placed into this enclosure.
• If the body is at thermodynamic equilibrium with the
enclosure, then the net heat transfer is zero.
• This implies that at equilibrium, the radiant heat
emitted equals that absorbed.
• If the enclosure is a black body then the radiant heat
emitted is 𝐸𝑏 and that absorbed is the radiosity (total
emitted radiant energy) from the enclosed body.
• The enclosed opaque body radiosity is the sum of the
radiation due to original emission, 𝐸 and the radiation
due to reflection, 𝜌𝐺.
• Thus, for the case described, the monochromatic radiation, at
equilibrium is :
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐸 + 𝜌𝐺
𝐺 is the irradiation incident on the enclosed body from the
black body and in this case equals 𝐸𝐵 .
Thus,
𝐺 = 𝐸 + 𝜌𝐺
For the opaque body, 𝜌 = 1 − 𝛼,
𝐸
∴ 𝐺 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛼
𝐺 in the equation is constant irrespective of any body 1,
2, 3 etc., placed inside the enclosure.
If the body placed inside the enclosure is a black body,
then 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑏 and 𝛼 = 1.
Thus,
𝐸 𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸3 𝐸𝑏
𝐺= = = = = = 𝐸𝑏
𝛼 𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 1
This relation is known as Kirchoff’s law.
• Kirchoff’s law states that the ratio of the emissive
power 𝐸 to absorptivity 𝛼 is same for all bodies and is
equal to the emissive power of a black body at the
same temperature.
• The relation implies that at a given temperature, a
black body has the maximum attainable emissive
power.
 EMISSIVITY
• The ratio of the emissive power of a certain non-black
body 𝐸 to the emissive power of a black body 𝐸𝑏 ,
both bodies being at the same temperature, is called
the emissivity, 𝝐 of the body.
• Thus,
𝐸
𝝐=
𝐸𝑏
• Comparing emissivity expression with Kirchoff’s law
implies that:
𝜺=𝜶
The equivalence of 𝜺 and 𝜶 suggest that a perfect
absorber is also a perfect radiator.
 RADIATIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
• Consider two flat black bodies, each with a flat surface
at absolute temperature, 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 .
• All heat leaving body 1 arrives at body 2 and all heat
arriving at object 1 comes from object 2.
• Thus, the net radiant heat transfer from body 1 to
body 2
𝑄𝑅
𝑞𝑅 = = 𝜎𝑏 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
𝐴
If the object 1 “sees” other objects in addition to object 2,
then a shape factor, 𝐹1−2 , (sometimes called view factor
or configuration factor) must be included in the equation.
𝑄𝑅
𝑞𝑅 = = 𝐹1−2 ∙ 𝜎𝑏 ∙ 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
𝐴
𝐹1−2 =fraction of energy leaving surface 1 which reaches
surface 2
𝐹2−1 =fraction of energy leaving surface 1 which reaches
surface 2
• The expression of 𝐹1−2 is particularly simple in the
important special case of a small object, 1, in a much
larger isothermal environment, 2:
𝐹1−2 = 𝜀1 for 𝐴1 ≪ 𝐴2
• Thus, where 𝐴1 ≪ 𝐴2 , then
𝑄𝑅 = 𝐴1 ∙ 𝜀1 ∙ 𝜎𝑏 ∙ 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
• For small temperature differences, expanding both
4 4
𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇2 into a Taylor series about a characteristic
temperature 𝑇0 and subtracting gives:
𝑇14 − 𝑇24 ≅ 4𝑇03 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
Thus,
𝑞𝑅 = 4𝑇03 𝐹1−2 𝜎𝑏 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑞𝑅 = ℎ𝑅 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
ℎ𝑅 = 4𝑇03 ∙ 𝐹1−2 ∙ 𝜎𝑏
• ℎ𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
The linearized form of the radiative heat flux is frequently
used because of its convenience, especially in problems
dealing with a combination of all three modes of heat
transfer.
• Although it is not valid for large temperature differences.
 QUESTIONS
• 1) A black thermocouple measures the temperature
in a chamber with black walls. If the air around the
thermocouple is at 20 ℃, the walls are at 100 ℃, and
the heat transfer coefficient between the
𝑊
thermocouple and the air is 15 2 , what
𝑚 𝐾
temperature will the thermocouple read?
• 2) A satellite in space that radiates heat, is required to
dissipate 5,000 W/𝑚2 at steady state. Given that
space is a vacuum at a temperature of 0 𝐾, determine
the steady temperature of the satellite. Assume that
the satellite behaves as a black body.
• 3) A non black thermocouple measures the
temperature in a chamber with non black walls. If the
air around the thermocouple is at 20 ℃, the walls are
at 100 ℃, and the heat transfer coefficient between
𝑊
the thermocouple and the air is 15 2 , what
𝑚 𝐾
temperature will the thermocouple read? Assume
that the walls are much larger than the thermocouple.
• 4) What is the emissivity of a grey surface, 10 𝑚2 in area,
which radiates 1000 kW at 1500 K? What would be the
effect of increasing the temperature to 1600 K?
• 5) A small oxidized horizontal metal tube with surface
temperature of 600 𝐾 has a length of 7 𝑐𝑚 and an
outside diameter of 3 𝑐𝑚. The metal tube is placed in a
very large furnace enclosure with fire-brick walls and the
surrounding air at 1200 𝐾. The emissivity of the metal
tube is 0.5. The convective heat transfer coefficient, ℎ𝑐 ,
may be approximated by the expression:
 0.25
∆𝑇
ℎ𝑐 = 1.32
𝐷
• Show that the radiative heat transfer coefficient, ℎ𝑟 , may be
expressed as:
4 4
𝜀𝜎 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
ℎ𝑟 =
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
• Where Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 𝜎 = 5.676 𝑋 10−8 𝑊 𝑚2 𝐾 4
• Calculate the heat transfer to the tube by radiation
• Calculate the combined heat transfer to the tube.
• From the calculations above, which heat transfer mechanisms
involved is the most important factor? Give reason for your answer.