Beee DC Circuit: Unit I

Prof.
Vishwajeet Verma
BEEE B.E, M.Tech (MANIT, Bhopal)
DC Circuit Contact No: 8770439308/9039131719
Email Id: imvishuy2k@ieee.org
UNIT I
Q) What is Network?
Ans) When a number of electrical equipments are connected together to form a

net is called Network.
It is Network but not the circuit.
Q) What is Circuit?
Ans) A circuit is a network by which current flows i.e. circuit is a closed path in
the network to provide a path for flowing current.
It is a circuit.
Note: Every Circuit is Network but every Network is not circuit.
Q) Define Network Elements?
Ans) The equipments by which any Network form is called Network element.
The elements are:
1) Source 2) Resistor 3)Capacitor 4)Inductor
Page 1
Prof. Vishwajeet Verma
UNIT I
Types of Network Elements:
1. By the graph (VI characteristic) or Ohm’s Law:
I. Linear Element
II. Non-linear Element
2. By the enhancing the energy level:
I. Active Element
II. Passive element
3. By the polarity of source or direction of current:
I. Unilateral Element
II. Bilateral Element
[1]. Linear Element: The element who obey Ohm’s law. i.e whose V-I
characteristics is linear. Example: Resistor, Inductor & Capacitor
[2]. Non-Linear Element: The element who didn’t obey Ohm’s law. i.e. whose
V-I characteristic is non linear. Example: Diode, Transistor.
Page 2
UNIT I
[3]. Active Element: The elements that supply the energy to the circuit is
called Active Element. Example: Battery, Generator, Current source etc.
[4]. Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs
energy) and then converts it into heat (R) or stored it in electric (C) or
magnetic field (L) is called Passive Element.
[5]. Unilateral Element: The element by which conduction of current in one

direction is called Unilateral Element. Example: Diode, Transistor etc.
[6]. Bilateral Element: The elements by which conduction of current is in

both directions is called bilateral element. E.g. R, L, C
Q) What is Resistance?
Ans) The property of the material which opposes the motion of free electron
inside is called Resistance. i.e resistance is the property which oppose the
current inside the material.
Page 3
UNIT I
Q) What is a Resistor?
Ans) Resistor is two terminal devices which is use for opposing the flow of
current.
Symbol: Fixed resistor Variable Resistor
Types of Resistor:
i) Linear Resistor: The resistance of a resistor is said to be linear if the

current through the resistor is proportional to the potential difference across its
terminals.
ii) Non-Linear Resistor: If the resistance of the resistor were to vary

with the magnitude of either voltage or current then it is called non-linear
resistor. Example: transistors, resistor made by semiconductor material Varistor
etc.
By Ohm’s law
V  IR
V
R 
I
PI R2
t
W   P  dt  Pt  I
2
Rt
0
Page 4
UNIT I
Q) What is Inductance?
Ans) It is the property of a material by virtue of which it oppose any change of

magnitude or direction of electric current passing through the conductor. It is
denoted by ‘L’.
Q) What is Inductor?
Ans) It is two terminal device which is used to store energy even the voltage
across it may be zero.
Symbol:
We know that in the inductor
  Li
According to Faraday’s law
di
V  L
dt
1
i 
L  Vdt
di
P  Vi  Li 
dt
t t
W   Pdt 
0
 Li  di
0
1
W  Li 2
2
Page 5
UNIT I
Q) What is capacitance?
Ans) The property of the substance to store the charge is called capacitance. It is
denoted by “C”.
Q) What is capacitor?
Ans) It is two terminal device which can hold the reasonable amount of charge.
Symbol:
Capacitors store the charge in the form of electrical potential.
q V
q  CV
So dq d (CV ) dV
current  i   C
dt dt dt
1
Voltage  V   idt
C
Q) What is source?
Ans) The element of the circuit which produces energy inside the circuit is called
source.
Types of source
i) Control source / Dependent source
ii) Uncontrolled source / Independent source
Page 6
UNIT I
i) Uncontrolled source: The source which can not to be controlled is called

uncontrolled source. i.e the source which does not depends on the circuit
parameter (R,L,C) is called uncontrolled source. It symbolized by circle. Example:
Battery, generator etc.
ii) Controlled source: Control source: The source which can be controlled is
called control source. i.e the source which depends on the circuit parameter (R, L,
C ). It is symbolized by diamond box. Example: transistor, op-amps
Symbol:
Types of control source:
i) Voltage control voltage source (VCVS)
ii) Current control voltage source (ICVS)
iii) Voltage control current source (VCIS)
iv) Current control current source (ICIS)
Page 7
UNIT I
iii) Ideal source: It is a device which produces constant voltage or

current across its terminals. It represented by
The V-I characteristic of ideal voltage source and current source is
iv) Practical source: Source having some amount of internal resistance is

known as the Practical source. Due to this resistance some drop takes
place. In voltage source it is known as voltage drop and in current it is
Page 8
UNIT I
known as current drop. The V-I characteristic of voltage and current

source is
Conversion of practical voltage source to a practical current source and

vise-versa:
Voltage source to current source
Page 9
UNIT I
Current source to Voltage source
Ohm’s Law
Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is

credited with finding the relationship between current and
voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as Ohm’s
law.
It states that the current through the conductor at normal

temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the
applied voltage across the conductor.
i.e I V
Kirchhoff’s Law:
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff’s (1824-1887) a German

Physicist state two laws which are basic analytical tools in
order to obtain the solutions of currents and voltages for
any electric circuit; whether it is supplied from a direct
current system or an alternating current system. This is
based on energy conservation principle. Kirchhoff’s laws
particularly useful (a) in determining the equivalent
resistance of a complicated network of conductors and
Page 10
UNIT I
(b) for calculating the currents flowing in the various conductors. The two-laws
are:
1. Kirchhoff’s Point Law or Current Law (KCL) or Junction Rule
Statement: “It state that at any node (junction) in a circuit the algebraic sum of
currents entering and leaving a node at any instant of time must be equal to
zero.”
i.e I  0
(-) sign consider for entering current
(+) sign consider for leaving current
Then
 I1  I 2  I 3  I 4  I 5  I 6  0
I 2  I 4  I 6  I1  I 3  I 5
I in   I out ....................................................................... A
Equation A is mathematical representation of Kirchhoff’s current law.
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UNIT I
i.e “Summation of entering current at any node is equal to summation of leaving

current at the same node”.
2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or Loop Law
Statement: “It states that in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all sources and
branch drop is equal to zero”
i.e V  0
From the figure:
V1  IR1  IR2  V2  IR3  IR4  V3  IR5  V4  0

V1  V2  V3  V4  IR1  IR2  IR3  IR4  IR5
 V   IR............................................................B
Equation B represents mathematical representation of Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
i.e “In a closed circuit summation of all voltage sources is equal to sum of all
branch drops.”
Page 12
UNIT I
The basis of this law is this: If we start from a particular junction and go round
the mesh till we come back to the starting point, then we must be at the same
potential with which we started. Hence, it means that all the sources of e.m.f. met
on the way must necessarily be equal to the voltage drops in the resistances,
every voltage being given its proper sign, plus or minus.
Voltage Division Rule:
Let two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series and i current is flows through
them. Here in this current of the circuit is same but the voltage is change. So from
Ohm’s Law:
V1  iR1 And V2  iR 2
If apply KVL in the loop then
V  V1  V2
And we know that for series circuit total resistance
R  R1  R2
Hence, V  iR1  R2 
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UNIT I
V
i
R1  R2
 V   V 
Therefore V1  iR1    R1 and V2  iR 2    R2
 R1  R2   R1  R2 
Current Division Rule:
Let consider two resistors R1 and R2 is parallel connected

in the circuit then here voltage remain same but current
can divided. So from Ohm’s Law:
V V
i1  and i2 
R1 R2
Apply KCL at node a gives total current of the circuit
V V
i  i1  i 2  
R1 R2
From the circuit the equivalent resistance of the circuit is:
1 1 1 RR
   Req  1 2
Req R1 R2 R1  R2
So the net current through the circuit is:
From the Ohm’s Law Total Voltage through the circuit is: V  iR eq
V iReq i  R R   R2 
So the branch current i1     1 2    i
R1 R1 R1  R1  R2   R1  R2 
V iReq i  R1 R2   R1 
i2         i
R2 R2 R2  R1  R2   R1  R2 
Page 14
UNIT I
Some basic definitions:
i) Node: A node in an electric

circuit is a point where three
or more components are
connected together.
ii) Junction: A junction in an

electric circuit is a point
where two or more components are connected together.
iii) Branch: A branch is a conducting path between two nodes in a circuit

containing the electric element.
iv) Loop: A loop is any closed path in an electric circuit through which
current flows.
v) Mesh: A mesh is a special case of loop that does not have any loops
within it or in its interior.
Mesh Analysis:
A ‘mesh’ is any closed path in a given

circuit that does not have any
element (or branch) inside it. A
mesh has the properties that (i)
every node in the closed path is
exactly formed with two branches
(ii) no other branches are enclosed
by the closed path.
Let us consider a simple dc network

as shown in figure,
Page 15
UNIT I
Applying KVL around (loop-1):
Va  Vc  ( I1  I 3 ) R2  ( I1  I 2) R4  0
Va  Vc  ( R2  R4 ) I1  R4 I 2  R2 I 3 …………………………………..1
Applying KVL around mesh (loop-2)
 Vb  ( I 2  I 3 ) R3  ( I 2  I1 ) R4  0
 Vb   R4 I1  ( R3  R4 ) I 2  R3 I 3 …………………………………….2
Applying KVL around mesh (loop-3):
Vc  I 3 R1  ( I 3  I 2 ) R3  ( I 3  I1 ) R2  0
Vc   R2 I1  R3 I 2  ( R1  R2  R3 ) I 3 ……………………………........3
Now solving equations 1, 2, 3 we find the value of mesh currents.
Summarize:
Step-1: Draw the circuit on a flat surface with no conductor crossovers.
Step-2: Label the mesh currents ( Ii ) carefully in a clockwise direction.
Step-3: Write the mesh equations by inspecting the circuit.
No. of independent mesh equations = no. of branch (b) – no. of principle nodes
(n) +1
NOTE:
 If possible. Convert current source to voltage source.
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UNIT I
 Otherwise, define the voltage across the current source and write the
mesh equations as if these source voltages were known. Assume the set of
equations with one equation for each current source expressing a known
mesh current or difference between two meshes current.
 Mesh analysis is valid only for that circuit that can be drawn in a two
dimensional plane in such a way that no element cross over another.
Nodal Analysis:
Node voltage analysis (Nodal analysis)

is another form of circuit or network
analysis technique, which will solve
almost any linear circuit. In a way, this
method completely analogous to mesh
analysis method, writes KCL equations
instead of KVL equations, and solves
them simultaneously.
In the node voltage method, we

identify all the nodes on the circuit. Choosing one of them as the reference
voltage (i.e., zero potential) and subsequently assign other node voltages
(unknown) with respect to a reference voltage (usually ground voltage taken as
zero (0) potential and denoted by ( ). If the circuit has “n” nodes there are “n-
1” node voltages are unknown (since we are always free to assign one node to
zero or ground potential). At each of these “n-1” nodes, we can apply KCL
equation.
Apply KCL at Node 1
 V V   V V 
 I s1  I s 3   1 2    1 3   0
 R4   R2 
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UNIT I
 1 1   1   1 
 I s1  I s3    V1   V2   V3  0 [1]
 R2 R4   R4   R2 
KCL at Node-2
 V2  V1   V2  V3 
      I s1  0
 
 R 4   R3 
 1   1 1 
  V1   
 R  R V2  I s1  0 [2]
 R4   4 3 
KCL at Node-3
 V3  V 2   V3   V3  V1 
     I s 3  0
 R  R   R
 3   1  2 
V   V2   1 1 1 
  1   


 R R R
V3  I s3  0
 [3]
 R2   R3   3 1 2 
Solve all Nodal Equation and find node voltages
Summarize
Step-1: Identify all nodes in the circuit. Select one node as the reference node
(assign as ground potential or zero potential) and label the remaining nodes as
unknown node voltages with respect to the reference node.
Step-2: Assign branch currents in each branch. (The choice of direction is

arbitrary).
Step-3: Express the branch currents in terms of node assigned voltages.
Step-4: Write the standard form of node equations by inspecting the circuit. (No
of node equations = No of nodes (N) – 1).
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UNIT I
Step-5: Solve a set of simultaneous algebraic equation for node voltages and
ultimately the branch currents.
Remarks:
 Sometimes it is convenient to select the reference node at the bottom of a

circuit or the node that has the largest number of branches connected to it.
 One usually makes a choice between a mesh and a node equations based on
the least number of required equations.3
Theorem
 Theorems are used for solving bulky network in easy form.
 It takes less time for finding the solution in the network.
Superposition Theorem
Statement: In any linear bilateral network having two or more that two
sources then total response (Voltage or Current across the load) is algebraic
sum of individual response generated by individual source.
Superposition theorem can be explained through a simple resistive network as

shown in figure and it has two independent practical voltage sources and one
Page 19
UNIT I
practical current source. One may consider the resistances R1 and R3 are the
internal resistances of the voltage sources whereas the resistance R4 is
considered as internal resistance of the current source. The problem is to
determine the response I in the in the resistor R2. The current I can be obtained
from:
I  I due to E1 alone  I due

 to E 2 alone  I due
 to Isalone
According to the application of the superposition theorem, it may be noted that

each independent source is considered at a time while all other sources are
turned off or killed.
To turn off or kill a voltage source means the voltage source is replaced by its
internal resistance (i.e. R1 or R3; if there is no internal resistance then voltage
source should be replaced temporarily by a short circuit)
Whereas to turn off or kill a current source means to replace the current source
by its internal resistance (i.e. R4; in other words Is should be replaced
temporarily by an open circuit).
Procedure for solving circuit by superposition theorem
Step-1: Retain one source at a time in the circuit and replace all other sources
with their internal resistances.
Step-2: Determine the output (current or voltage) due to the single source acting
alone using the techniques mesh analysis or nodal analysis.
Step-3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each of the other independent sources.
Step-4: Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions
due to the independent sources.
Page 20
UNIT I
Limitation of Superposition Theorem
 It a only applicable when two or more sources are present
 By this we cannot calculate the power of the load
Thevenin’s Theorem
M.L Thevenin (1857-1926) a French Engineer who

published the theorem in 1893 whish is:
Any linear bilateral network can be replaced by a

single voltage source (VTh) with series resistance
(RTh). Where VTh is the open circuit voltage across
the load and RTh is equivalent resistance of the
network across the load terminal.
Any Network Thevenin’s Network
Procedure
Step 1: Remove the load (RL)
Step 2: Calculate open terminal

voltage by using Mesh Analysis or
Nodal Analysis across terminal A &
B
Page 21
UNIT I
Step 3: Redraw the circuit with each source is replaced by its internal resistance
(if resistance is given in the circuit) or voltage source is short circuited and
current source is open circuited.
Step 4: Find the equivalent circuit resistance across load terminal A&B by using
 Series Parallel reduction technique
 Reduction by Δ to Y or Y to Δ transformation technique
Step 5: Draw Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
Step 6: Connect the load across terminal A &

B
VTh
Load Current I L 
RTh  R L
Load Voltage VL  I L  RL
Power absorbed by load PL  I L2  RL
Page 22
UNIT I
Remark
i. One great advantage of Thevenin’s theorem over the normal circuit

reduction technique or any other technique is this: once the Thevenin
equivalent circuit has been formed, it can be reused in calculating load
current ( IL ), load voltage (VL ) and load power ( PL ) for different loads
using the equations.
ii. Fortunately, with help of this theorem one can find the choice of load
resistance RL that results in the maximum power transfer to the load. On
the other hand, the effort necessary to solve this problem-using node or
mesh analysis methods can be quite complex and tedious from
computational point of view.
Page 23

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Prof.

Ans) When a number of electrical equipments are connected together to form a

It is Network but not the circuit.

Note: Every Circuit is Network but every Network is not circuit.

Q) Define Network Elements?

1) Source 2) Resistor 3)Capacitor 4)Inductor

Types of Network Elements:

1. By the graph (VI characteristic) or Ohm’s Law:

II. Non-linear Element

2. By the enhancing the energy level:

II. Passive element

3. By the polarity of source or direction of current:

II. Bilateral Element

[5]. Unilateral Element: The element by which conduction of current in one

[6]. Bilateral Element: The elements by which conduction of current is in

Symbol: Fixed resistor Variable Resistor

i) Linear Resistor: The resistance of a resistor is said to be linear if the

ii) Non-Linear Resistor: If the resistance of the resistor were to vary

Ans) It is the property of a material by virtue of which it oppose any change of

We know that in the inductor

Capacitors store the charge in the form of electrical potential.

i) Control source / Dependent source

ii) Uncontrolled source / Independent source

i) Uncontrolled source: The source which can not to be controlled is called

Types of control source:

i) Voltage control voltage source (VCVS)

ii) Current control voltage source (ICVS)

iii) Voltage control current source (VCIS)

iv) Current control current source (ICIS)

iii) Ideal source: It is a device which produces constant voltage or

The V-I characteristic of ideal voltage source and current source is

iv) Practical source: Source having some amount of internal resistance is

known as current drop. The V-I characteristic of voltage and current

Conversion of practical voltage source to a practical current source and

Voltage source to current source

Current source to Voltage source

Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is

It states that the current through the conductor at normal

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff’s (1824-1887) a German

1. Kirchhoff’s Point Law or Current Law (KCL) or Junction Rule

(-) sign consider for entering current

(+) sign consider for leaving current

Equation A is mathematical representation of Kirchhoff’s current law.

i.e “Summation of entering current at any node is equal to summation of leaving

2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or Loop Law

From the figure:

V1  IR1  IR2  V2  IR3  IR4  V3  IR5  V4  0

Equation B represents mathematical representation of Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

Voltage Division Rule:

If apply KVL in the loop then

And we know that for series circuit total resistance

Current Division Rule:

Let consider two resistors R1 and R2 is parallel connected

Apply KCL at node a gives total current of the circuit

From the circuit the equivalent resistance of the circuit is:

So the net current through the circuit is:

Some basic definitions:

i) Node: A node in an electric

ii) Junction: A junction in an

iii) Branch: A branch is a conducting path between two nodes in a circuit

A ‘mesh’ is any closed path in a given

Let us consider a simple dc network

Applying KVL around (loop-1):