. ·.,10 . . .,. .

ATOM . ' · _- --. ·. . . ·.. ·. ·. :· . ._' : ·.··-: ..: -,.. .

JNTRODUCTION : angle. The deviatio_n of a-pa1ticles (0) from its

original direction is called scattering angle.
In 1808, John Dalton proposed his atomic
theory. According to him all matter is composed of They observed that, most of the a-particles
·small, hard, indivisible particles called atoms. Atoms passed undeviated, only few, about 0.14% scattered
of given element are identical and have a °.
by more than 1 Few were deflected slightly and very
few (1 in 8000) deflected by more than 90°. Some
characteristic mass. Atoms combine to form a
pa1ticles even bounced back with 0 = 180°.
molecule which is smallest unit of a compound. It was
believed that atoms are invisible until J .J. Thomson
discovered electron in 1897. Emission of negatively
charged particles from elements indicated that atoms Screen
could be split into positive and neg.itive particles and Gold
Lead foil
atom possesses some internal structure. Thomson bricks
proposed his at01:nic model in 1903. According to him,
an atom consists of a positively charged sphere with ~kt,. -~~~~-----"7te:::::::r-11iiiiiaii~~
negatively charged electrons embedded in it. The Sour~::f rn e
numbl'r of clrctrlms nre such that the atom, as a a particles
whole. ha-. z.t:ro chargl'. Thomson c~uld not ex.plain
the stable strncture of atom and atomic spectra. In 0:)
1885, Balmer obtained the formula for the hydrogen Detector
spectral lines. Every element has its own characteristic
spectra. which suggested that there must be some Fig. 18.1 Geiger-Marsden Experiment
relation between emitted spectra and internal structure
of atom . 18.2 RUTHERFORD'S MODEL OF ATOM :
On the basis of observations made by Geiger-
Ernst Rutherford was working on emission of
Marsden, ·Rutherford proposed his atomic model. He
ex-particles by different radioactive elements. He concluded that, the large scattering angle is possible
proposed an experiment : scattering of a-particles by only because of a-particles are repelled by a masive
atoms for investigation of internal structure of atom. positive charge in a very small space. He called this
Later, this experiment was performed by Geiger and massive positive centre as nucleus. By observing
Marsden. They studied the scattering of a-particles by distribution and studying the trajectory of. scattered a-
thin gold film. particles, he determined the si~e of the nucleus to be
10- 15 m to 10- 14 m. The size of nucleus is found
0
HU GEIGER-l\1ARSDEN EXPERIMENT : 100000 times smaller than the size of atom (10-' m).
ln this experiment anarrow beam of a-particles According to Rutherford -
from radioactive source was incident on a gold foil. ( \) The atom has tiny positively charged core called
The scattered ex-particles were detected by the nucleus.
detector fixed on rotating stand. Detector used had (2) The total positive charge and entire mass
.
mu· .
snlphtdt screen and m1cr· oscope. • a-particles (99.9%) of atom is confined in nucleus . .
produced scintillations on screen which could b.e (3) The nucleus is surrounded by negatively
observed through microscope. The whole setup ts charged electrons, orbiting round the ~ucleus in
enclosed in evacuated chamber. They observed circular orbits similar to planets revolvmg round
number of a-particles as a function of scattering
the sun.
291
 (4) As an atom is electrically neutral, the po!iit~ve Hydrogen atom C0111ii11ts of only one clC(!t
charge on nucleus is equal to the total negattve and the nucleus. Let an e lectron •f , . roii
. . . . ' ma.'>s rn revolve~
charge of all the orbiting electrons. with speed v m an orbit of rndius r The ·t ,
l . {. 1i1rgc on
(5) As the size of nucleus is 10- is m, about IOOOOO nuc eus must be+ e to make atom cltc 1r11.:all y neutral.
times smaller than the size of atom. Thus atom ,v
mostly consists of empty space.
;fhe concept of nucleus in atom is mo~t
-- - -.". .
'
...... ~

V important contribution of Rutherford and his

\
model is the landmark in the development of
modern atomic theory. However the stability of .
atomic structure and hydroge~--1-~~ s~ t_ruro
could not be explained on the ba~is QJ hisJnodeL
The circular motion of electrons is accelerated
motion and according to classical
electromagnetic theory, accelerated charge
radiates energy. The energy- of accelerated
electrons should therefore, continuously
decrease and follow inward spiral path and
finally fall into the nucleus. i.e. no stable atom Flg.18.2: Elactron revalvtng around nucleus in
could exist. Similarly, according to classical hydrogan 810"1.
electromagnetic theory, the frequency of .,. J.e.. J "° 0c..ch <- \ •., ., l ,., ; '-1.,- ' ,., <..,
- , ~n t t. ( '
electromagnetic wave emitted by the revolving The force of attraction het ween dcc:tron and
electron is equal to the frequency of revolutions. nucleus is given by Coulomb's Law:
If electrons spiral inward, their angular velocity 2 <?, _J -\--
and hence frequency; would increase 1 e
F= 41t£o 7
continuously. Thus, they would emit energy
with continuously increasing frequency (or mv-'
continuously decreasing wavelength). That is, The centripetal force is given by
r
atom should emit continuous spectra. But, what
we observed experimentally, is in contradiction Centripetal forcc=Electrostatic force of
with these expectations. We know that atom has attraction.
very stable structure and atoms emit line spectra mv 2 e2
..... ..... , 18.1 )
i.e. spectra of well-defined frequencies. r = 4X£o 7
1:).3 BOHR MODEL :
~ ulale 2 : The electron revol ves around the
Niels Bohr applied classical mechanics, nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular
electromagnetism and Planck's quantum theory to
momentum is equal to an integral mult iple of ..,h
_]{
.
modify the Rutherford's model and proposed his
atomic model in 1913.His model gives satisfactory where h is Planck's constant. These urbits are called
explanation of stable atomic structure and emission of stable or stationary (or pem1it1cd or t1ua11tizc<l or Bohr
I
line spectra by hydrogen atom. He presented his orbits) and electron does not radiate cm:rg) whik
theory in the form of 3 postulates: revolving in these orbits i.e. its cncr!:y remains
constant and hence stability of atomic structur~.
/ 4smlate J : The electron in a hydrogen atom
revolves in circular orbit around the nucleus with Angular momentum = lro
nucleus at the centre of orbit. The necessary Where I is moment of intcrtia of clcctwn ahout
centripetal force for circular motion is provided by its axis of revolution and ro is angular vclo( ity given
electrostatic force of attraction between the positively V
by ro=-
charged nucleus and negatively charged electron. r

292
 Angul:u· monwntum= lro = mr
.2(V~~J =mvr centripetal force = electrostatic force of attraction
2 2
mv I e
By 2'"' postulate. angular momentum= n 1t
h r = 47teo 7
2
e2
h or v2 = 47teomr ..........( 18.4)
1nvr= n_Jt
? ..........(18.2)
According to Bohr's 2 00 postulate-
where n = I , 2, J , 4, ...
h
That is, e lectrons revolve in only those orbits angular momentum = n 7t
2
,hal satisfies the ·eq.( 18.2). The integer 'n' is called
h
principal quantum number. It also designates the mvr = n -
21t
orbit num hcr.
nh
, - What is minimum angular momentum or V = 21tmr .......... ( 18.5)
lelectron in hyd rogen atona? · · · ·
n2 h2
or v 2 = 2 2 2 ..........(18.6)
41t m r
yostulah! 3: When electron jumps from orbit of
higher energy to an orbit of lower energy, it radiates Comparing eq. (18.4) and eq. (18.6), we get-
.::nergy in the form o f quanta or photons. The energy e2 n2 h2
of emiHe<l photon is equal to the difference between 47teomr
= 41t2 rp2 r2
.:nergics of two orbits in which transition is taking
place. or r = (~)
1tme
2
~
n- .......... ( 18.7)

. Suppose an ele~tron from nth higher orbit, This equation gives the radius of nth Bohr orbit.
Jumps !o p th lower orhn. Let E and E be the energies ____,
n P .----- lr§L /~~-p
of e icctron in nth and pth orbit respectively, then ·· For n = 1 ; r1 = 2 =~ 0.537,i · ........ ( 18.8)
1tme _.,
cnc:re.v radiated = E - Ep ·S::,\'l? f\ 0
~- 11
In general, ~ , n2
An:orlling to Planck' s quantum theory, energy
rn = ( 7tme2J

is raJiated in ihc form of packets or quanta, with each or ........ ( 18.9)

quanta havii,g s;nergy equal to hu; where 'h' is
Plan..:k· s const,rnt and ·u' is the frequency of emitted
radiat ion . That is, the radius of Bohr orbit is directly
proportional to the square of principal quantum
Energy radiated = hu number. o\ -:. 1 . 1 Cl "A I u 1 ,..,.... I~
h\> = En - E1, ..........(18.3) By substituting the value of r in eq.(18.5), we get
An e lectron does not radiate energy while expression for speed of electron in n1h orbit as -
revnlving in stable orhit but it does so only when it e2
jumps from higher orbit to lower orbit. V = 2€Qhn ········< 18. 10)
I
i.e. V a. -
Which quantity of the orbiting electron has n
L::.sa=n::1::e.. :d:::i:.:m:.:.c::·n:::s::·i.:. on:..:. :a=s.. :t:.:.:h:.::a:..:.t. ;;of;.;. .;;h;..?;..·•- - - - - - - - - ' Y ,"ergy of electron in Rohr orbit ;

According to Bohr's postulate, electron revolves

J<:adius of Bohr ' s orbit: around nucleus in circular orbit. As its motion is in the
Consider an electron revolving around the field of positive nucleus, it has two energies; potential
nuc leus in circular orbit of radius r. According to energy and kinetic energy. Therefore total energy
Bohr's first postulate- possessed by an electron is given by-

293
 f .
... ··,
,: ...,,.._.' """
,, ...
> I!',.

r :-•, ./ ~
• I I ,• , ,.• , • (

•w•:•); Ji ( I I
,• ' ; 1
,&q w'
")
) ~I t ·;
I•

.c·
~ t.
t J c\~ (_ .. f (Y '\

q 'i::02..h )<.
:::
L:o~ ,.._--\c,.•··i\- .
Total c ncrgy(E) = P.E. +, K.E
The electric potential at a di stancc
......... ( 18. 11 )

·r' fro m a
For n = I ;
= -(
8
:,!) = - 13.6 eV

For n111 Bohr orhi L En = _ ( me )' ~

4

c harge ·+c· (nuc leus) is given by-

8 1:2112 . rr 0
I e ........( 18. 12)
v= - - . - _!¾ - 13.6
4 rr£0 r Or En= n- = ~ cV ..........( 18.17)
. ·I cu·on in Lhc fie ld
.
T he potential energy of- an c e
Thus, the valid energies of electrons in hydrogen
of nucleus is-
, . l,.," V - 13.6 -1 3.6
P.E = potential x charge of electron.
t
aom.1re-.1.ne --ev-- '
ev · 1•• 2 1
4 ' 9 m • " . and

PE
·
==
41t£0
(_L. ~) (-e) 1
3n1 o'.·bit respecti vely. The~e energies are called
quantized energy levcb.
2
e ........ (18.13) The bindi0g energy of electron is the · ·
P.E == - 47tcor · m1111mum
energy required to make it free from the nucleus. For
By Bohr' s I " postulate- the electron in n 111 orbit, its energy is given by
mv2 I ez
(s:i~ ~
- = --,-
r 41tEo r-
En = - 2 )-
e2
or mv 2 ::::
41tcor

or
I
mv 2 =
e2
+ ( m;~,e)re~o~n~e ,, t~ :::~ 1:::~i::er:~e:::o ::ua~ ;o)
2 87tEof 8c0h- "" ·
e2
i.e. K .E = .......... (18.14) This is the binding energy of electron. It is also called
81tEor
ionisation energy of hydrogen atom.
Substituting P.E and K.E in eq .(1 8. 11) we get-
e2 e2 How PE and _K E change, when hydrogen
E = - 47tc0 r + 81tcor ~tom is raised from ground state to excited
e2 state?
E = - S1tcor .......... (18.15) GL---.-----------------..J
V"'US.4 HYDROGEN SPECTRliM :
Substitute the value of ' r' from eq.(18 .7), then
4
me When a gas is heated or subjected to strong
E = - ? I
8coh2n2 electric fi eld or suitable radiation, it begins to emit
electromagnetic waves of spec ific wavelengths, called
That is, energy of electron in n th orbit is-

En = - GJ~z)~ . . . . . (18.16)
characteristic spectrum of the gas. Balmer observed
such spectrum for hydrogen in 1885 and measured the
wavelengths of emitted radiation. These radiation lies
The '-' ve sign signifies that electron is' bound in the visible region of spectrum and known as
to the nucleus by the force of attraction and hence Ha, H~, Hy, and H 6 lines. with the wavelengths of
one has to do work on the electron to make it free O O O 0
6563 A , 4868 A , 4341 A and 4202 A respectively.
from an atom.
He played ~vi th these four figures and found relation
As the quantity (m:~?) m eq.(18.16) is for th.e m: which is known as Balmer·s impirical
8c0h-
rylation (formula) as given below -
const,mt,
1
.......... ( 18.18)
A.

.i.e the energy of e lectron in nth Bohr orbit is With R= l.097 x 107 nr 1, the four lines nicely fit

inversely proportional to square of principal quantum in this relation for n = 3, 4, 5, and 6 respectively. The
number. constant R is called Rydberg's constant. But. Balmer

294
 -_ - t,. \ _ } 'f- , O r· \ '--l J
G,
(:: - \ :.. - '\ '., . ~ .e -J 4 ,
explain theoretically the real cause of Where R= me is called Rydberg 's constan t •
old 11 01 • • •
8£
2 1
ch·
co en spectrum. lt 1s Bohr, who gave sahstactory 0
wtrog · t· l
orctical explanation o l1e ongm o . . 1· B I 1·
a mer mes By substituting the values of m,e,c, £ 0 and h ; the value
th e · d poss,·h·1·
d also prcd1ctc 1 tty o 1· ot I1er 1·mes .m of R turns out to be 1.093 x 107 m- 1 ,which is very
nod igen spectrum, which were confirmed later. close to the value obtained from Balmer' s imperial
hY rl .
formula (1.097 x 107 m- 1). This agreement between
.,i~hr formula (relation) : .
the theoretical and experimental value provided the
In a normal, unexcited hydrogen atom, an
direct confirmation of the Bohr's model. The eq.
electron resides in innermost orbit (n= I ).This is called
(18.19) is called Bohr's relation; when we put p = 2,
round state. The energy of an electron in the ground
: iate is -13 .6 eV . If the atom is subjected to external we get Balmer's formula. The quantity½ is known as
energy and if it is equal to or greater than +13.6eV,
electron becomes free. This process is called
wave number (u )
of the line and it gives number of
ionisation. If the absorbed energy is less than \3.6eV, waves in unit distance.
the electron jumps to higher permitted orbits and atom A series of spectral lines is radiated due to
is said to be in excited state. The electron stays in this transitions of electrons form different outer orbits to a
state for very short interval of time ( I0- 8 s) and jumps fixed inner orbit. The various spectral series observed
back to groun_d state. The transition to ground state for hydrogen atom are as follows:
may be in single step or electron may first jump to
V""Lyman Series: This series arises due to
intermediate state level and then to ground state.
transitions of the electrons from different outer orbits
During each such transition, difference between
to the first Bohr orbit (p = 1). Therefore, the
energies of two states is radiated in the form of photon
wavelength for Lyman series is given by -
of particular frequency .
l (l I~
~ =R p-~) where, n = 2, 3, 4, 5 ... .
Suppose an electron jumps from n1" higher orbit to pth
lower orbit. Let E 11 and E" be the energies of electron 0
. lh I lh \. • . I For n = 2 and 3; the wavelengths are 1216 A
Ill n anc p orot I respect, ve y.
0
and l 025 A respectively . i.e. this series lies in the
Using eq( 18. 16) and .ultraviolet region of the spectrum.
.,.· ·(..J(almer Series : This series originates due to
transitions of the electrons from different outer orbits
to the 2nd orbit (p = 2). Therefore, the wavelength of
Balmer series is given by-
According to Bohr's 3 rd postulate, energy emitted is
1
~ =R
(_l
\2:-~ ; 10 where,n=3, 4,5 , 6 . . .
given hy- "-:::--·- - ........ - ---- .--

0
energy emitted (hu) = E 11 - E 11 For n =3 and 4; the wavelengths are 6563 A and
0
4 4868 A respectively.
hu = me ( I ')
8~2 ?-~ This series lies m the visible region of the
spectrum. The lines corresponding to n = 3,4,5,6 are
or \)
= me
4

8e;h3
(1j,! - ~I) named as Ha., H13 , Hy, and H1, lines respectively .
~ schen Se1·ies: A series of spectral lines originate

or
I = - - - (1-,,- -
me
4
I) [ .:
-,,- \)
=f]
from transitions from different outer orbits to the3n1
A 8e;h'c P- n- orbit (p=3). The wavelength of Paschen series is given
by-
I
or ........ ..( 18.19) I (1 1~ where, n = 4, 5, 6, 7 .. .. . .
A ~ =R ~-~)

295
 ,,
~ Ill' -.11u1lk, 1 w.w d,•11vth l' lll ll lt'<l Ill J " •
I >O~ll A . . "' flt '• ·~ r •
l~or n "' -1 nnd ~; IIH' w 11\·,· kll t' lh , u,r l ,llkd l, l ' I 11 · ~ llt lll l. l'h..: l\Cfl('', l111111 fl)f ·
. ·- (MIII\Ulll,f
and I :::s:wX. t'\'S l'l'C lf\' l'l~·-
, ull •'" ,., 1111111d h y tnk. 11111- ti :a.""' 111 Bohr ' , rd,.tio,,

r . .
· ht s Sl'rtc:-. 1.,,,••..,. 1-11 i11fn1r nl ,. 1.1 Scnl~', ll 111i1 l• lr H.1 l111c: r Serie -. ,.,

spectrum
./' . ,,•f'ic s ari:-.l':S dlll' tu
v ttnid,,·11 S,•ri,·, : Tht:-. • .
. rft'•r · 111 llllll' I 11rh11 ,
l,r the
t•kctn,ns 1n1111 ' ' l , ..
trnnsitions
. .
to tilt' -t' ,1rh1t ll' == ·• ·
h
1.:
.
') Th. ,vtl\'l•knµth ol Brackcll ur A - R " i.. ,._c , i,~s 1111 111 1,,.- lkilmer ~flv

scril'S is g iwn hy-

wherc. 11 :::: ). (i. 'I. X.. . ... Whh:h h ydrc~en i,pectraJ ~rw,i
- -~ fuq-~
flnlt '?
II

For n = 5.6. The wavelengths arc 405 18 A and

Energy kvcl d iagram for h)·tlrog~n atc, rn :
0 •
26253 A respect1vely .
The origin of spct·tral line, i11 li)tlrt~1:n
This series lies in n('ar-i nfran·rl rc~ion of the spectrum can he represented hy energ y level <.hagr,1111
spectrum . of hydrogen atom as shown in Fig . I ~.3. 111 fi lurc.
. . /Pfund Scril•s : This series ari ses due to the horizontal lines represent energy level:-. for differ1:m
transitions of electrons from diffe.rent outer ?rbits to orbits. The orbit numhers arc giv en at the ri ght and lht
the 5•h orbit (p = 5). The wavelength of Pfund series is corresponding. energies in eV arc given ,tt tht: left . The
given by- vertical arrow lines show variou, eb.:trunic
I (I 1)
I=~'s!-~ where, n = 6 , 7, 8, 9 . ..... transitions.

A single hydrogen atom can prrn.iU1.:e unl y one

0
For n = 6 and 7 ; the wavelengths are 75587 A spectral line al a time . W hen hydrogen gas; is; C\citcli.
0
and 46533 A respectively . at any instant. different atoms have dcctnin, in

different energy lcvds and continuous tran:-.itil.)m, tak...:

This series lies in far-infrared region of the
place from different h igher energy levds to diffcn:m
spectrum.
lower energy levels. This g.ivcs rise to rnntinuou:-
How many spectral lines are possible in crnission l)f all series of disc rete wavdcngth~
hydrogen spectrum?
simultaneously .
-L. . . . . . - \v, \ \' "' • t-.i Eoo = 0 eV I
I I
n= :;,.,
I .J, .J, .1, n=5
E5 = -0.54 eV
I
t t J, Pfund n -- •.
E4 = - 0.85 eV
I"-' /?,l>v --C •

·-yn\ v<A~ec\
\ " ~ -- <\

I. ~ ' , ,1,
Brackett
n=3
Paschen

- ,1,' It I, It n=2
Balmer
' r) /
~ • / I

•v, V 'V •V
Ei = -13.6 eV
Lyman

Fig 18.3: Energy Jevel diagram for hydrogen atom

29h
 ,\
L•~ ,tiin1t111s. .rnd d1~1rat' h: ,-;.,_, ii: X - ra vs
. : cx prr -,-,cd ,1 , 1
>. \d1<'1 c X "' , hcrn1\..,il ">)'lllhol 11f lhc
K.,_ l'lt'llll'lll .

J'
I <11' l"X,llil p k. ;.•nld 1, cl<'.O<llt'<l h, i\tl ,!n,J
) l)(

I iran 11111 1 ,1'., .,. l ;

1

~ -he 11111110<:1 111 d r~ t1 11n-, ,,rh11mg nu...leu, 1

min Wavelength
Fig. 18.3 (a)
The above nature of the graph shows the
variation or intensity for different wavelengths present
in the X-rays coming from a Coolidge tube . It can be
observed from the nature of the graph that there is a
threshold wavelength or cutoff wavelength which is
minimum, below which no X-ray is emitted . The
X-rays emitted can be divided in two categories .
Fig. 18.3(a) shows Ka, K 1i wavelengths for
which the intensity of X-rays is very large. These
X-rays are known as characteristic X-rays. For
remaining wavelengths intensity varies gradually and
corresponding X-rays are called continuous X-rays.
The origin of continuous X-rays and cutoff
wavelength can be explained by using the relation
he -he
A = E = eY . Thus A depends upon accelerating
dctt.: n11i1 ll·cl h y 11 u111h•:r 1,t proton·, , / 1 ,m<l hen~ thot·
cl1c 111ic.il p1<1pc 1t1c -., arc de1cnrnncd h~ 41,,m11.. nurr.~r
Alrn nit.: 1111111he 1 1-, 1dt·n111 :,, 111 ,m <'lt·irK:lll
'\./"!tic nuc !cu, d1 ;11rn:1c1 , are me.-,un:<l h•,
,cattc ring of hi gh cncrg:. <"lc<.lron , hj nthlcu, 1, 1·,
foun d that a nuclcu<. ,,f ma.,.., numbe.r .-\ h.i, rJ<liu, " '
I
3
R = R O A where R,, 1<, \,nc.:.ir um,r;mt and h,, th~
value of 1.2 x \O_;, m . Thi , mean, that tl'w: \<ilume nf
nucleus is proportional to A. Thi-, 1mpiie , that ckn,n·.
of nucleus is constant anJ 1, indqxndcnr of nw,·,
number A for all nuck i The dcn,tt \ of n1J<.: k1 1,
1• • ,
appro ximate ly 2.> x 10 lkg/m ' . 1,1,h1ch 1' ver;, h1;:h ;;,
compared to ordinary matter.
Fo r example. radiu, o f rarbon nuclc1 h
I
Re = I. '2 x I o-1 ' m x ( I 2) ·'
= 2.7-+73 X IO- I' 111
R adius of uranium nuL·k1 is
I
1
Ru = 1.2 X ] ()- ' 111 X (2 _;~) ;

= 7.4>66 X \l) I' Ill

voltage (Y) applied and not on the material of the
target on which electrons are incident. y -)pcs. isotoncs and isohar~ :
The wavelengths for characteristic X-rays may The nuclei havi ng samL· numb...·r o f prot,,ns l:,ur
be used to identify the element from which they different number of ne utrons are ca\kd i\otnp1.•, . The
1 \
originate. For a particular material, wavelengths have deuterium -H. tritium · H arc the isDlop._·-, Dt" hvuni!.!c:n.
I I · -
definite values. These X-rays emitted are called
The element go ld has ~2 1sutupes. /\s isolll\X=" h,ne
characteristic X -rays . The value of energies are
same atomic number (Z) and ckrtmn1-: ,tructure. the~
different for different materials.
have identical che mical behaviuur anJ .i.rc pl:.u.:ed tn
18.5 COMPOSlTION ANO SIZE OF NUCLEUS : the same location in the pcnodic tabk .
We studied that atom has positively charged and The nuclei having ,amc mas~ number (,\ 1 .ire
I '
high d e nsity centre which holds 99.9 % mass of the called isobar~. For exam pk, the 11ude1 1H. J·k :.ire
ato m . W e call it as nudcus. The size of atom is of the isobars. The nuclei having ,amc number uf neulrt-ri--.
order of 1o - io m , and the size of nucleus is about (A - Z) but different atomic nu mbcr, Z ..Ht: .:.i.\\eu
o-
1 15 111 _ The nucleus is made of protons and neutrons.
/ isotoncs. For example
1i;11
Hv
1i;1
-\u ;ire hl1L, 1nc-.
✓But the proton has positive charge and neutron · · i;i , "' ' ~
4
·

is neutral. The protons and ne~t_rons ~e _ca~\~~ a~ ~ s-Energy relation :

nucleons. the number of protons 111 nucleus c,llle :s Einstein prove<l that ma" t, ;i f._,nn ._,1 ~-nc· r;;'.'
its atomic number (Z). The total number ot protons '"'lass and ener2.v are inter---:,,n\crt1bk. ln1: m.1,, m
. 1 d . m ·\s'i iv - -
and neutrons prese nt in nucleus is cal e HS . •
number (A). Thus a nucle us is symbohcally
297
 ' 1

has equivalent energy E given . .... E, -- 1nc2where m is

11y
mass in kg and c is speed of light in m/s. Nucleons (protons and neutrons) arc bo
. . Und
• In a reaction. the law of conservation of energy togetI1er 111 a nucleus with very strong attract' , 1.
. I VC Orce
states that, the initial energy and the final_ e~ergydadre Energy must be supplied to the nucleus to se . .·
. d 'th nss rs mclu e . . . · · parate Jts
equal if the energy assocrnte WI 11 ' • · const1lucnt nucleons. Jt 1s observed that rn· . f
' .~ . t but depends upon . ass o the
As mass of particle is not constan . . . nucleus 1s always less than the sum of the m· . . .
its velocity, therefore it is more convement to exp1ess its . . asses of
constituent nucleons. T he difference in mass .
mass in the fom1 of energy. .
bemg d Ii,
use as energy that holds nucleons togetl
~ - 1er.
e.g. Energy of electron
~
The amount of energy required to separate all
Ee = lllcC- the nucleons from the nucleus is called hindlng
8)2 . 1
= (9.1 X 10-31) X (3 X 10 JOU e energy of the nucleus.
31 16
9.1 X 9 X 10- X 10 eV
= l.6x10 19 The B.E. of nucleus is very high. For example. it
6 is 2.22 MeV for deutron nucleus, whereas B.E. for an
= 0.511 X 10 eV
atom, say hydrogen atom in its ground state is
Ee = 0.511 MeV 13.6 eV. That is, B.E. of nucleus is about
Similarly, the energies of proton and neutron are 10,00,000 times Jarger than B.E. of atom.
Ep = 941.1 MeVand E0 = 942.2 MeV
The B.E. of nucleus can be expressed interms of
There is one more unit used to express nuclear mass defect.
masses.
B.E.= ~m x c2 joule
v-Jfis Unified atomic ma-;s unit. It is C1z-Yh of where ~m is mass defect
the mass of neutraJ carbon atom in its Jowest energy
state. Its symboJ is 'u; and c is speed of light.
1u = 1.66054 X 10- 27 But i1m = [Zmr + (A - Z)mn] - M
2
931 MeV/c :. B.E. of nucleus = [Zmp + (A - Z)m 0 - M] c2 joule
OR Energy equivalent of mass 1 u is = 931 Me V / B.E. of nucleus
The B.E. per nucJeon = A
~ ssDefect :
It is observed that the mass of a nucJeus is E = [Zmp + (A~ Z)mn - M] c 2

sma11er than the sum of the masses of constituent

nucJeons in the free state~he difference between the
actuaJ mass of the nucleus and the sum of masses of
constituent nucleons is called mas~ defect.)
Let M - be the measured mass of nuci/us.
A - be the mass number (mass of nucleons in
free state)
Z - atomic number (number of protons)
mp - mass of hydrogen atom (i.e. proton)
ma - mass of free neutron
(A - Z) - number of neutrons.
The mass defect ~m = [Zmp + (A - Z)m
This is average nergy per nucleon to separate a
nucleon from the nucleus.
Fig. 18.4 shows plot of B.E. per nucleon
versus the mass number A for different nuclei. The
B.E. curve is an indicator of nuclear stability. The
higher the B.E. per nucleon, the greater is the stability
of the nucleus.
From B.E. curve we can infer as follows:
(i) The B.E. per nucleon is practically constant and
is independent of mass number for nuclei.
30 <A< 170.
0] - M
(ii) It is maximum 8.75 MeV. for A = 56 and is
7.6 MeV, for A= 238.

298

1d neutrons) are bound
ry strong attractive forc e.
he nucleus to separate its
bserved that mass of the
he sum of the masses of
e difference in mass 1s
ds nucleons together.
required to separate all
:leus is called binding
,ery high . For example, it
eus, whereas B.E. for an
in its ground state is
of nucleus is about
E. of atom.
1be expressed interms of
lmnl- M
\ - Z) m0 - M] c~joule
B.E. of nucleus
A
-MJ ,
_n _ _ c"
)er nucleon to separate a
of B.E. per nucleon
ir different nuclei . The
•· nuclear stabil ity. The
1e greater is the stability
,1 infer as foll ows :
pract ically constant and
~ number for nuclei ,
:V, fo r A 56 and is
(iii) It is low for both light nuclei (A< 30) and heavvrn pertics of a-partid cs :
nuclei (A > t 70). This means that the nucleons ( 1) Th ·· h d · ·
"th ey are pos1t1ve 1y c arge part1c 1es. 1t ,s
of atoms are loosely b ound w1 nucleus. . . .
helium atom with both electro ns removed. Its
(iv) When heavy nucleus (A = 240) breaks into mass is 6.64 x I0- 27 kg and charge is + 3.2 x
lighter nuclei (A = 120), B.E. increases i.e. 10- 19 coulomb.
nucleons get more tightly bound.
~ - Being charged particle, it 1-; deflected by
(V) When very light nuclei A < 10, join to form a electric and magneti c fi eld .
heav ier nucleus, B.E. increases, i.e. nucleons get
(3) The speed of emission of a.-particles depend
more tightly bound. ·
upon the nature of radi oac ti ve element. It \ arie~
In both the cases, there is release of energy th
from (·
I) ( I )th of the speedoflight.
to IOO
because, the new nuclei formed have less mass 10
and are more stable.
-7 They affect photograph ic plate. produce
56,. fluorescence.
~ They ionise gas when passed through gas.
(6) The range of a-particles through air varie, from
2.7 cm to 8.62 cm for thorium .
(7) They are scattered when incident on mica.
aluminium and gold foil.
~When an a-particle is emitted by an atom, its
50 100 150 200 250
atomic number decreases by 2 and mass number
Mass number (A)
decreases by 4.
Fig. 18.4 B.E. Curve 238 234 4
e.g. U➔ 90
Th + 2 He
92
18.6 RADIOACTIVITY : -z_. > t L- ./'
. / ✓ Proper ties of ~-particles :
_Becque_rel d1sc?vered thal,heavy elements lik~ .
uramum , radium havmg ~ are unstable and enut (1) P-rays are fast movm,,0 electrons from nucleus.
highly penetrating radiations. The substances which (2) Their speed ranges from 1% to 99% of the speed
emit these radiations are known as radioactive of light.
substan~. ~ Being charged particles they are deflected by
v'The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of electric and magnetic field .
radiations from radioactive substance is known as ..-.)Ar They can ionise gas but its ionisation power is
radioactivity. ( 1 Jth
~dioactivity is property of atom and nuclei, loo of that of a-particles.
hence is unaffected by chemical or physical changes. ~They are more penetrating than a-particles.
Radioactivity is nuclear phenoenon in which an
(6) Their range in air depends on their speed. A
unstable nucleus undergoes a decay. It is called
P-particle of 0.5 MeV has a range of I min air.
radioactive decay.
gY When P-particle is radiated. the atomic
/"'ere are three types of decay - number increases by I and mass number doc~
4 32 32
(i) ex-decay in which a helium nucleus 2He is not change e.g. ,l ➔ 16S + 1e0
emitted.
ar~ roperties of y-rays :
(ii) P-decay in which electrons or positrons
(1) y-rays are not particles but they are
emitted. electromagnetic waves (photons) of very short
(iii) y-decay in which high energy photons are wavelerngth. Photons originating fro m the
nucleus are called y-rays.
emitted.
:r acQ9;' t ~,vi~-J "' '
 N ,
.
They arc neutra l 1n charge '1
, . nd nol (lffcctcd hy log.. ( No) = - At
clcc;ric and mO!!nctic fie ld. N - }.J
·1 . 11latc aml produce
They affec l photogrn p 11 ' N11 = C

fluore sce nce. nr N - N,, c ;_, ... t lX .l%J

.10111·r ,tinn power ahoul
<4.V They ha ve very Iow ·'
'\,)/' 1h Thi s cx prcs<, ion show<, 1ha1 nurnhcr of nuct
(_J_)
. 1· . l e1 of
tif 1ha1 of aa-particlcs. give n ra( 1oa<.:11vc MJ Jstancc dccrea-.e, e-"pone
1000 with time. · nrt,dJy
. 1 wcr wd can pa s
(-5}-- They ha ve high penetratwn pl . ,
✓ tlm1;1gh 25 cm thick iron plates.
A ) they arc diffracted hy crySlals.
Number of
unchanged
/ adioactin Dt:nty law : nuclei
A radioacti ve element constantly breaks up inlo
fresh radioactive atoms with the emissio~ of~• ~ and
y rays. The new atoms, in general , are r~d10act1ve. The
(N-dN) ·-·· ·· -+·· ··~.. ===-------
,
''
''
'

:'
spontaneous breaking of nucleus IS known as
0 t+dt
radioactive disintegration.
. _,,;Fhe decay law : The number of nuclei Fig. 18.5 : Decay curve
undergoing the decay per unit time is propo1tional to ~ ay constant :
the number of unchanged nuclei present at that
From eq" ( 18.19a) we have
instant.
dN
Let N be the number of nuclei present at any
dt
instant t, dN be the number of nuclei that disintegrated ). = - N
in short interval of time dt. Then according to decay
The decay c;onstant is defined as ratio of the
law:
amount of substance disintegrated per unit rjme to
dN amount of substance present at that time .
dt
a N
We have N = N0 e-A1
dN = _ '\N .. . (18 .19a)
or dt
'il
/1,
Let us define 't' as t =
where A is known as decay constant or

N = Noe- A(-1-)
disintegration constant. A
dN '\
n
Fromeq (18 .19a) N =-11,dt N = No e- 1
No
Integrating both sides N =
e
f~ = f -Adt N = ~
2.718
loge N = -At. + c
N = 0.37 N0
where c is constant of integration whose value I
depends on initial conditions. The decay constant A, which is equal to 1 . can
At t = O; N = No (the number of original nuclei) be defined as reciprocal of time duration (t) in wh ich
loge No = 0 + c the substance decays to 37% of its original qu:mriry.

Substituting the value in above expression Half Jife period ('J') :

loge N = -A.t + loge No Half life period (T) of radioacti\'e suhstancc is
loge N - loge No = -At defined as the time in which the half subsranct' is
disintegrated .
300
 - Al 2 2 4
We have N = N o e
1
H + 111 -} 1Hc + 24 McV

at t = T; N -
- ~
2 When two deuteron" get fu'led . <J part1dc r,
emitted and 24 McV energy ,., rclc.t'led f'u , ,on
~ = No e
- AT process rcquin.:~ very hi)!h tcmperatu r..: of ,l h<)U!
2 10' °C. Thc~c rcacti1m, arc 1.'. al lc<l thcrmo•nudc,1r
reaction s. The cncr{!y ge nerated 111 \ tar, ,, hct JlJ ',(.' ,,r
- 1..T nuclear fu sion .
or 2 = e

)..T 18.7 de BROGUE'S B\'POl HE"'lb :

or e =2
It was believed unti I 190 I . that rad1Jt1on ol
11,T = logr 2 =0.693 energy takes in the fonn ot c1mtmu,,u,
0.693 electromagnetic waves. However. thi~ concept fail ed
T = A, to explain discrete nature of black body rad1atwn In
190 I , Max Planck proposed new theory known "
Using this expression, we can determine the half Planck 's quantum theory. According ro th 1, theor)
life of radioactive substance if its decay constant is radiation of energy does not take place continuou , I:
known. but in the fonn of discrete packets or quan ta. Th,,
Nuclear fission : theory could explain satisfactorily the black ~xiv
radiation, photoelectric emission. line spectrum _of
In 1939 two German scientists Otto Hahn and hydrogen atom, and Compton effect However. the
Strassman discovered that when uranium atom is phenomena like diffracti'on. interferelli:L. and
bombarded with neutrons, it splits up into two polarization, can only be explained on the basis of
separate atoms barium and krypton. The two wave theory·. Therefore we assu me that rad iant energ:,
fragments travel in opposite direction with very high has dual nature
velocity and tremendous energy is released. The In 1924, Louis de Brog lie suggested that Ir
original nucleus has a greater mass than the sum of radiant energy has both the wave nature and partide
masses of two fragments . The mass defect is nature, then particle(matter) must ha ve wave
converted into energy . This process sis called nuclear associated with its motion. He believed that energy
fission. and matter must have some symmetrical charm:ter.
235 I 236 144 89 I de Broglie proposed that the wavelength
92 U + on ➔ 92 U ➔ 56 Ba + 36Kr + 3 on associated with a particle of mass m movmg with
speed vis given by-
This is neutron-induced nuclear reaction. When
uranium isotope
235
U is bombarded by neutron, breaks A= !! =__b_ ........ .. ( 18.20)
92 p mv
up into two intermediate fragments which emit ~- where, his Planck' s constant, pis momentum.
particles to achieve stable end product~. The. energy He used Planck's quantum theory and Einstein\,
released in fission first appears as K.b. which gets mass energy relation to support his hypothe~i-..
converted into heat in surrounding. Fission energy is According to Planck, the energy carried by photon "
being used in Nuclear Power Projects for gen~ration given by-
of electricity. The uncontrolled fission process 1s used
he
in atom bomb. E = hll = 1"
Nuclear fusio n : where. c is speed, u is frequ en-:} :rnJ A. t,
When two lighter nuclei are fused to ~·or?1 a wavelength of the light.
heav1er nuc1eus, the process is called nuclear l us10n.
. Eqn. ( 18.20) displays the dual 11Jtun.' t)I mJuer
Large energy is released in this process. The . new 1y On left hand side, it has wavelength A l,t \U \ t' .ll\,l l,n
formed nucleus have smaller mass than _the sum of right hand side the momentum p l,f p~u11(k . .m,I
masses of fused nuclei. The mass defect is converted Planck's constant relates them.
into energy. According to Einstein .s ma~, L'ner~~ rd:Htlll\
I l 2 4 MV
H + H ➔ H + e + 0.42 e E = mc2
1 1 l

301
 Comparing cq .( 18.21) and eq. ( J8.22) we get- 2rrrn = nA., where, n =I, 2. 3, 4 ~ . . . ..

·) he
me- = 'A. By de Broglie hypothesis, A= !_i_ = Ji__
P 111 v..
h Substituting this
or A, = me value of ·A· in
expression, we get
h
or "A = p, h
= n-
mv11
where ·me· is momentum of photon.
or h
mv,ln = n -
Wavelengths of moving macroscopic objects are 2rr
very small (about 10-3 4 m), that cannot be measured
[since mvn r" is angular moment
and we do not feel their existence. However uni J
wavelengths of subatomic particles such as electron, is angular momentum = n _.!!_
2n
significant and can be measured.
/ This is quantum ~ondition proposed b 8 hr
\ ~tter waves : Y O for
angular momentum of the electron in 2nd postulate.
V According to de Broglie, every moving particle
is associated with a wave of wavelength given by -
n=3
h h
A = p= mv

These waves are called matter waves.

As v ➔ 0, A ➔ oo and as v ➔ oo, A ➔ 0. Nucleus
This implies that, matter waves are associated
with material particles only if they are moving.
Greater the momentum of the particle, the shorter is
the wavelength. Matter waves travel faster than light.
The velocity of matter wave is not constant because it
depends upon the velocity of particle. The de Broglie
wavelength is independent of the charge of particle.
The concept of matter wave is introduced
mathematically in modern quantum. physics. Actually
these waves are a new kind of waves, they are not Fig. 18.6 A standing wave along 3rd orbit
consisting 3 de Broglie wavelengths.
electromagnetic in nature and are proposed to locate
the position of moving particles. The intensity of
wave at a point represents the probability of the 18.8 WAVELENGTH OF AN ELECTRON :
associated particle being there.
According to de Broglie's hypothesis, moving
de Broglie's hypothesis of matter wave also electrons has associated wavelength given by-
solved the puzzle in Bohr' s 2nd postulate : why should
the angular momentum of electron have only those A= !!
p
values that are integral multiple of ~ ? He thought where, his Planck's constant, pis momentum of
2
that motion of electron within atom is associated with the electron.
standing wave along the orbit as shown in Fig. 18.6 If an electron of mass m is accelerated by a
We know about standing waves in stretched strings, potential difference V, the work done on electron
that only those waves survive for which the distance increases its KE. The energy of electron is given by-
traveled in round trip between the ends is integral
Works done, E = eV ..... ..... ( 18.23)
multiple of wavelength. Similarly, electron moving in
nth orbit of radius rn , the distance traveled in one trip l 2 .......... ( I8.24)
E =
is 2nrn that should be integral multiple of wavelength.
Also, 2 mv

302

-
r 2 , ,
cathode. The electrons are accelerated by cylindrical
I ,, .!. m v· .£.::._
E = _ nw- = ?_
-? 111 = 2m anode kept at fixed known high po~iti vc voltage (V_}.
This anode imparts the desired velocity to electron!).
or p = ✓2mE The electrons emerge out of anode aperture as fine
beam. This beam is muclc to fall on surface of nickel
p = ✓2meY
Substitute this value of p 111 the above crystal. The electron beam gets scattered in all
directions. The intensity of scattered electrons in a
expression of wavelength, we get -
particular direction is measured by the electron
h detector, which can be moved on a circular scale. The
A = ✓2meY .......... (18.25)
detector is connected to a sensitive galvanometer
12.27 0 whose deflection is directly proportional to intensity
A. = \[v A of electrons received by the detector. The whole set up
is enclosed in evacuated chamber.
This relation gives the wavelength of electron
accelerated by a p.d, of 'V' . This fonnula is useful to The intensity of scattered beam is recorded for
determine the wavelength at low voltage but, at very different scattering angles ($) and for different
high voltage(in kV), the electron velocity becomes accelerating voltages (V). It is observed that,
very large and electron momentum has to be galvanometer showed maximum deflection for
calculated relativistically. scattering angle $ = 50° and accelerating voltage of
54V. The maximum intensity is due to constructive
t~SSON AND •i; EH.Mtm KXrU<'.lRiMENT: interference of electron waves scattered from different
C. J. Davisson and L.H Genner gave the first atomic layers.
experimental proof of the wave nature of electron According to Bragg' s diffraction formul a, for l"
motion in 1927. They demonstrated the diffraction of order diffraction maxima-
electron beam similar to diffraction of light waves.
Fig.18.7 shows experimental arrangement for electron ')._ = 2 d sin 0
diffraction. It consists of an electron gun, nickel where, d is the spacing between atomic planes;
crystal and electron detector. Electron gun has Ais the wavelength of associated wave, and
tungsten filament coated with barium oxide for high
0 is the glancing angle.
emission efficiency. Filament works as thermionic

• I
'I
Accelerating Anode ~-- /) 0

I
Electron Beam
. ...
_....,. "-~ ~
I,. •

1
Nickel \
.,
\~;~,-_:-:e crystal

i!'

gun
Electrott---'<'il. Vacuum
De.teeter chamber

Fig.18.7: Experimental setup for diffraction of electron wave

303
 wavelength of electron at accclerat'
For scattering angle <p = 50°, glancing angle is . ' . mg vo 1tagc 54 V .
given by- 1~

0 = 65° (glancing angle= 90° -!) and spacing 'l - 12.27

-fv
0
A =
12.27
-j54 = 1.67 A
0
0 11, -

between atomic planes for nickel is d = 0.91 A•

This 1·.s exec11 ent agreement
'),,, = 2 x 0.91 x 10-H> x sin (65) • between
experimental and theoretical value cf .
> wavelen th
0 electron. This confirms the wave nat g of
A = 1.65 A. electron · Ure of particle

This is wavelength of electron wave found

experimentally. By using de Broglie's relation, the
m!!!l!!!!c-s~u~!! !§~--
'.!'! ! ~ y-~: :-JI
( l) Bohr proposed atomic model, which satisfactorily i.e. Ena~ and E =fu- -13.6
n n n2" - ---;;z- eV
explained the stability of atomic structure and
hydrogen line spectra. The three postulates of (5) The wavelength of various spectral series d
•• f • ue to
Bhor's atomic model are: transition o electron from outer orbits t fi
. b' . . o a 1xed
mner or 1t 1s given by Bohr's relation_
(i) the atom has nucleus and electrons revolve
around nucleus in circular orbit with
nucleus as orbit' s center. The necessary
II =R
(?-
1 ~1) ; where p and n designate
centripetal force for circular motion is
inner and outer orbit number.
provided by electrostatic force of attraction
between positively charged nucleus and The values of p and n for all series of hydrogen
negatively charged electron. spectra are given below:
(ii) the electron revolves only in those orbits for
which angular momentum of electron is
Series p n
.mtegra I mu Ittp
. Ie of. h7t . These orbits are
2 Lyman 1 2,3,4,5,.....
called quantized or stationary or permitted
or Bohr orbits. Balmer 2 3,4,5,6, .....

(iii) when electron jumps from higher energy Paschen 3 4,5,6,7,.....

orbit to lower energy orbit, it radiates
energy equal to the difference between Brackett 4 5,6,7,8.....
energies of electron in those two orbits. Pfund 5 6,7,8,9,....
(2) According to Planck' s quantum theory, the
(6) de Broghe suggested that matter, like radiant
energy is radiated or absorbed in the form of
energy, has dual nature. de Broglie's matter
discrete packets called 'quanta' or 'photon '.
. . '\ h h
Each photon has energy equal to hu. wave1ength 1s given by 11, = - = -
p mv
(3) Radius of nth Bohr orbit is given by- (7) Wavelength of an electron accelerated by p.d. of
r
n
= ( h2eo,) n2
nme-
' V' volt, is given by -
'),,,- h _ 12.27 A
•
1.e. r n a n- :
?
or - ✓2meV - -fa
(4) The energy of electron in nth Bohr orbit is given (8) Davisson and Germer are first to confirm the
by - existence of matter waves. They measured
wavelength of electron and found it in good
agreement with theoretical value given by de
Broglie's hypothesis.

304

\
I