Seminar on

Casting Processes
- By S. S. Patil

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 What is Casting?
The metal casting is the process in which material is liquefied by heating & pouring it into a
mould, that containing a shape (cavity) of the desired shape of the casting, and allowing the metal
to solidify.
Solidified product taken out of mould cavity; trimmed, cleaned to shape, final product is called
Casting.
Casting makes it possible to produce parts with shapes that cannot be achieved easily by
fabrication methods such as forming or machining. Often it is more economical to produce a part
as a casting than to fabricate it by other means.

Steps Involved in making Casting

• Make pattern out of wood, plastic or metal
• In case of sand casting prepare necessary sand mixture
• With help of pattern make mould. (mould is a container of sand or metal having cavity of
shape to be cast), (core is a body, which is used to create hollow cavity in casting)
• melt the metal
• Pour molten metal into mould, & remove casting from mould after solidification.
• Clean & finish casting
• Test & Inspect
• Relieve casting stresses by heat treatment, if any.

Advantages of Casting
• It is most versatile process
• It provides greatest freedom of design in terms of shape & size
• Casting produces machinable parts.
• Difficult shapes that cannot be obtained by other process can be made by casting.
• Casting product is one piece, so eliminates metal joining process.
• Very heavy & Bulky parts (like power plants & mill Housings) that are otherwise
difficult to get can be cast.
• Process can be mechanized & useful for mass production

Types of Casting
• Sand Casting
• Permanent Mold Casting
• Die Casting - High Pressure die casting
- Low Pressure die casting
• Investment Casting
• Shell Mold Casting
• Centrifugal Casting
• Plaster Mold Casting
• Ceramic mold casting
• Expandable Pattern Casting (Lost Foam)
• Squeeze Casting
• Semisolid metalcasting
• Slush Casting
• Vaccum or Suction casting
• Continuous Casting

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 Sand Casting

Sand casting is a process in which molten metal is poured into a mold cavity formed out
of sand (natural or synthetic) to produce an object of a desired shape. And removing the casting
(part) when solidified, by breaking up the sand.
This process is chosen for the production of small numbers of castings, for complex
shape castings are made by placing cores in moulds. Sand casting is used to make small and large
parts (typically Iron, but also Bronze, Brass, Aluminum).

Process for making Mold

• Place the drag pattern along with cores prints, gating system parting surface down on the
bottom board
• Sprinkle facing sand around drag pattern, so pattern does not stick moulding sand.
• Fill drag with sand around pattern & ram it uniformly. This completes drag.
• Now rollover the drag,
• Place cope pattern over drag pattern, & sprinkle facing sand around cope pattern.
• Place risers & sprue pins at required location
• Fill the cope with sand & ram the sand
• Remove the risers & sprue pins
• Vent the cope with vent wire (for easy gas removal)
• Roll over the cope on bottom board.
• Remove both cope & drag patterns carefully.
• Apply mold coating (if necessary)
• Set cores in drag, if required.
• Assemble the cope over drag, & clamp it.
• Now mold is ready for pouring molten metal.

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General Procedure for Sand Casting

Advantages of Sand Casting:

• Low tooling costs
• A variety of metals can be sand cast,
• Largest casting sizes achievable
• Very low gas porosity is possible
• General versatility of the process is good.

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Limitations of Sand Casting:
• Include low casting rate
• 3-5mm minimum wall thickness,
• Poor linear tolerance (e.g. 4mm/m),
• Rough surface finish (6.5-12.5µm),
• Coarser grain size than gravity die castings.

Layout of sand casting mold

Gating System

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Terms Used In Casting

Mold Cavity
Sand is packed rigidly around the pattern and when pattern is taken out, the cavity corresponding
to the shape of the pattern remains in the sand, is known as mold or mold cavity

Patterns
Pattern is a mold forming tool used to make cavity in mold. It is the replica or approximate
duplicate of the object to be cast. Patterns are typically made out of wood, plastic, plaster, wax,
polystyrene or sometimes metal.
The pattern may be defined as a model or a form around which sand is packed to make a cavity
known as mold cavity in which molten metal is poured to make casting.
Patterns are constructed in such a way that it can be used for forming an impression in damp sand.
Upper half of the mould box Cope mould Cope pattern
Lower half of the mould box Drag mould Drag pattern

Core
Core is a separate shape inserted into the mold to produce the internal features of the part such as
holes, undercuts or internal cavities of the desired shapes. which is not possible to achieve by
means mould.
Cores are generally produced separate from the sand mold & is then backed for easy handling and
setting into the mold
Cores may be made up of sand metal or ceramics.

Core print
Core print is the region added to the pattern, core, or mold that is used to locate and support the
core within the mold. The shape and size depends on the individual core.

Gating System
Gating system is the all passageways through which the molten metal passes to enter the mold
cavity. It is the combination of pouring cup, sprue, runner, gates, and risers.

Pouring cup
Pouring cup is a funnel shaped cup which forms the top portion of sprue in the cope. Pouring cup
makes it easier to pour molten metal from ladle or crucible to sprue.

Sprues
The vertical tapered shape passageway that passes through the cope and connects the pouring
basin with runner is called sprue. After pouring molten metal into pouring cup, molten metal
flows downwards to runner through sprue.

Runner
Die passage connecting sprue of a die to the gate where molten metal enters into the cavity.
Runner is generally preferred in the drag, but it may sometimes located in the cope, depending
upon the shape of casting.

Gates
A gate is a channel which connects runner with the mold cavity and through which molten metal
flows to fill mold cavity.

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Riser
A riser or feeder head is a passage of sand created in the cope (mold) to contain excessive molten
material after the mold cavity is filled up. The purpose of this is to supply additional metal to
casting or mold cavity as it shrinks during solidification of molten metal. Riser also permit the
escape of steam, gas and air as the mold cavity being filled up with the molten metal.
Parting line
The parting line or the parting surface is line or surface that separates the cope and drag.

Cope
The upper half, including the top half of the pattern, flask, and core is called cope

Drag
Lower half is called drag

General concept to decide cope or drag:-

Larger casting portion should accommodate in drag because mould sand has greater strength in
compression than tension.

Casting Photos

Engine Housing Casting and Machining part.

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Allowance for castings:-
Allowances are provided to produce the proper size and shape. Here there is no definite
mathematical rule to predict allowance. This is determined on trail and error basis
Types of allowance:-
1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Draft allowance
3. Machining allowance
Shrinkage allowance/ Contraction allowance-
As metal solidifies & cools, it shrinks & contracts in size. To compensate for this a pattern is
made target than the finished casting by means of a shrinkage or contraction allowance. During
pattern making the pattern maker uses a contraction rule which is slightly longer than the ordinary
rule of the same length. For different material different allowances are referred.

Metal Shrinkage allowance in mm per 100 mm

Cast Iron 1
Malleable Iron 1
Brass 1.6
Aluminium 1.6
Zinc 2.4
Lead 5.4
Steel 2.1
Copper 1.9

Draft allowance:-
When casting is drawn out from mould, there is a tendency to tear away the edges or flat surfaces
of the cast part in contact with the mould surface. So a small taper is applied for mold surface.
This taper facilitates easy removal of cast part from mold. This taper degree provided to mold is
known as draft.
In case of sand casting while removing pattern from mold, it tears away the edges and surfaces of
mold. This is eliminated by providing draft to mold.

Machining allowance-
Machining allowance is the extra material added to certain parts of the casting to enable their
finishing or machining to the required size. The amount of machining allowance to be provided is
affected by
• The method of moulding
• Size & the shape of casting
• The characteristics of metal
• The functional requirements of casting & the degree of accuracy & finish required

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Defects in Castings
Shifts- it is external defect of casting caused due to core or mold halves mismatching or
misalignment at parting lines. This effect can be prevented by ensuring proper alignment id
pattern, mold halves and molding box.

Warpage- this is unintentional and undesirable deformation in the casting during or after
solidification. Due to the different solidification rates different sections of casting, stresses are set
up and warpage occurs. Large and flat sections are prone to warpage.
Remedy is to produce large areas with wavy and corrugated construction, or sufficient ribs or rib
like shapes, to provide equal cooling rates in all areas.

Swell- A swell is the enlargement of mould cavity due to metal pressure.

Reason:-
1. Insufficient ramming of sand.
2. Insufficient weighty or clamping of mould during pouring may also cause the cope to lift
giving a swell.
Fins- a fin is a projection of metal is not intended as a part of casting is called fin. Fin occurs at
parting of mold or core sections, due to incorrect assembly of mold or improper clamping of
flasks.
Blow holes - Voids or pores which may occur due to entrapped bubbles of gas during
solidification, usually occurs in heavy sections. Blowholes are caused by excessive moisture of
sand or when permeability of sand is low or too fine sand grains.

Porosity- Porosity is due to the gas formation & gas absorption by metal when it is poured.
Metal may dissolve some gas or air from the mould or core faces. These gases are liberated later
when metal cools. Porosity defects may lead to leaking casting & reduce pressure tightness.

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Adequate fluxing of metal & controlling the amount of Gas producing material in the moulding
and core making sand mix can help in minimizing this defect.

Sand holes- these are found on external or internal surfaces of casting. These are caused by loose
sand into the mould or rapid pouring of metal. These are prevented by cleaning mould properly
and careful pouring of molten metal.

Shrinkage- while solidifying metal casting is contracts slightly is called shrinkage.

Shrinkage cavity- Shrinkage cavity is a void or depression in the casting caused mainly by
uncontrolled and haphazard solidification of the metal. It may be due to wrong location or
improperly sized gating system inadequate risers, or poor design of casting.
Drops- this occurs when upper surface of the mould cracks and pieces of mold sand falls into the
molten metal. This is caused by low strength and soft ramming of the sand.

Hot tears -------- Hot tears are internal or external discontinuities or cracks on the casting surface,
caused by bindered contraction occurring immediately after the metal has solidified.
Hot tears may also be caused when mould & core has poor collapsibility or when
ramming is too hard. Casting is thereby under severs strain during cooling. Incorrect pouring
temperatures & improper placement or gates & risers can also create hot tears.
Cold shut- Two Stream of metal will not fuse properly. A cold shut is a defect in which a
discontinuity is forming due to imperfect fusion of two streams of metal in the mould cavity. The
defect may appear like a crack or seam with smooth rounded edges.
Misrun (unfill)- A misrun casting is one that remains incomplete due to the failure of metal to
fill the entire mould cavity.

Slag holes- There are smooth depressions or cavities on the upper surfaces of the casting or near
it, usually near the ingates and are produced when the slag tends to find its way to the mould.

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 Permanent Mold Casting (or Gravity Die Casting)
The process is known as Gravity Die Casting in England and as Permanent Mold Casting
in U.S.A.
The term "Gravity Die Casting" refers to castings made in metal molds by pouring
molten metal under gravity only into the pre-heated metallic die, no external force is applied to
force the molten metal. Sometimes for large castings requires that the die is tilted into a vertical
position as molten metal is being poured in, to reduce turbulence
This process is usually preferred for when large quantity of castings are required.

Process
This process is same as sand casting except the cast iron or alloy steel molds (dies) are
used instead of sand molds. The mold is made in two parts, -male and female, if cores are to be
used, they can be metal inserts, which operate mechanically in the mold, or sand cores, which are
placed in the molds before closing. If sand cores are used for this process then it is called “semi
permanent molding.”

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Advantages of Permanent Mold Casting:
• Good surface finish and grain structure,
• Good dimensional accuracy,
• Repetitive use of molds,
• Rapid production rate and more economical production in larger quantities.
• Fine grain sizes can be obtained,
• Lower percentage of rejection.
• The process has a higher casting rate than sand casting,
• Low scrap loss and & low gas porosity,
• Minimum wall thickness possible is c. 3-5mm,
• Less finishing and polishing will be required than for sand castings,
• Better material utilization (60%), runners & risers can be directly recycled,

Disadvantages of Permanent Mold Casting:

• The metal moulds are higher cost than sand patterns.
• Very less permeability.
• Best suitable for low melting point alloys.
• These molds would be impractical for large castings, and metals and alloys of high
melting temperature.

Applications
Usually non-ferrous metals, for example: copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, nickel, tin and
zinc alloys. But sometimes iron, carbon steel can be cast with graphite dies.

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Manifold Castings manufactured by Gravity die casting process

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 Die Casting (Pressure Die Casting)

Diecasting is used to produce small-to-medium-sized castings at high-production rates. There are

two types of die casting.
1 High Pressure Die Casting (HPDC)
2 Low Pressure Die Casting (LPDC)

High Pressure Die Casting (HPDC)

High Pressure Die Casting is similar to permanent mold casting except that the metal is
forced into the reusable metal dies (mold) under high pressure (10-210Mpa), when the metal
solidifies, the die is opened and the casting ejected. (This results in a more uniform part,
generally good surface finish and good dimensional accuracy).
Pressure Die casting is the process of rapidly producing accurately dimensional parts.
This process is used to produce intricate metal parts, in quick succession. These parts are mostly
ready for end use, for many parts, post-machining can be totally eliminated, or very light
machining may be required to bring dimensions to size.

Process

Die Casting Process Sequence

1) Cores moves into a position.
2) Die closes.
3) Metal is ladled and filled in the sleeve up to closely controlled height.

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 4) Shot is made i.e. injection. Slow shot allows metal to feel sleeve, driving air out of
pouring hole, and enter up to runner. Fast shot quickly pushes molten metal in fraction of
second in to a cavity with minimum turbulence so that metal pushes air out through
overflows and does not allow mixing of air and metal to avoid blow holes. When metal
fully fills cavity, intensification occurs. This does not cause more metal to flow but only
compacts the still liquid metal to squeeze air out and improve density of metal.
5) Hold for solidification.
6) Die opens.
7) Cores retract.
8) Shot plunger returns.
9) Casting is ejected and removed by extractor or by mannually.
10) Ejector retracts.
11) Die lubricant is sprayed on die.
12) Flashes are removed if any.
13) Cycle restarts.
Die Construction

Die casting dies are made of alloy tool steels in at least two sections called fixed die half
and ejector die half. The fixed die half is mounted on the side toward the molten metal injection
system. The ejector die half, to which the die casting adheres, and from which it is ejected when
the die is opened, and is mounted on the moveable platen of the machine.
The fixed die half of the die is designed to contain the sprue hole through which molten
metal enters the die. The moving half usually contains the runners, gates through which molten
metal is passed to the cavity of the die. The moving half is also connected to an ejector box
assembly which includes the mechanism for ejecting the casting from the die. Ejection occurs
when pins connected to the ejector plate move forward to force the casting from the cavity.
Fixed and moveable cores are often used in dies. If fixed (core pins, etc), the core axis
must be parallel to the direction of die opening. If moveable (sidecores), they are often attached to
core slides. The die can be made with one or more slides. All moveable slides and cores are
carefully fitted, and have the ability to be securely locked into position during the casting cycle.
Otherwise, molten metal could be forced into their slideways causing a disruption of operations.
Although slides and cores makes the die complex and costlier, it makes possible to produce die
castings in a wide variety of configurations, and usually more economically than any other
metalworking process.
Die casting dies are usually made of an alloy steel which should be dimensionally stable,
withstand heat checking, not get soldered to the cast alloy, be tough & resist errosion. The steel
most generally used is a low-carbon steel. Chromium-vanadium and tungsten steels are used for
aluminum, magnesium, and brass alloys, when dies must withstand relatively high temperatures.

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Types of Dies
Dies are classified as:-
1. Single Cavity- Single cavity die have single part cavity
2. Multiple Cavity- Multiple cavity dies have several cavities which are all identical.
3. Combination dies- If a die has cavities of different shapes, it’s called a combination or family
die. Combination die is used to several parts for an assembly.
4. Unit dies – Unit die are used to produce different parts at one time. For simple parts, unit dies
might be used to affect tooling and production economies. Several parts for an assembly, or for
different customers, might be cast at the same time with unit dies. In this type different dies are
assembled for production of different parts.

Typical Layout of die

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Crankcase Die Insert & slides

Moving Side Assembly for Transmission Case Die & Cast Part

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Timing Case Cover Casting

Moving Assembly for Timing Case Cover

Fix Assembly for Timing Case Cover

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Gear Shifter Cover Casting

Fix & Moving Die Cavity for Gear Shifter Cover

Moving Side Assembly for Gear Shifter Cover

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Part Name- _______________

Moving Side Assembly

Fix Side Assembly

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Gear Box Housing Casting Inserts & Slides

Intermediate Cover Casting & Die

Gear Box End-Cover Casting & Die

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Die Casting Machines
Major functions of die casting machines are as follows:
• Closing the two halves of the die by moving the movable half [ejector die] towards the
fixed half [cover die]
• Securing the two die halves firmly together, so that they do not separate due to the
pressure of molten metal.
• Forcing the molten metal into the die.
• Opening the die by moving the ejector or moving die away from the fixed die.
• Ejecting the casting out of the die.
A die casting machine must be have a study frame designed to support & open the die halves
in correct alignment. Further locking force requires to hold the die halves together must
adequately exceed the maximum force developed by the molten metal to ensure leak proof
clamping at the die parting face. Most machines use toggle type mechanisms actuated by
hydraulic cylinders (sometimes air pressure) to achieve locking. Capacity of die casting machine
is measured in terms of tons.

Die casting machines, large or small, vary fundamentally only in the method used to
inject molten metal into the die. These are classified and described in two types
• Hot Chamber Machine
• Cold Chamber Machine

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Schematic Illustration of Hot and Cold Chamber Die Casting Machine

Toggle Mechanism for Die-Casting Machine

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Hot Chamber Machine
Hot chamber machines are used primarily for zinc, and low melting point alloys which do
not readily attack and erode metal pots, cylinders and plungers. Advanced technology and
development of new, higher temperature materials has extended the use of this equipment for
magnesium alloys.
In the hot chamber machine, the injection mechanism is immersed in molten metal in a
furnace attached to the machine. As the plunger is raised, a port opens allowing molten metal to
fill the cylinder. As the plunger moves downward sealing the port, it forces molten metal through
the gooseneck and nozzle into the die. After the metal has solidified, the plunger is withdrawn,
the die opens, and the resulting casting is ejected.
Hot chamber machines are rapid in operation. Cycle times vary from less than one second
for small components weighing less than one ounce to thirty seconds for a casting of several
pounds. Dies are filled quickly (normally between five and forty milliseconds) and metal is
injected at high pressures (1,500 to over 4,500 psi). Nevertheless, modern technology gives close
control over these values, thus producing castings with fine detail, close tolerances and high
strength.

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Cold Chamber Machine
It is a Die Casting machine wherein molten metal is poured in sleeve and then forced into
the die cavity by hydraulically actuated plunger. Since the sleeve or the pouring chamber is not
heated, it is called Cold Chamber.
A hydraulically operated plunger, advancing forward, seals the port forcing metal into the
locked die at high pressures. Injection pressures range from 3,000 to over 10,000 psi for both
aluminum and magnesium alloys, and from 6,000 to over 15,000 psi for copper base alloys.
Operation of a "cold chamber" machine is a little slower than a "hot chamber" machine
because of the ladling operation. A cold chamber machine is used for high melting point casting
alloys because plunger and cylinder assemblies are less subject to attack since they are not
submerged in molten metal.

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Common Alloys for Die Casting
Aluminum, Magnesium, Zinc and Copper alloys are the materials predominantly used in die-
casting.
1) Aluminum Alloy - This alloy is lightweight, while possessing high dimensional stability for
complex shapes and thin walls. Aluminum has good corrosion resistance and mechanical
properties, high thermal and electrical conductivity, as well as strength at high temperatures.
On the other hand, pure Aluminum is rarely cast due to high shrinkage, and susceptibility to hot
cracking.
Aluminum is cast at a temperature of 650 ºC (1200 ºF). And it is alloyed with -
Silicon Si (8-11%) - increases melt fluidity. The hardness of the alloy is increased with Si
content but ductility and machinability are reduced. A high silicon alloy gives high wear
resistance.
Copper Cu (1.5-3%) - Improves strength, hardness, machinibility and thermal conductivity. It
reduces ductility, castability with corrosion resistance.
Magnesium Mg ( 0.5 % max)- Small additions of 0.25-0.5% allow Al-Si alloys to be
hardened by heat treatment, improving mechanical properties.
Iron Fe ( 0.7 – 1.2 %) - Small amount of iron increases the strength and the hardness. Iron
also increases hot strength which reduces the tendency towards hot cracking. It increases the
tendency towards cracking.
It contains some impurities also. The various impurity elements are:-
Manganese Mn: (0.2 – 0.5 %) - Manganese alters the inter-metallic form of iron in the alloy.
Manganese increases impact strength.
Zinc Zn: (1% max) - Zinc above 3% reduces strength & can cause hot cracking.
Nickel Ni: (0.5% max) - Nickel is not a serious impurity in pressure die casting alloys. When
combined with copper, Ni enhances strength and hardness at elevated temperature.
Bismuth Bi, cadmium Cd, lead Pb, tin Sn- Concentrations above the specified values can lead
to a tendency of hot cracking & excessive dross formation.
Titanium Ti: (0.2 % max) - Refines the grain structure when combined with boron. The
severe cooling rate in pressure die casting eliminates the need to promote fine grain size
artificially. If concentration exceeds 0.25%, it may cause machining difficulties from hard
intermetallic compounds.

Aluminium alloy characteristics:

• Highest operating temperatures
• Outstanding corrosion resistance
• Light weight
• Very good strength and hardness
• Good stiffness and strength-to-weight ratio
• Excellent thermal conductivity
• High electrical conductivity
• Good finishing characteristics
• Full recyclability
Aluminium alloys:
A380 (LM24), A383, B390 (LM30), LM6

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Aluminium Alloy Applications:

2) Zinc Alloy - The easiest alloy to cast, it offers high ductility, high impact strength and is
easily plated. Zinc is economical for small parts, has a low melting point and promotes long die
life.
Zinc can be made to close tolerances and with thinner walls than Aluminum, due to its high melt
fluidity. And lower temperature and pressure of zinc lengthens die life.
The casting is done at a fairly low temperature of 425 ºC (800 ºF). Zinc is alloyed with Aluminum
(4%), which adds strength and hardness.
Zinc Alloy Characteristics:
• High strength and hardness
• Excellent electrical conductivity
• High thermal conductivity
• Lowest cost raw material
• High dimensional accuracy and stability
• Excellent thin wall capability
• Ability to cold form, which eases joining
• High quality finishing characteristics
• Outstanding corrosion resistance
• Full recyclability
Zinc Alloys:
Zinc Alloy 2, Zinc Alloy 3, Zinc Alloy 5, Zinc Alloy 7, Zinc Alloy ZA-8, Zinc Alloy ZA27, Zinc
Alloy ACuZinc5. All alloy numbers specifies the percentage of Al & Cu content.

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Zinc Alloy Applications

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3) Magnesium Alloy - Magnesium is the ideal material for applications where weight saving is
a priority, and is the lightest alloy commonly die cast, having the lowest density of all structural
metals. Weight is combined with good mechanical properties and have good damping properties
(absorbs impact energy during collisions). Magnesium has a low specific heat and does not
dissolve with iron, so it may be die cast by both hot and cold chamber methods. Die life is much
longer than Aluminium and production rate is faster due to rapid solidification rate.
Magnesium Alloy Characteristics:
• The lightest of all structural metals
• Excellent stiffness and strength-to-weight ratio
• Outstanding EMI shielding properties
• High conductivity, electrical and thermal
• Withstands high operating temperatures
• Cost-effective against plastics
• High dimensional accuracy and stability
• Exceptional thin wall capability
• Good environmental corrosion resistance
• Good finishing characteristics
• Full recyclability
Magnesium Alloys:
AZ91D, AM60A. These alloys consists Al, Zn, Cu, Si, Mn, Fe, Ni.
Magnesium Alloy Applications:

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4) Copper Alloys- This alloy possesses high hardness, high corrosion resistance and the highest
mechanical properties of alloys cast. It offers excellent wear resistance and dimensional stability,
with strength approaching that of steel parts.
The alloys with about 40 per cent zinc are suitable for diecasting. The addition of further alloying
elements like Pb, Al, Si, Mn, Fe, Tin may alter the proportion of each phase.

5) Lead and Tin base alloys - These alloys offer high density and are capable of producing
parts with extremely close dimensions. They are also used for special forms of corrosion
resistance.
Tin Base Alloys- Tin Base Alloys alloyed with Copper, Antimony, and lead. This alloy
contains more than 85% Tin percentage.
Alloy example- SAE Alloy No-10, SAE Alloy No-11
Tin Base Alloys are used for automobile bearings, but are used for milking machine, soda
fountain, syrup pumps, and parts requiring resistance against action of acids, alcalies &
moisture.
Lead Base Alloys- Lead Base Alloys alloyed with Tin, Antimony. This alloy contains more
than 76% Lead percentage.
Alloy example- SAE Alloy No-13, SAE Alloy No-14
These alloys are used usually where cheap non-corrosive metal is needed & strength is
relatively unimportant. Parts such as parts of lead-acid batteries, automobile wheel balancing
weight are made by this alloys.

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Minimum Draft and Thickness of alloys

Alloy Min. Thickness Min. Draft

Aluminium 0.9 mm 0.5
Zinc 0.6 mm 0.25
Copper 1.25 mm 0.7

Characteristics for dimensional stability of alloys

Aluminium Copper Magnesium Zinc

Good Excellent Excellent Good

Advantages of HPDC:
• Excellent mechanical properties
• Best suited to high production rates, to produce repetitive identical parts
• It provides the best surface finish (1.5µ),
• Closer dimensional tolerance of the order of +-0.025 mm is possible,
• Holes as small as 1.5 mm dia. may be cored
• Long die life
• Little or no machining
• Wall thickness' can be as little as 0.5-2.5mm.
• Material cost low (through thin sections)
• High production rates can be achieved,
• Material utilization is high as the gates, runners, sprues, overflows can remelt directly.

Disadvantages of HPDC:
• Again, this process requires complex machinery.
• Since higher cost of dies, this is uneconomical process for small scale production (less
than about 10000 castings)
• This Process requires comparatively a longer period of time for going into production.
• Sound thick sections are difficult to cast,
• Core configurations must be complex to enable disassembly,
• Machine size will limit casting size, heavy castings cannot be cast.
• Only economical for non-ferrous alloys,
• Restricted by size/weight (100 Kg zinc, 35 Kg aluminium, 5 Kg magnesium, 3 Kg
copper)
• Castings may suffer from porosity, due to entrapped air.

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Defects in Die casting
Drag marks- while ejecting casting from die rubbing occurs on the casting surface called drag
marks as if by rubbing
Reason:
-Lack of draft in the die.
-Poor ejector system alignment
-Inadequate slide or core alignment.
-Improper machine setup with uneven tie bar

Heat Check Marks or Checking - Fine cracks on the surface a die which produce
corresponding raised veins on die casting. Caused by repeated heating of the die surface by
injected molten alloys. It is also called as heat checking.

Flash - A thin web or fin of metal on a casting which occurs on die partings, vents and around
moveable cores. This excess metal is due to working and operating clearances in a die.

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Shrink mark - A surface depression which sometimes occurs next to a heavy section that cools
more slowly than adjacent areas.

Cold shuts & Unfill

CAUSE REMEDY
Metal temperature too low Maintain correct metal temp.
Check thermocouple
Plunger speed too slow Determine and maintain correct plunger speed.
N2 pressure in accumulator Bottle too low Watch pressure gauge during
shot for excessive pressure drop.
Die temperature too low Maintain correct die temperature & preheat die
Inadequate venting Add and rework vents & overflows
Use correct amount and concentration of die
Excessive die lubricant
lubricant
Worn plunger tip and shot sleeve Replace if necessary
Inadequate gating Add gates to weak spots if problem is chronic
Excessive gating Plug gates individually if required.

Flow marks (flow lines)-

Reasons-
Excessive application of lubrication,
Gate area is less
Low molten metal temperature.
Low die temperature
Over flow is not given

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Remedies-
Higher shot Speed
Less die release material (Lubricants)
Increase both Die and molten metal temperature

Blow holes and Gas porosity

Voids or pores which may occur due to entrapped bubbles of gas during solidification, usually
occurs in heavy sections.
CAUSE
Metal too hot
Excess die, plunger lubrication.
Entrapped air or Gas vents blocked
Incorrect injection parameters
Die flashed too much or running too
loose
Insufficient metal in shot
Overflow broken off a part and stuck in
die
Insufficient vents and Overflow well
Shrinkage
REMEDY
Maintain correct Metal temperature
Do not use excessive lubricant.
Clean vents
Use minimum plunger speed & proper
intensification pressure
Clean die faces or lock die tight
Maintain proper biscuit thickness
Keep overflows cleaned out
Add vents and overflows
Add gate to defect areas. Use shot chiller
behind defect area. Improve feeding in problem
area by increasing wall thickness or adding
ribs.

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Soldering - Adherence of molten metal to portion of the die.

CAUSE REMEDY
a. Maintain correct metal temp.
Metal too hot
b. Check thermocouple controls
Die too hot or too cold Maintain correct die temperature
Low iron content in alloy Increase iron content to 0.8 to1.2%
Ineffective die lubricant Use correct die lubricant
Determine if water lines are
Hot spots in the die
functioning. Increase die cooling
Low metal viscosity in dead Add gates close to these areas to
areas of casting provide washing action on die face
Not enough draft on die surface Increase draft
Bent cores Straighten bent cores
Metal not solidifying Improve water cooling of die

Blisters-
These are formed on casting surface due to entrapped gases in the die and can be avoided by
increasing die venting by adding overflows and vents to defect areas.

Crack-
CAUSE REMEDY
Solder Identify the cause for solder
Bent cores Straighten or replace cores
Die or metal too hot Maintain correct temperature
Add cooling water to die OR
More solidification time
add water lines where needed.
If cracks are at corners, increase the fillet radii.
Contraction stresses Reduce hold time. Increase die temp. in defect
areas add overflows & reduce die cooling.
Hot spots Use less hot metal, Use hot spot wax
Check for broken ejector pin, Remove
Improper ejection
undercuts
Off composition metal particularly high
Analyze metal, bail furnace if required.
iron

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 Ejector Pin Marks

Chip-off

Shrink Porosity

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Compare Die Casting to Other Manufacturing Processes
Die Casting vs. Forging
Compared with forgings, die casting offers complex in shape and have shapes not forgeable, Die
casting produces more complex shapes not possible in forged parts, with thinner sections held to
closer tolerances and lower finishing costs. Cast coring holes are not available with forging.
Where a die casting alloy can satisfy the design requirements for strength and density. A new
generation of squeeze cast, and semi-solid cast parts are offering significant cost savings over
forgings at substantial weight reductions.
Die Casting vs. Plastic Injection Molding
Die casting produces stronger parts with closer tolerances that have greater stability and
durability. Die cast parts have greater resistance to temperature extremes and superior electrical
properties.
Compared with plastic injection moldings, die casting are stronger, stiffer, more stable
dimensionally, more heat resistant, and are far superior to plastics on a properties. For chrome
plating, die castings are much superior to plastics. Die castings have high degree permanence
under load compared to plastics, are completely resistant to ultra-violet rays, weathering, and
stress-cracking in the presence of various reagents. Manufacturing cycles for producing die
castings are much faster than for injection moldings.
Die Casting vs. Extrusions
Compared to extrusions, die casting can be produced faster and more net shape. Features and
depressions on the sides, tops and bottoms can be created in one operation. There is less waste
using die casting than extrusion. Holes can be cast in place to save additional machining cost.
Die Casting vs. Stamping
Die casting produces complex shapes with variations possible in section thickness. One casting
may replace several stampings, resulting in reduced assembly time. When a highly complex
stamping or several stampings are required, die casting can be a cost-effective alternative, and can
achieve complex shapes impossible with a stamping. In the case of multiple stampings, costs of
fixturing and welding added to the costs of fabricating the additional parts can make die casting
very competitive. Material costs for stamping may be substantially higher than indicated by
published per pound costs due to high scrap rates. Stampings invariably consume more material
than is contained in the end product, sometimes substantially more. . Die castings can be made in
many shapes not producible in stamped form.
Die Casting vs. Screw Machine Products
Die casting produces shapes that are difficult or impossible to create from bar or tubular stock,
while maintaining tolerances without tooling adjustments. Die casting requires fewer operations,
and reduces waste and scrap.
The automatic screw process uses bar stock as raw material which offers very poor material
utilization ó sometimes less than 50%. This choice will usually depend on production quantities,
with the die casting advantage increasing as production rates increase. Unusually complex design
shapes are routinely produced as die castings, while they would be costly or impossible as
machined parts.
Die Casting vs. Sand Casting
Die casting produces parts with thinner walls, closer dimensional limits and smoother surfaces.
Compared with sand castings, die castings require little or no machining to meet specifications,
can be made with thinner walls, can have all or nearly all holes cored to size, can be held within
much closer dimensional limits, and are produced more rapidly in dies which can make many

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thousands of castings without replacement, rather than requiring new cores for each casting.
Production is faster and labor costs per casting are lower. Finishing costs are also less. Sand
castings require a new sand mold with each casting or gate of castings. At what quantity does
conversion to a die casting from a sand casting, or other gravity casting process make economic
sense? The answer depends largely on the configuration, size and complexity of the part. While
the die casting process is most economic at higher volumes, die casting can achieve comparative
savings at quantities at or below 2,000 pieces if extensive post-casting machining or surface
finishing can be eliminated
Die Casting vs. Permanent Mold
Die casting offers the same advantages versus permanent molding as it does compared with sand
casting. The permanent mold gravity process uses iron or steel molds, but, like the sand process,
is far slower and less precise than die casting. Die castings can be made to closer dimensional
limits and with thinner sections than permanent mold castings. Holes can be cored in die castings,
and they are produced at higher rates with less manual labor. They have smoother surfaces and
usually cost less per part.

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 Low Pressure Die Casting (LPDC)
Low pressure casting is a development of the permanent mould process, in which the
metal is introduced into the mould from bottom by means of applying a low pressure on the
molten metal in a sealed furnace. The amount of pressure is from 3 to 15 Mpa & is dependent on
the casting configuration and the quality of the casting desired. Gas pressure holds the metal in
the die until it solidifies.
As with high pressure die casting the process requires complex machinery. It is repetitive,
and may be automated. Production rates are fair, but not as good as high pressure. Machine size
will limit the size of castings. Surface finishing and minimum wall thickness' are both better than
gravity, but poorer than high pressure.

Process
Low-pressure casting uses mold or die designs similar to those for gravity casting. The
container (crucible) for the molten metal has provision for an airtight seal with the mold, and
when gas or air pressure (6–10 lb/in.2) is applied to the bath surface inside the crucible, the metal
is forced up a hollow refractory tube (stalk) projecting from the die underside. This stalk extends
below the bath level so that metal entering the die is free from oxides and impurities floating on
the surface. The rate of filling is controlled so that air can be expelled from the die by the entering
metal. With good design and control, high-quality, nonporous castings are made by both gravity
and low-pressure methods, though the extra pressure in low-pressure die casting may increase the
density and improve the reproduction of fine detail in the die.

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Advantages of LPDC:
• Better material utilization (90%), as runners and risers are excluded
• Very low pressure is sufficient to fill the cavity
• Low rejection rates
• Porosity free castings
• Surface finish of castings is from good to excellent
• Minimum wall thickness is as little as 2-3mm.
• Reducing fettling and trimming costs. (less gate size)
• The cooling of casting under pressure reduces shrinkage
• Excellent dimensional tolerance
• Consistent casting quality due to controlled rate of filling pressure
• Fine structure and more strength of components than GDC

Limitations of LPDC:
• Costliest process (riser tubes, intermediate tubes, ceramic cups, coatings)
• More cycle time
• Thin sections less than 2 mm cannot be made
• Machines are not standardized
• Changing of riser tubes

Applications of LPDC:
Automotive Wheels, clutch housings, cylinder heads, diesel engine oil pan (sump), crank case

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Component cast with GDC & LPDC

LPDC Machine

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 Parts Description of LPDC Machine

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 Investment Casting
The investment casting process was one of the first processes used to make metal castings.
Investment casting is also known as the lost wax process, precision casting process. Investment
casting is a highly developed process that is capable of great casting accuracy and can form
extremely intricate contours. The process may be utilized when metals are too hard to machine or
otherwise fabricate
For the most part, the patterns are made of wax, sometime; there are patterns that are
made of plastic or polystyrene. Because the tooling cost for the wax patterns is high, investment
casting is normally used when high volumes are required.

The basic steps of the investment casting process

• Production of heat-disposable wax or plastic patterns

• Assembly of these patterns onto a gating system
• Covering the pattern assembly with ceramic to produce a monolithic mold (investing)
• Melting the pattern assembly to leave a precise mold cavity
• Firing the ceramic mold to remove the last traces of the pattern material while
developing the high-temperature bond and preheating the mold ready for casting
• Pouring
• Knockout, cutoff, and finishing

Process
There are two types of molding processes:
• The solid mold process
• The ceramic shell process.
The more common of these processes is the ceramic shell. The ceramic shell is built around a
pattern assembly. This casting method involves producing a "wax pattern" by injecting wax or
plastic into a pattern die. The pattern is attached to gating and runner systems and this assembly
is dipped into hardsetting refractory slurry which is then cured, and forms a skin. Thus, a shell is
built up around the pattern assembly. After this, the entire pattern is placed in an oven and the
wax is melted away to leave an exact cavity. The mould is heated to about 1000 ºC baked to
remove any residues of wax, harden the binder or refractory. Now mold ready for pouring,
And then molten metal is poured into the mould cavity. After solidification of the casting, the
mould material is broken away from the casting.
The materials used for the slurry are a mixture of plaster of Paris, a binder and powdered
silica, a refractory, for low temperature melts. For higher temperature melts, sillimanite an
alumina-silicate is used as a refractory, and silica is used as a binder.

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 Process layout for Investment Casting

Wax pattern dipped into slurry

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Advantages of Investment Casting:
• Wide range of casting materials possible
• High Accuracy achievable (±125 µm)
• Excellent surface finish (2.5 µm)
• Tight dimensional tolerances.
• NO parting line on casting.
• Extremely thin section, to extent 0.75mm can be cast successfully.
• Allows intricate internal contours that are impossible by other methods (because mold is
destroyed each time)
• Almost any metal can be cast
• Very intricate parts and undercuts can be made with high accuracy.
• Draft is usually zero, but 0.5-1 is desirable on long extended surfaces, or in deep cavity.
• Machining can be reduced or completely eliminated.
• Process may be applied for Ferrous, Non Ferrous. Medium and High Volume

Disadvantages of Investment Casting:

• High tooling cost (recurring), and labor cost
• Max. size usually about .5- 100 Kg (best suited for parts less than 5kg)
• Precise control is requires in all stages of casting.
• Production rate low (less than 100/hr)

Applications of Investment Casting:

It can be used to make parts that cannot be produced by normal manufacturing techniques, such
as turbine blades that have complex shapes, airplane, or other parts made from alloys that have
high melting points.

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 Photo shows the wax pattern for turbine and mold for pattern

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 Shell Mold Casting
Process
In this type of casting a heated pattern is attached with box and box is filled with fine sand mixed
with thermosetting resin binder. The box is either rotated upside down or sand mixture is blown
over the pattern, allowing it to coat the pattern.
The assembly is then placed in an oven or heated by gas fire for a short period of time to
complete the curing of resin. As resin cures, causing sand grains to adhere to each other and
forms hardened shell around the pattern. This hardened sand shell mold is removed from pattern.
Then shells are assembled together to form a complete mould for pouring.
The thickness of shell can be determined by controlling the time that the pattern is in
contact with the sand. The shell are light and thin (usually 5mm- 10mm). Shell moulds are
generally poured with the parting line horizontal

Advantages of shell mold Casting:

• Shell sand has much lower permeability than sand used for green and mold,
• Productivity can exceed that of conventional sand casting process.
• As walls of the mold are relatively smooth, offering low resistance to flow of molten
metal and producing castings with sharp corner, thinner sections & smaller projections,
• Saving of molding material.
• Any metal is suited for sand cast may be cast with shell mold process.
• Shells can be stored and transported easily,
• Process can be used for all cast metals.

Disadvantages of shell mold Casting:

• Higher cost of patterns
• Increase in cost of mold because of high resin binders cost.
• Uneconomical for small runs.
• Maximum casting size and weights are limited.
• Inflexibilities in gating and risering as these are provided in the shell itself.

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Applications of shell mold Casting:
This process is useful for castings that may range in weight from 200gm to 200kg in both
ferrous & non ferrous metals. It is primarily used for producing castings where greater
dimensional accuracy and smoother surface finish than as cast dimensions are desired as in
automobile castings such as gear housings, cylinder heads. This process is widely used for
producing high precision molding cores.

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 Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal castings are produced by pouring molten metal into a mold that is being
rotated or revolved (300 to 3000 rpm). Here molten metal is held against the wall of the mold by
centrifugal force until solidified.
The axis of rotation is usually horizontal, but may be vertical for short workpieces, or
sometimes inclined at any angle up to the vertical position. The speed of rotation and metal
pouring rate vary with the alloy and size and shape being cast.

Process
Molten metal is poured into a rotating mold where it is accelerated to mold speed.
Centrifugal force causes the metal to spread over and cover the mold surface. Continues pouring
of the molten metal increases the thickness to the intended cast dimensions.
Once the metal has been distributed over the mold surface, solidification begins
immediately. Most of the heat in the molten metal is extracted through the mold wall. This
induces progressive solidification. Molds may be made of cast iron or steel, copper, graphite,
ceramic, or dry sand.
Horizontal centrifugal casting machines are used for the production of pipe and tubing up
to 50 ft long. The length and outside diameter are fixed by the mold cavity dimensions while the
inside diameter is determined by the amount of molten metal poured into the mold. Castings of
many different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same size mold.

Advantages of Centrifugal castings:

• Rapid production rate, good soundness and cleanliness of castings.
• Absence of runners & riser leads to near 100% use of material,
• Ability to produce extremely large cylindrical parts.
• The percentage of rejection is very low
• Directional solidification can be obtained.
• Castings with thin sections or fine outside surface details can be produced.

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Applications of centrifugal casting:
Typical materials that can be cast with this process are iron, steel, stainless steels, and alloys of
aluminum, copper and nickel. Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process. Size
limits are upto 3 m (10 feet) diameter and 15 m (50 feet) length. Wall thickness can be 2.5 mm to
125 mm. Typical parts made by this process are pipes, brake drums, pulley drum, pressure vessels,
flywheels, engine cylinder liners and other parts that are axis-symmetric.

Types of centrifugal casting

• True Centrifugal
• Semi Centrifugal
• centrifuged

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 Plaster Mold Casting

Process
In plaster mold casting process, the mold is made of Plaster of Paris (gypsum or calcium
sulfate) with addition of talc and silica flour to improve strength. These ingredients are mixed
with controlled amount of water to form slurry. This plaster slurry is poured over the pattern and
mould is vibrated and the slurry is allowed to set. After plaster sets Pattern is removed and mold
is dried and backed to remove moisture. Then mold is assembled and preheated about 120 C. The
molten metal is then poured into the mold.
Patterns for plaster molding are generally made of aluminium alloys, thermosetting
plastics, brass or zinc alloys.

Advantages of Plaster mold Casting:

• High dimensional accuracy
• Castings have fine details & thin sections of mould.
• Wall thickness as small as 0.6mm to 3mm can be cast.
• smooth surface finishes
• Almost unlimited intricacy and no porosity.
• Primary for prototyping
• Non Ferrous. Low, Medium Volume

Disadvantage of Plaster mold Casting:

• Because of lower thermal conductivity casting cools slowly
• Low permeability of plaster of paris.
• POP destroys at 1200˚C, process is only suitable for nonferrous castings.

Applications of Plaster mold Casting:

Parts cast are usually small to medium size, ranging in weight from 30 gm to 7 kg. Since
the Plaster mold can withstand temp 1200˚ C, plaster mold casting is used only for low melting
point alloys such as aluminium, magnesium, zinc, and some copper based alloys.

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 Ceramic mold casting

Ceramic mold casting is similar to the plaster mold process, with the exception that it uses
refractory mold materials suitable for high temperature applications.

Process
The slurry is mixture of fine grained zircon, aluminium oxide, and fused silica, which are mixed
with liquid chemical binder (alcohol based silicon ester). This slurry is poured over the pattern
which is placed in the flask. The slurry fills up all cavities and recesses by itself.
After setting the mold ceramic mass is then removed from flask and dried, and heated in furnace
to remove the liquid binder. The mold is then ready for pouring molten metal.

Advantages of Ceramic mold casting:

• Highest precision and extremely high finish are obtained.
• Any ordinary pattern of wood, metal or epoxy resin may be employed.
• The castings do not normally require any riser, venting or chilling as the cooling rate is
slow.
• Ceramic mold is suitable for all types of cast metals including high melting point alloys.

Disadvantages of Ceramic mold casting:

• The process is expensive as the mold materials are high in cost.
• The Process is time consuming.

Applications of Ceramic mold casting:

The high temperature resistance of the refractory molding materials allows these molds to be used
in casting ferrous and non ferrous and other high-temperature alloys, stainless steels, tool steels,
titanium, etc. typical parts are made are impellers, cutters for machining operations, dies for
metalworking (drawing, extrusion dies), parts for aircrafts, atomic reactors, etc. parts up to 700kg
may be cast by this process.

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 Expandable-Pattern Casting (Lost-Foam)

Unlike conventional sand casting, the lost foam process allows more complex and detailed
passages and other features to be cast directly into the part.
The expandable-pattern casting process uses polystyrene pattern, which evaporates upon contact
with molten metal to form cavity for the casting. The process is also known as lost foam, or lost
pattern casting
Process
In this process, raw expandable polystyrene (EPS) beads which contain pentane (5-7 wt%) as a
blowing/expansion agent, is placed in preheated tool (die) cavity which is usually made of
aluminium, and the tool is steam-heated and water cooled to expand, soften, fuse, and cool the
polystyrene to form a finished pattern The die is then cooled and opened, and the polystyrene
pattern is removed.
The pattern is coated with a water based refractory slurry either by dipping it in tank filled by
viscosity controlled ceramic slurry or Spray the pattern with the viscosity-controlled slurry,
(Dipping is the preferred coating approach) and then pattern is dried and placed in a flask. The
flask is then filled with loose fine sand, which surrounds & supports the pattern and may be
mixed with bonding agents to give additional strength. Then sand is compacted, and then without
removing the pattern, the molten metal is poured into the mould. Action immediately vaporizes
the pattern and fills the mold cavity, completely replacing the space previously accupied by
polystyrene pattern. Heat degrades the polystyrene and the degradation products are vented into
the surrounding sand.

Process Route for Expandable-Pattern Casting (Lost-Foam)

1) Pattern Molding
2) Pattern assembly
3) Pattern Coating and Drying
4) Sand Fill And Compaction
5) Molten Metal Pouring and Cooling
6) Shakeout, Cleanup, And Finishing, & heat treatment if required (HT develops the
controlled microstructure which gives the alloy its high mechanical strength and
ductility)

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Example of Five Cylinder Block (for General Motors)

1) Preparation of pattern of block to be cast

2) Pattern assembly

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3) Pattern Coating and Drying

4) Sand Fill and Compaction

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5) Metal Pouring

Advantages of expandable pattern casting:

• Process is relatively simple because there is no parting lines, cores or riser system.
• Sand is binder free, so it can be easily and rapidly recovered at low cost.
• Polystyrene is inexpensive and can be easily processed into patterns with complex shapes,
various sizes and fine surface details.
• Low wear and long life with aluminum tool
• Dimensional tolerances +/- 0.125mm -0.25mm
• Reduces machining operations and costs
• Casting requires minimum finishing and cleaning operations.
• Forms complex internal passages and features without cores.

Applications of expandable pattern casting:

Typical applications for this process are cylinder heads, crankshafts, brake components and
manifolds for automobiles and machine beds. Aluminium engine blocks and other components of
General Motors Saturn (GMS) are made by this process.

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 Squeeze casting
This process is relatively new to the metal casting family. Squeeze casting, also known as
liquid metal forging, is a combination of casting and forging process. The molten metal is poured
into the bottom half of the pre-heated die. As the metal starts solidifying, the upper half is brought
down until the die is closed, and applies pressure during the solidification process. The heated
dies are lubricated with graphite and pressures up to 25 tons per square inch may be applied by
the press to squeeze the molten metal into the cavity of the die. When the press is opened, the
solidified casting is pushed out by ejectors.
The amount of pressure thus applied is significantly less than used in forging, and parts of
great detail can be produced. Coring can be used with this process to form holes and recesses.
The porosity is low and the mechanical properties are improved.
Both ferrous and non-ferrous materials can be produced using this method

Semisolid Metalcasting (SSM)

Semisolid metalcasting is similar to high-pressure die casting in that metal is injected into
a reusable steel die under pressure. However, rather than using liquid metal, SSM uses metal that
is about 40 percent liquid and 60 percent solid Currently, aluminum is the major alloy used with
this process, and the major users are automakers.

An aluminum billet is heated to the consistency of ice cream for use in the semisolid process.

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 Slush Casting

In certain castings such as statuary work, only the external features of the casting are important.
Since such castings are not destined for engineering use, uniformity of wall thickness is not an
important factor.

Process
In this type of casting molten metal is poured into metal mold, and held stationary until thin skin
of solid metal freezes against wall; after skin has frozen, the mold is turned upside down or
inverted, and the remaining liquid metal is poured out of mold and a thin walled casting (shell)
results. The thickness of casting is depending on the chilling effect from the mold and the time of
operation. In this process hollow castings can be produced without the use of cores.

Application:
This process is used for production of toys, statuary work, ornamentals, & lighting fixtures (lamp
bases), where strength is not of prime importance and good appearance is required.

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 Vacuum Casting
This process is also called as a counter gravity low pressure process.

Process
A mixture of fine sand and urethane is molded over metal dies and cured with amine vapor. The
mold is then held with a robot arm and partially immersed it in the molten metal held in a
induction furnace.
Vacuum is created inside the mold. This reduces the air pressure inside the mold about 2/3rd of
atmospheric pressure. Thus drawing a molten metal into the mold cavity through a gate in the
bottom of the mold. The molten metal in the furnace is at a temperature usually 55 C above the
liquidus temperature; consequently, it begins to solidify within a fraction of second. After the
mold is filled it is withdrawn from the molten metal.

Application
This process is alternative to the investment, shell mold and green sand casting, and is
particularly suited for thin-walled (0.75mm), complex shapes with uniform properties. Carbon
low and high alloy steel and stainless steel parts, weighing upto 70kgs parts can be cast with this
process.

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 Rotational Moulding
Rotational Moulding is a method for manufacturing hollow plastic products. It is best
known for the manufacture of parts like tanks, but designers all over the world are starting to
realize that it can be used to make many different types of plastic parts.

Process
Basically rotational moulding consists of introducing a known amount of plastic in
powder, granular, or liquid form into a hollow, shell-like mold. Rotational moulding is an
atmospheric pressure process that produces nearly stress-free parts. The mould is heated and
simultaneously rotated about two principal axes so that the plastic enclosed in the mould adheres
to, and forms a layer against the mould surface. The mould is then conveyed to cold chamber,
rotation continues during the cooling phase so that the plastic retains the desired shape as it
solidifies. When the plastic is sufficiently rigid, the mould rotation is stopped to allow the
removal of the plastic product from the mould

Cost Advantages:
When cost is a factor, rotational moulding has the advantage over other types of
processes as well. In comparison to injection and blow moulding, rotational moulding can easily
produce large and small parts in a cost effective manner. Tooling is less expensive because there's
no internal core to manufacture. Since there is no internal core, minor changes can be easily made
to an existing mould. And because parts are formed with heat and rotation, rather than pressure,
moulds don't need to be engineered to withstand the high pressure of injection moulding.
Production costs for product conversions are reduced because lightweight plastics replace heavier,
often more costly materials, which makes rotational moulding as cost effective for one-of-a kind
prototypes as it is for large production runs.

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Advantages of Rotational Molding:
• Mainly for thermoplastics (especially polyethylene), but some thermosets can be used.
• Used to produce containers and similar hollow products with uniform thin sections.
• Tanks up to 4m across can be made this way; wall thicknesses as low as 0.4 mm is possible.
• Products are near-net-shape and rarely need further finishing.
• Parts do not have to have circular cross-section.
• The surface finish depends on the quality of the die surface; it is possible to include surface
detail such as logos.
• Metal or polymer inserts can be moulded-in during processing.
• All material is used in the product so there is no scrap.
• Parts with large openings may be produced in pairs in a single mould and separated after
removal, or through use of insulation in mould.
• The plastic is formed without pressure or centrifugal force and as such has no moulded in
stresses

Applications of Rotational Molding:

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 Thank You

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