PETROLOGY 

Petrology: Branch of Geology dealing with the study of rocks. It includes-

 Petrogenesis - origin and mode of occurrences as well as natural history.

 Petrography – dealing with classification and description of rocks.

PETROLOGY
•Is a branch of geology, which deals with study of rocks (Petro=rock,
Logos=study)
ROCKS

SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
IGNEOUS
-thin veener above the -proportion is similar to
-most abundant
Sial and Sima in that of Igneous rocks
-primary rocks
Oceanic and -change of forms of Ig.
-source is magma
Continental Crusts and Sed. Due to
or lava
-secondary rocks Temprature, Pressure
and Chemical Fluids

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James Hutton (1727–1797), the eminent 18th century gentleman farmer and
founder of modern geosciences, authored the concept of the rock cycle, which
depicts the inter-relationships between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks

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General Characteristics of different rocks

IGNEOUS ROCK

These rocks are formed by solidification of magma either underneath the surface or
above it. Accordingly they are divided into two groups-

Intrusive Bodies: Which are formed underneath the surface of earth. On the basis of
depth of formation, intrusive rocks are two type-

Plutonic Rocks: Which are formed at a very great depth.

Hypobasal: Which are formed at a shallow depth.

Extrusive Rocks: These are formed due to consolidation of magma above the surface of
earth.

Important features of Igneous Rocks:

 Generally hard, massive compact with interlocking grains.

 Absence of fossil
 Absence of bedding plane
 Contain much feldspar
 Enclosing rocks are baked
 Host rocks for the most of mineral deposits

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

These rocks have been derived from pre-existing rocks formed by secondary process.

On the basis of place of formation, sedimentary rocks are two types-

Sedentary Rocks : These are residual deposits formed at the site of pre existing rocks.

Transported:

Mechanically deposited - Clastic rocks

Chemical precipitation- Chemical deposits
Organically deposited- Organic deposits

Important features of Sedimentary Rocks:

 Generally rocks are soft and stratified
 Fossils are common
 Structures are common
 No effect on the enclosing or the top & bottom rocks
 Common minerals are quartz, feldspar, calcite and clay minerals

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  Store house for fossil fuels

Metamorphic Rocks

These are formed by the alteration of pre existing rock by action of temperature, pressure
aided by sub terranean fluids (magmatic/non magmatic fluids).

Important features of Metamorphic Rocks:

 Generally hard, interlocking and bedded if derived from stratified rocks.
 Fossil are rarely preserved except slate.
 Foliated, gneissose, schistose and granulose are common features.
 Common minerals are andalusite, sillimanite, kynite, chlorite, biotite, garnet and
graphite

IGNEOUS ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCKS: The rocks formed through volcanic action OR The rocks which are
derived from a molten mass “magma or lava”

SOURCE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS:

Magma: Molten mass comprising most abundant elements in earth – Si, Al,
Fe, Ca, Mg, K, H & O. Where the SiO2 is most abundant amongst all.

What is a magma chamber?

A rising blob of magma that pushes aside crustal rocks as it rises through the
crust.

Temperature of Magma- 10400 to 12000 C

Composition of magma
Chemical omposition In terms of oxide

SiO2 59% Al2O3 15%

Fe2O3 3% FeO 3.5%
CaO 5% Na2O 3.8%
MgO 3.5% K2O 3%
H2O 1% TiO2 1%
P2O5 0.3 MnO 0.1
CO2 0.1

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In terms of elements
Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminium, Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Pottasium, Magnesium and
Titanium

Mineralogical Composition
Feldspar 59%
Pyroxene & Amphibole 17%
Quartz 12%
Mica 04%
Others 08%

Influencing Factors for Magma Flow and Formation of Igneous Rocks

 Overlying sedimentary rocks as overburden plays important role in formation of

igneous bodies eg: dykes, sills, laccoliths, bysmaliths, phacoliths, lopolith,
volcanic necks, batholiths and chonoliths.

 The beddings in the sedimentary rocks facilitates the magma to move through or
intrude/inject through the weak planes

 Magma and lava

 Igneous rocks are the products of consolidation of magma or lava

Magmatic differentiation
A process by which rocks of varying composition can arise from a uniform parent
magma. The first minerals to crystallize from a cooling magma are the ones that are the
last to melt.

 Fractional crystallization is the process by which the crystals are formed in a

cooling magma and are segregated from the remaining liquid.
 Gravity Settling
 Filter Pressing
 Liquid Immiscibility
 Gaseous Formation

Assimilation
This is process where mixing of rock massses and magma taken place. During the
process of mixing, magma become contaminated by material which was originally
present in the rock

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Structures of igneous rocks

Structure of Igneous rock is large scale feature, which are dependent on several factors
like-

• Composition of Magma
• Viscosity of Magam
• Temperature and pressure at which cooling and consolidation take place
• Presence of gases and other volatiles

Igneous structures are mostly classified in to three major groups as follows-

• Mega structure
• Minor structure
• Micro structure

Mega Structure:

• Vesicular structure – developed by the escape of gases from magma after

cooling and consolidation

Vesicular and amygdaloidal structure in lava-flows. The lava-flow (white) contains

vesicles (marked with circles), some, of which have been filled-up with secondary
minerals. The dots represent the vesicles which have been fined-up subsequently.
o Amygdaloidal structure- However, vesicles thus formed and subsequently filled
in some low-temperature secondary minerals, such as calcite, zeolite , chalcedony
etc, these infillings are called amygdates. Lava containing the amygdates are said
to have aamygdaloidal structure.

• Sheet structure – cracks or joints are some times produced in the cooling of
magma or lava mass. These joints some time follow definite pattern. These joints
some times follow definite pattern. Thus may develop closely spaced sets diving
the rock in to thin sheets and producing termed sheet structure

• Platy structure Development of different sets of joints which give rise the only
plates of rock

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 Sheet Structure Platy structure

• Columnar structure- If the joints developed igneous rock in polygonal fashion,

dividing it in to columnar or prismatic block- Columnar structure. Or
As a consequence of contraction due to cooling a few sets of vertical joints
develop. Such joints bring about the formation of columns, which may be square,
rectangular, rhombic and hexagonal.

Rhombic column and hexagonal column

 Blocky lava- Lava of acidic composition due to their high viscosity do not flow at
greater distance.Common structural feature controlled by the mobility of lava.
Surface is rough.

 Ropy Lava: Lava of basic composition are quite mobile because of their low
viscosity they can flow to greater distance and after solidification it give smooth
surfacec

Blocky Lava Ropy Lava

 Pillow structures- Pillow like surface in the body of igneous rock. Pillow shaped
structure that are attributed to extension of lava under water (volcanic rock).

Pillow lava Flow lava

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  Flow structure: These are plane result from flowage of magma with or without
crystal.

 Pumiceous - if vesicles are so abundant that they make up over 50% of the rock
and the rock has a density less than 1 (i.e. it would float in water), then the rock is
pumiceous.

 Scoraceous- if vesicles are so abundant that they make up over 50% of the rock
and the rock has a density greater than 1, then the rock is said to be scoraceous.

Pumaceous

Minor Structure:

Primary Foliation: Some times many plutonic rocks are characterized by foliation
resulting from the parallel arrangement of platy of or ellipsoidal minerals.

Banding in rocks: These are also known as layered rock consisting of alternate bands of
different composition. It may result from lamellar flow, from settling of minerals from
crystallized magma.

Micro structure:

Coronas or reaction rims - often times reaction rims or coronas surround individual
crystals as a result of the crystal becoming unstable and reacting with its surrounding
crystals or melt. If such rims are present on crystals they should be noted

Reaction structure. The white grain with irregular

cracks is olivine. The rim around it is ade up of
pyroxene. This reaction rim is of primary origin and is,
therefore, a corona.

Myrmekitic structure: It is produced by an intergrowth of qtz and plagioclase feldspar,

where quratz occur as blebs or drop in plagioclase.

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Orbicular - a texture usually restricted to coarser grained rocks that consists of
concentrically banded spheres wherein the bands consist of alternating light colored and
dark colored minerals

Spherulitic - a texture commonly found in glassy rhyolites wherein spherical

intergrowths of radiating quartz and feldspar replace glass as a result of devitrification.

Perilitic: These are curved, concentric lines of fracture, often seen in volcanic glass.
Theses are simply due to contraction of glassy mass on cooling.

Textures of igneous rocks

 Mutual relation between mineral grains or that between grains and glassy
materials
 Textures are generally microscopic
 Textural features depend upon size (granularity) and shape of mineral
grains
 Textural features are also dependent on proportion of crystals and glassy
materials.
Texture of igneous rock is a function of three important factor-
 Degree of crystallization
 Size of the grains or crystal
 Mutual relation of grains or of crystal and glassy matter

Crystallinity

 Holocrystalline- when made of minerals grains only

 Hemicrystalline – rock contains both crystalline and glassy matter

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  Holohyaline – glass only

Degree of crystallization depends upon the following factors-

 Rate of cooling
 Viscosity of magama
 Depth of cooling
 Volume of magma

Granularity

Phanerocrystalline- when individual crystals are visible to naked eye- coarse (>5mm),
medium (1-5mm) and fine(<1mm

Aphanitic- grains can not be distinguished

 Micro crystalline – individual crystal can be distinguished under the microscope

 Crypto crystalline- When individual crystal are too small to be seperately

distinguished even under microscope

 Mero crystalline- Intermediate in range

 Glassy – Where there is no crystallisation at all.

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Glassy Aphanitic Phanerocrystalline
Conditions of development of perfect crystal forms

 Different minerals possess variable degrees of tendency of developing perfect

crystal outline

 It is a function of the amount of available space within the crystallizing magma

Mineral grains depending on development of crystal outline

 Euhedral- well developed out line (idiomorphic/automorphic

 Subhedral- Crystal outline partially developed

 Anhedral- Crystal faces are absent

Mineral grains depending on exact form- With reference to the three dimension in
shape, crystals are classified as-

Equidimensional grains- Crystal found to have been developed equally along all
direction inside

Tabular grains- Better developed in two directions

Prismatic grains - Better developed in one direction

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 Eeqidimensional & Tabular Grain Prismatic

Textures in terms of relative size of grains:

 Equigranular texture- Panidiomorphic (all the crystals euhedral),

Hypidiomorphic (Crystals are subhedral) , Allotromorphic (anhedral

 Inequigranular texture- Grain size shows mark difference from grain to grain.
This is also known as seriate texture and are of the following type-

1. Porphyritic texture- In this larger crystal is enveloped in ground mass which may
microgranular, micro crystalline or even glass. This texture is characteristics of
volcanic and hypabasal rock. It origin may attributed to:
 Change in physio-chemical condition
 Molecular concentration
 Insolubility

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Porphyritic texture.
The larger grains are the
phenocrysts and the smaller ones
together form the groundmass.

• Microphenocrysts

o Microporphyritic texture

o Glomeroporphyritic texture – phenocryst gather at one spot

o Vitrophyric: When the ground mass is glassy in porphyritic texture, it is called

vitrophyric texture.

o Felsophyric: Here ground mass is crypto crystalline in nature

 Conditions behind formation of Porphyritic texture

2. Poikilitic texture- In this case smaller crystals are enclosed in larger one without
common orientation. The enclosing crystal is known as olkocrysts and enclosed one
are called chadacrysts

Poikilitic texture. (ophitic texture)

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The larger grain (oikocryst) has enclosed a few diversely oriented smaller grains
(chadacrysts) of another mineral.

 Conditions behind formation of Poikilitic texture

o Ophitic texture– Poikilitic texture in which euhedral plagiclase are partially or

completely enclosed by anhedral auguite. Ex. Dolerite

o Sub-ophitic texture: With equal size of plagioclase (feldspar grain and augite,
enclosure is partial.

o Granulo-ophitic texture- Here grains of plagiloclase are enclosed within a large

patch of pyroxene, and latter in turn is made up of a number of pyrogene grains.

Sub-ophitic Granulo-ophitic
texture texture

3. Intergranular texture/ Intersertal texture – when the plagioclase laths are arranged
in triangular fashion and the polygonal interface left between crystals is having glassy
infillings, it is known as intersertal. However if the interspace is filled in with mineral
grains, it is called intergranular.

Intergranular texture Hyalo-ophitic texture

4. Directive texture: These are produced by flow in magma during their crystallization.

o Hyalo-ophitic texture -Which is due to appreciable mixture of glass and feldspar

needles within the body of rock.

o Trachytic texture- Produced due to sub parallel arrangement of plagioclase along

the direction of flow lava. Without evident flow it is known as felsitic magma.

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Trachytic texture Graphic texture

Graphic Structure : A structure consisting of intergrowths of quartz and alkali feldspar

(orthoclase) wherein the orientation of the quartz grains resembles cuneiform writing.
This texture is most commonly observed in pegmatites.

 Classification of igneous rocks

 Chemical composition

 Mineral composition

 Geological mode of occurrence

 Association and Genesis

On the basis of mineralogical composition

Since the relative amounts of the various minerals in a rock can be measured or estimated
with a fair degree of accuracy, this criteria is given more emphasis for the classification
of igneous rocks.

The minerals occurring in igneous rocks may be classed as

(a) Essential, (b) Accessory, and (c) Secondary.

The first two are the products of magmatic crystallization whereas the third one is formed
by the alteration of the primary minerals, i.e. (the 1st two), through the processes of
weathering, metamorphism etc.

(a) Essential minerals. These are the major constituents of the rock which help in the
diagnosis of the rocks types. The disappearance of these minerals would cause the
relegation of the rock to another type.

(b) Accessory minerals. These are the minor constituents of a rock and their presence bas
no bearing on the nomenclature of the rock.

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Mineral commonly occurring in igneous rock may be broadly classified in to felsic and
mafic verities.

Felsic is a term derived from feldspar, felspathoid and silica. (high Sillica). Igneous rocks
rich in minerals high in silica and low in iron and magnesium. They include Granite &
Rhyollite
Intermediate – Intermediate silica. Igneous rocks intermediate in composition between
felsic and mafic igneous rocks. They include diorite and granodiorite
Mafic; Ferromagnesian minerals- pyroxene, biotite and amphibolites (low silica).
Igneous rocks rich in minerals low in silica and high in iron and magnesium. They
include: basalt & Gabbro.
Ultra mafic- Very low silica Igneous rocks with very low silica content, consisting
dominantly of mafic minerals. The most common ultramafic rock is: Peridotite

Composition Phaneritic Aphanitic Color index

(% dark minerals)
Felsic Granite Rhyolite 10
Syenite Trachyte 15
Monzonite Latite 20
Intermediate Granodiorite Dacite 20
Diorite Andesite 25
Mafic Gabbro Basalt 50

Ultramafic Peridotite 95

Chemical composition:

a) Acid igneous rocks. These rocks have more than 65% of the silica content, e.g.,
Granite, Grano-diorites •

(b) Intermediate rocks. These are having 55 to 65% or & sillica, eg/. syenite,& syenite.

(c) Basic rocks. Here the silica content is between 44 to 55%, e g., basic .

(d) Ultra basic rocks. In this case, silica content is less than 44%. Rocks like
anorthosite belongs to this category. Ultra basic rocks having higher magnesian contents
are known as ultramafics.

Shands and Holmes classified the igneous rocks as

(i) Supersaturated rocks. Also known as oversaturated rocks. Here, the excess of silica
crystallize as quartz.

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(ii) Saturated rocks. They have just sufficient silica to form the stable silicate minerals
but no free quartz.

(iii) Under-saturated rocks. They contain insufficient silica and minerals like olivine,
nepheline, leucile etc. are therefore present.

Textural classification. (Mode of formation)

It is mostly based on the cooling history of the magma and the modes of occurrence of
these rocks.
Accordingly there are (a) Plutonic (b) Hypabyssal, and (c) Volcanic rocks.

The plutonic rocks are formed under deep seated conditions, where the temperature and
pressure are very high and the rate of cooling is very slow. Hence their texture is
holocrystalline and coarse.

The hypobasal group includes the rocks of dykes, sills and small laccoliths etc., which
occupies intermediate position in the crust between the plutonic and volcanic rocks. Their
textures is ,usually merocrystalline.

The volcanic rocks on the other hand are formed on the surface ,of the e3rthand due to
rapid rate of cooling their texture becomes holohyaline and fine grained.

Simple Classification of Igneous rocks

Acid or over Intermediate Basic rocks Ultra basic

saturated rocks rocks with no with rocks with
with free Quartz free quartz (SiO2 plagioclase and olivine,
(SiO2 more than between 66% to pyroxenes pyroxene and
66%) 55%) (mainly SiO2 little or no
between 55% feldspar (SiO2
to 45%) less than 44%)

Volconic Rhyolite Trachyte Basalt Limburgite

Dacite Andesite Alkali basalt Olivine basalt
Phonolite
Hypabasal Micro Granite Micro Synite Dolerite
Pegmatite Micro Diorite
Lamprophyres
Plutonic Granite Synite Nephelene Gabbro Peridotite
Granodiorite synite Diorite Anorthosite Dunite
Picrite
Perknite

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 How To Identify The Igneous Rocks

The study rocks is based on samples of individual rocks, the samples which will be
provided in the laboratory are called, hand specimens

Geologists distinguish one type of rock from another on the basis of physical properties,
mineral composition and texture.

The following physical properties, composition and structure and texture are useful in the
identification of rocks :
(i) Colour,
(ii) Grain size,
(iii) Specific gravity (heaviness),
(iv) Hardness
(v) Compactness or looseness,
(vi) Fracture,
(vii) Reaction with HCL or water for soft rocks, Structure and texture and
(viii) Mineral composition. The field identification is based mainly on mineral
composition and texture and structure.

Igneous Rocks

According to the proportion of ferromagnesian mineral constituents (depending on depth

of colour), the igneous rocks are divided into three groups; namely
Leucocratic (mafic minerals 0-30%),
Mesocratic (mafic minerals 30-60%)
Melanocratic (mafic minerals above 60%).
The igneous ·rocks are made up of two or more of the following minerals: Quartz,
feldspar (Orthoclase and Plagioclase), mica (muscovite and biotite) hornblende, augite
and olivine.

Texture:
1. Phanerocrystalline texture.
a. Equigranular - granite, syenite, aplite etc

b. Inequigranular -dolerite, gabbro, norite, etc.

• Porphyritic - porphyritic granite, porphyritic rhyolite, porphyritic
diorite etc
Granite porphyry, Rhyolite porphyry, Andesite
porphyry etc.

2. Aphanitic
The rocks of aphanitic texture provided with closely spaced vesicles, the resulting texture
is called amygdaloidal texture or Vesicular texture

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Poikilitic

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS:

Igneous rocks are classified into three groups according to their grain size
(i) Volcanic rocks
(ii) Hypabyssal rock
(iii) Plutonic rocks
Igneous rocks are also classified on the basis of mineral and chemical composition of the
rock.
(i) Acid (ii)Intermediate (iii) Basic (iv)ultra basic rocks
The igneous rocks may be separated into two major groups
(i) MAFIC ROCKS are relatively enriched in minerals that contain iron (Fe) and
magnesium (mg) and
(ii) FELSIC ROCKS are enriched in minerals (feldspars) that contain silica (Sillica).

HOW TO DESCRIBE A IGNEOUS ROCK SPECIMEN

The given rock is a light coloured, medium to coarse grained, massive, hard, compact,
heavy, acid, plutonic igneous rock.
The rock consists of mainly quartz and feldspars as essential minerals and a few grains of
muscovite, biotite, hornblende, pyroxene minerals, iron minerals, etc. may or may not be
present.
It is a leucocratic rock. Texture Medium to coarse grained, Phanerocrystalline,
Equigranular, interlocking, Phaneritic texture. Name GRANITE .

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 CLUES TO
IGNEOUS ROCKS

COLOR LIGHT COLORED INTERMEDIATE DARK COLORED VERY DARK

Felsic COLORED Mafic COLORED
TEXTURE Ultramafic
COARSE- GRANITE: DIORITE: GABBRO: PERIDOTITE:
GRAINED Can see crystals. Usually Ca n s e e c ry s t a ls wi t h Can see crystals — lots of Composed of 90-
gray or pink. Can see somewhat more light colored flat shiny cleavage surfaces. 100% olivine
(You can see quartz - gray, glassy grains. feldspar grains than dark
different Can see feldspar - pink, colored minerals. A mix of light Usually black to greenish
minerals) buff, or white. and dark but with no quartz. Salt black. PYROXENITE:
& pepper appearance. Composed of pre-
dominately pyroxene

FINE- RHYOLITE: ANDESITE: BASALT:

GRAINED Usually gray, pink, Light to dark gray. Normally has Usually black or rust red.
AMPHIBOLITE:
Composed of pre-
(You can NOT pastel. Might see small small black crystals May have some or lots of
dominately amphiboles
clear, rectangular crystals. gas bubble holes, some
see crystals, for Sometimes banded. holes may be filled. May
(such as hornblende)
the most part) see small green grains.

OBSIDIAN: Black, red, green, GLASS

GLASSY PERLITE: Usually pearly gray. May contain Apache Tears.
PUMICE: LOTS of gas bubble holes, very lightweight, will float on water. Abrasive.

PORPHYRITIC ALL CRYSTALLINE IGNEOUS VARIETIES may exhibit porphyritic texture

(2 grain sizes)
TUFF: Compacted volcanic fragments generally less than 4mm diameter (ash)
FRAGMENTAL VOLCANIC BRECCIA: Mixed tuff and angular large (>32mm diameter) fragments
AGGLOMERATE: Mixed ash and rounded/sub-rounded large (>32mm diameter) fragments

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