TE Lab-II Manual

Objectives :- To perform constant speed load test on a single cylinder diesel engine and
Exp:- 1 to plot performance curves: indicated thermal efficiency, brake thermal efficiency,
mechanical efficiency Vs. Brake power, and heat balance sheet.
Objectives :- To estimate the Indicated Power, Friction Power and Mechanical Efficiency
Exp:- 2
of a multi-cylinder Petrol Engine. (Morse Test)
Exp:-3 Objectives :- Analysis of engine exhaust gases using Orsat apparatus / gas analyzer.
Objectives: - To study refrigeration cycle, determination of coefficient of performance of
Exp:-4
cycle and tonnage capacity of refrigeration unit.
Exp:-5 Objectives: -.To determines the COP and tonnage capacity of a Mechanical heat pump.
Exp:-6 Objectives: - To study various controls used in Refrigeration and Air conditioning system.
Exp:-7 Objectives: - Determination of dryness fraction of steam.
Exp:-8 Objectives: - Study and Performance of Simple Steam Turbine
Exp:-9 Objectives: - Performance characteristics of Pelton wheel turbine.
Exp:-10 Objectives: - Performance characteristics of Francis turbine.
Exp:-11 Objectives: - Performance characteristics of Kaplan turbine.
Exp:-12 Objectives: - Performance characteristics of variable speed centrifugal pump.

Exp:-13 Objectives: - Performance characteristics of rated speed centrifugal pump.
PROCEDURE:
1. Adjust the flow rate of water for calorimeter and Engine jacket.
2. Now adjust the flow rate of water for Hydraulic Dynamometer.
3. Start the engine: - To start the Engine start Ignition switch that turns the flywheel.
4. First, measure the speed of the engine with the Help of Tachometer (Not supplied along
with this Unit)
5. Then measure the time required for consumption of Fuel.
6. Measure the flow of cooling water from calorimeter from engine jacket with the Help of
Flow meter.
7. Then take the reading of manometer and Temp indicator.
8. Thus take all these reading by increasing load by turning the wheel fitted o n the Hydraulic
dynamometer.
9. Note Down all the readings in the Observation Table.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Specific gravity of fuel = 0.76
2. Calorific value of fuel = 44000 KJ / kg.
3. Diameter of Orifice = 32. mm.

4. Coefficient of discharge of orifice meter (Cd) = 0.80.
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5. Density of air (Pa) = 1.207 kg/m3
6. Specific heat of water = 4.2 kJ/Kg0k
7. Specific heat of exhaust gas = 1.05 KJ/kg/ 0C
8. Water ambient temp. = __________0 C
9. Air ambient temperature = __________ 0C
OBSERVATUION TABLE:
Sr.No. T1 0C T2 0C T3 0C T4 0C T5 0C T6 0C
1.BRAKE POWER:
BP=W*N
Where,
N = Engine Speed
S.No. Manometer Fuel Consumption Water Flow rate Water Flow rate Calorimeter
Difference For 10 ml Engine Jacket (kg/sec)
H1-H2 (kg/sec)
(Meters)
W = Weight of Hydraulic Dynamometer

2000 = Dynamometer Constant
2. TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION:
cc (ml)∗specific gravity
𝑇𝐹𝐶 = kg/s
time∗1000
Where: -
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Time is in Seconds
Sp Gravity of Fuel = 0.76
3. BREAK SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION:
𝑇𝐹𝐶
BSFC = ∗ 3600 kg/ kWh
𝐵𝑃
Where, TFC in kg/hr and BP in kW
4. BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY:
𝐵𝑃
BTE = ∗ 100 %
𝑇𝐹𝐶∗𝐶𝑉
Where,
BP in kW
TFC in kg/sec
CV= 42500 kJ /kg
5. AIR FUEL RATIO:

ma mass of air consumed in unit time
=
mf mass of fuel consumed in unit time
Mass of air, ma = Q x pa
Q = Cd A √2g ha
Where,
Cd = 0.80
A = area of orifice meter, m2
g = 9.81 m/s2
Dia of Orific = 32 mm
ρw∗Hw
ha = m
ρa
Hw = H1 - H2
Where,
ρw =Density of Water = 1000 kg/m3
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Hw =Manometer Reading, m
ρa =Density of Air = 1.178 kg/m3
Mass of Air Ma = Q x ρa
6. HEAT BALANCE:
(A)Total heat input

(H i/p) =TFC x C.V = ----------- kW
Where,
TFC in kg/sec
CV in kJ/kg = 42500 for Diesel
(B)Heat Carried Away by Cooling Water (In Engine Cooling Jacket)

= Heng.( in KJ/sec)
=mw x Cpg x (Tw2-Tw1)
Where,
Tw2 - Tw1 = Difference in temperature (in 0C)
mw = Cooling water flow rate (kg/sec)
Cpg = Specific heat of water 4.187 kJ/kg0C
Convert this into % by
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑔∗100
Heng. % = %
𝐻𝑖/𝑝
(C)Heat Converted to BP (HBP)
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
BP = 60
𝐵𝑃
HBP =𝐻𝑖/𝑝 ∗ 100
(D) Heat Carried Away by Exhaust Gases (kJ/sec)
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= (Heat gained by water in exhaust gas calorimeter from exhaust gases) + (Heat in exhaust gases
at exit from exhaust gas Calorimeter above Room Temperature)
=mw x Cpw x (Tw3-Tw1) + mg*Cpg*(T5-Tr)
Where,
mg = Mass of Exhaust Gases formed per minute
= Fuel Supplied/Sec. x (Air Fuel Ratio + 1)kg/sec
Cpg = Specific Heat of Exhaust Gases =1.05kJ/kg.K
(E)Heat Unaccounted = {Total Heat Input} – {Heat converted to B.P + Heat carried by exhaust
gases + Heat carried away by Cooling Water)
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before stating the engine check all the systems such as cooling , lubrication and fuel system
2. Ensure oil level is maintained in the engine up to recommended level always. Never run the
engine with insufficient oil.
3. Never run the engine with insufficient engine cooling water and exhaust gas calorimeter
cooling water.
4. For stopping the engine, load on the engine should be removed
APPLICATIONS:
1. Four stroke engines have higher fuel efficiency in comparison to two stroke engines.
2. The four stroke petrol engines are the most commonly used engines in today’s automobile
sector and vehicles, both in cases of single cylinder and multi cylinder applications.
3. Four stroke petrol engine commonly used in petrol cars, motorbikes, scooters, small
propeller aircrafts, formula one, small motor powered boats, auto-rickshaw, water spray
systems, etc.
EXPECTED OUTCOME:
The efficiency and BHP of four stroke diesel engine is ---------.
COMMENT BY STUDENT
Viva Questions:
 Define dynamometer?
 What is compression ratio of a Diesel Engine?
 What is meant by capacity of an IC engine and how does it affect the power of the engine?
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 What are the different types of a Dynamometer, explain with their application?
 What is EGR?
1 2.Overload protector :
The basic function is to protect the compressor motor winding from damage due to excessive
current, in the event of overloading or due to some fault in the electric circuit. It consists
of a bi-metallic strip. During the normal working of the compressor, the contacts are
closed. Whenever there is any abnormal behavior, the bimetallic strip gets heated and
bands, thereby opening the motor contacts and de-energizing it. The overload protector is
fitted on the body of the compressor and operates due to the combined action of heat
produced when current passes through the bimetallic strip and a heater element and heat
transferred from the compressor body. It may be noted that the abnormal behavior of
compressor may be due to low voltage, high voltage, high load, low suction pressure, high
suction & discharge pressure.
3.Thermostat: -
A thermostat is used to control the temperature in the refrigeration. The bulb of the thermostat is
clamped to the evaporator or Freezer. The thermostat bulb is charged with few drops of
refrigerant. The thermostat can be set to maintain different temperature at a time.
When the desired temperature is obtained, the bulb of the thermostat senses it; the liquid in it
compresses and operates the bellows of the thermostat and open compressor motor
contacts. The temperature at which motor stops is called cut-out temperature. When the
temperature increases, the liquid in the bulb expands thereby closing the bellow contact
of the compressor motor. The temperature, at which compressor motor starts, is called
cut-in temperature. A thermostat is very crucial in operation of refrigerator as the running
time of compressor is reduced considerably thereby cutting the operation cost as well as
enhancing the compressor life due to non-continuous working.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not install the appliance if it is connected to the power supply.
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2. The Installation and service/repair must be performed by a qualified
technician, in compliance with the producer's instructions and following
local safety norms. Do not repair or replace any parts of the appliance unless
it is specifically written in the user instructions.
3. The grounding of this appliance is compulsory.
4. Make sure that the power supply cord is long enough to allow the right
connection. Do not use any extension cord for power supply.
5. Do not pull the power supply cord to remove it from the socket.
6. Do not twist or press the power supply cord, and make sure it is not broken.
7. Once installation is completed, the electric components must not be
accessible to the users.
8. Do not touch the operation buttons when your hands are wet and don't use
the appliance when you are barefoot.
9. Physically or mentally disabled people, children and people without any
experience with the product are only allowed to use the appliance if they
have had specific training on how to operate the appliance by a person
responsible for their security and well-being.
10. The appliance is not intended for use by disabled people and very young
children without supervision.
APPLICATIONS:
1. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to: household refrigerators,
industrial freezers, cryogenics, and air conditioning.
2. Heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be
designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units.
EXPECTED OUTCOME:
COMMENT BY STUDENT
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Viva Questions: -
1. Describe the functioning of various controls in a refrigerator?
2. What is Thermostat?
3. What is overload protector?
4. What is starting relay?
5. What is the Function of overload protector?
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EXPERIMENT NO. 7
OBJECT:
The objective of this experiment is to study the determination of the dryness fraction of wet
steam by using:
1. Tank Calorimeter
2. Separating Calorimeter
3. Throttling Calorimeter
4. Separating and Throttling Calorimeter
THEORY:
Tank Calorimeter:
The dryness fraction of steam can be found with the help of a tank calorimeter. A
known mass of steam is passed through a known mass of water and steam is completely
condensed. The heat lost by steam is equal to heat gained by the water.
Figure 1: Tank Calorimeter
The arrangement of this calorimeter is shown in figure. The steam is passed through the
sample tube into the bucket calorimeter containing a known mass of water. The weight of calorimeter
with water before mixing the steam and after mixing the steam is obtained by weighing. The
temperature of water before and after mixing the steam is measured by mercury thermometer. The
pressure of steam passed through the sample tube is measured with the help of pressure gauge.
ps= Gauge pressure of steam (kPa)

pa= Atmospheric pressure (kPa)
Dryness Fraction Page 9

Ts= Saturation temperature of steam known from the steam table at pressure (Ps+Pa)
hfg= latent heat of steam
x= dryness fraction of steam
cpw= Specific heat of water, kJ/kg.K
cps= Specific heat of calorimeter, kJ/kg.K
mc= mass of calorimeter, kg
mcw= mass of calorimeter and water, kg
mw= (mcw-mc)= mass of water in calorimeter, kg
mcws= mass of calorimeter, water and condensed steam, kg
ms= (mcws-mcw)= mass of steam condensed in calorimeter, kg
Tcw= Temperature of water and calorimeter before mixing the steam in oC
Tcws= Temperature of water and calorimeter after mixing the steam in oC
Neglecting the losses and assuming the heat lost by steam is gained by the water and calorimeter, we
can write
(mcws-mcw)[x*hfg+cpw(Ts-Tws)] =(mcw-mc)*cpw*(Tcws-Tcw)+mc*cpc*(Tcws-Tcw)
Hence,
ms*[x*hfg + cpw* (Ts-Tcws)] = (Tcws-Tcw)(mcw-mc)(cpw+mccpc)
ms*[x*hfg + cpw* (Ts-Tcws)] = (Tcws-Tcw)(mw*cpw+mc*cpc)
The mccpc is known as water equivalent of calorimeter.
The value of dryness fraction, x, can be found out by solving above equation.
Where cpw and cpc are the specific heats of water and calorimeter respectively.
NOTE:-As the losses due to convection and radiation are not taken into account, thedryness fraction
determined involves some inaccuracy. The calculated value of dryness fraction neglecting losses is
always less than the actual value of the dryness.
Separating Calorimeter:
The quality of wet steam is usually defined by its dryness fraction. When the dryness
fraction, pressure and temperature of the steam are known, then the state of wet steam is fully defined.
In a steam plant it is at times necessary to know the state of the steam. For wet steam, this entails finding
the dryness fraction. When the steam is very wet, we make use of a separating calorimeter. Construction
of separating calorimeter is as shown in figure:

Figure 2: SeparatingCalorimeter
The steam is collected out of the main steam supply and enters the separator from the top.
The steam is forced to make a sharp turn when it hits the perforated cup (or any other mechanism that
produces the same effect). This results in a vortex motion in the steam, and water separates out by the
centrifugal action. The droplets then remain inside the separator and are collected at the bottom, where
the level can be recorded from the water glass. The dry steam will pass out of the calorimeter into a
small condenser for the collection of the condensate. However, not all the water droplets remain in the
collector tank. Some water droplets pass through to the condenser, and hence this calorimeter only gives
a close approximation of the dryness fraction of the steam.
From the results obtained from the two collectors, the dryness fraction may then be found from:
Dryness fraction= mass of dry steam/mass of wet steam containing dry steam
This can be expressed as:
X= M/(m+M)
Where,
M is the mass of dry steam and
m is the mass of suspended water separated in the calorimeter in the same time.
NOTE:-
In practice, it is not possible to remove all the water particles from the steam by this
mechanical process and, therefore, the dryness fraction obtained by this calorimeter will not be very
accurate. The dryness fraction calculated by this method is always greater than the actual. The only
advantage of this method is the quick determination of the dryness fraction of a very wet steam.
Throttling Calorimeter:
If we have steam that is nearly dry, we make use of a throttling calorimeter as shown in
figure. This calorimeter is operated by first opening the stop valve fully so that the steam is not partially

throttled as it passes through the apparatus for a while to allow the pressure and temperature to stabilize.
If the pressure is very close to atmospheric pressure, the saturation should be around 100°C, it may be
assumed that the steam is superheated.
When the conditions have become steady, the gauge pressure before throttling is read from
the pressure gauge. After throttling, the temperature and gauge pressure are read from the thermometer
and manometer respectively. The barometric pressure is also recorded.
From equation h1=h2,
Figure 3: Throttling calorimeter
NOTE:
The condition for the successful operation of this calorimeter is that the steam must be
superheated after throttling. This condition requires a high dryness fraction of the steam before
throttling. This calorimeter cannot be used if the dryness fraction of the steam is above 0.95. The
minimum dryness fraction of the steam that can be measured by throttling calorimeter depends upon
the initial pressure of the steam as the pressure after throttling virtually remains near atmospheric.
Separating and Throttling Calorimeter:
If the steam whose dryness fraction is to be determined is very wet then throttling to
atmospheric pressure may not be sufficient to ensure superheated steam at exit. In this case it is
necessary to dry the steam partially, before throttling. This is done by passing the steam sample from
the main through a separating calorimeter as shown in figure. The steam is made to change direction
suddenly, and the water, being denser than the dry steam is separated out. The quantity of water which

is separated out (mw) is measured at the separator, the steam remaining which now has a higher dryness
fraction, is passed through the throttling calorimeter. With the combined separating and throttling
calorimeter it is necessary to condense the steam after throttling and measure the amount of condensate
(ms). If a throttling calorimeter only is sufficient, there is no need to measure condensate, the pressure
and temperature measurements at exit being sufficient.
Figure 4: Schematic diagram for the separating and throttling Calorimeters

Let,
State 1 = Properties of steam Coming to Separating Calorimeter
State 2 = Properties of steam leaving Separating Calorimeter
State 3 = Properties of steam leaving Throttling Calorimeter
X1= Dryness fraction of the steam at Separating Calorimeter
X2= Dryness fraction of the steam at Throttling Calorimeter
Dryness fraction at 2 is X2, therefore, the mass of dry steam leaving the separating
calorimeter is equal toX2ms and this must be the mass of dry vapour in the sample drawn from the
main at state 1.
Hence fraction in main,
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒇𝒅𝒓𝒚𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒓
x1= 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒎𝐬
x1 = (𝒎𝒘+𝒎𝒔)

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ensure that the heating element is covered with water to avoid any loss of heat
energy.
2. Ensure that the calorimeter is well insulated to avoid loss of heat energy.
3. Use a sensitive thermometer.
4. Ensure that the room temperature is midway between the initial and temperatures of
water.
APPLICATIONS:
A calorimeter is an instrument used in calorimetry for measuring the amount of heat released
or absorbed in chemical or physical reactions.
It can determine heat content, latent heat, specific heat, and other thermal properties of
substances
EXPECTED OUTSCOME:
Hence we studied different calorimeters for determination of dryness fraction
of steam.
COMMENT FROM STUDENTS:
Viva Questions:
 What is dryness fraction?
 Why superheating is done?
 Why the expansion process is chosen isenthalpic?
 Why compression of wet steam is avoided?
 What is the difference between VCRC and Joule cycle?

EXPERIMENTNO.8
OBJECT:
Study of Simple Steam Turbine.
THEORY:
A STEAM TURBINE is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized
steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was
invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884.
Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an
electrical generator – about 90% of all electricity generation in the United States is by use of steam
turbines.The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in
thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which
results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process.
HISTORY:
The first device that may be classified as a reaction steam turbine was little more
than a toy, the classic Aeolipile, described in the 1st century by Greek mathematician Hero of
Alexandria in Roman Egypt. In 1551, Taqi-al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine
with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were also described by the Italian
Giovanni Branca (1629) and John Wilkins in England (1648). The devices described by al-Din
and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks.
The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by the Anglo-IrishengineerSir

Charles Parsons, whose first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of
electricity.[8] The invention of Parson's steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible
and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. His patent was licensed and the turbine
scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned
out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all
major world power stations, and the size of generators had increased from his first 7.5 kW set up
to units of 50,000 kW capacity. Within Parson's lifetime the generating capacity of a unit was
scaled up by about 10,000 times, and the total output from turbo-generators constructed by his
firm C. A. Parsons and Company and by their licensees, for land purposes alone, had exceeded
thirty million horse-power.
A number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively
with steam. The de Laval turbine (invented by Gustaf de Laval) accelerated the steam to full speed
before running it against a turbine blade. Hence the (impulse) turbine is simpler, less expensive
and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is
considerably less efficient.
Simple Steam Turbine Page 15

TYPES:
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small <0.75 kW (1< hp)
units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment,
to 1,500,000 kW(2,000,000 hp) turbines used to generate electricity. There are several
classifications for modern steam turbines. These types include condensing, non-condensing,
reheat, extraction and induction.
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These
turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure
well below atmospheric to a condenser.
Non-condensing or back pressure turbines are most widely used for process steam
applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the
process steam pressure. These are commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and
paper plants, and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are
available.
Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a
reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the
boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure
section of the turbine and continues its expansion.
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type

turbine, steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs
or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be
controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce

additional power.


Casing or shaft arrangements

These arrangements include single casing, tandem compound and cross compound
turbines. Single casing units are the most basic style where a single casing and shaft are coupled
to a generator. Tandem compound are used where two or more casings are directly coupled
together to drive a single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement features two or more
shafts not in line driving two or more generators that often operate at different speeds. A cross
compound turbine is typically used for many large applications.
Two-flow rotors A two-flow turbine rotor. The steam enters in the middle of the shaft, and exits
at each end, balancing the axial force.
The moving steam imparts both a tangential and axial thrust on the turbine shaft, but
the axial thrust in a simple turbine is unopposed. To maintain the correct rotor position and
balancing, this force must be counteracted by an opposing force. Either thrust bearings can be
used for the shaft bearings, or the rotor can be designed so that the steam enters in the middle of
the shaft and exits at both ends. The blades in each half face opposite ways, so that the axial forces
negate each other but the tangential forces act together. This design of rotor is called two-flow or
double-exhaust. This arrangement is common in low-pressure casings of a compound turbine.
Principle of operation and design An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic

process, or constant entropy process, in which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is
equal to the entropy of the steam leaving the turbine. No steam turbine is truly isentropic, however,
with typical isentropic efficiencies ranging from 20–90% based on the application of the turbine.

The interior of a turbine comprises several sets of blades, or buckets as they are more commonly
referred to. One set of stationary blades is connected to the casing and one set of rotating blades
is connected to the shaft. The sets intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and
configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage.
To maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, doing work, in a number of stages. These
stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as either impulse
or reaction turbines. Most steam turbines use a mixture of the reaction and impulse designs: each
stage behaves as either one or the other, but the overall turbine uses both. Typically, higher
pressure sections are impulse type and lower pressure stages are reaction type.
IMPULSE TURBINES:
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed jets.
These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets, convert
into shaft rotation as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the
stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows
through the nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure,
or more usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this higher ratio of expansion of steam in the
nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades
has a large portion of the maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of
energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly called the carry over velocity or leaving loss.
REACTION TURBINES:
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent
nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam accelerates
through the nozzles formed by the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the
stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then
changes direction and increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop
occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator and
decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across the stage but with a
decrease in both pressure and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the
rotor.

Schematic diagram outlining the difference between an impulse and a 50% reaction turbine
Operation and maintenance When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main steam stop
valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve
and proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also, a turning gear
is engaged when there is no steam to the turbine to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure even heating
to prevent uneven expansion. After first rotating the turbine by the turning gear, allowing time for
the rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing), then the turning gear is disengaged and steam is
admitted to the turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the
turbine at 10–15 RPM (0.17–0.25 Hz) to slowly warm the turbine.
Speed regulation The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run
up slowly, to prevent damage while some applications (such as the generation of alternating
current electricity) require precise speed control. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor
can lead to an over speed trip, which causes the nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to the
turbine to close. If this fails then the turbine may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often
spectacularly. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring precision manufacture and special
quality materials.During normal operation in synchronization with the electricity network, power
plants are governed with a five percent droop speed control. This means the full load speed is
100% and the no-load speed is 105%. This is required for the stable operation of the network

without hunting and drop-outs of power plants. Normally the changes in speed are minor.
Adjustments in power output are made by slowly raising the droop curve by increasing the spring
pressure on a centrifugal governor. Generally this is a basic system requirement for all power
plants because the older and newer plants have to be compatible in response to the instantaneous
changes in frequency without depending on outside communication.
Thermodynamics of steam turbines
Rankine cycle with superheat
Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure.
Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by an
external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor.
Process 3-3': The vapour is superheated.
Process 3-4 and 3'-4': The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power.
This decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some condensation may occur.
Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant pressure
to become a saturated liquid.
The steam turbine operates on basic principles of thermodynamics using the part of
the Rankine cycle. Superheated vapor (or dry saturated vapor, depending on application) enters
the turbine, after it having exited the boiler, at high temperature and high pressure. The high
heat/pressure steam is converted into kinetic energy using a nozzle (a fixed nozzle in an impulse
type turbine or the fixed blades in a reaction type turbine). Once the steam has exited the nozzle
it is moving at high velocity and is sent to the blades of the turbine. A force is created on the
blades due to the pressure of the vapor on the blades causing them to move. A generator or other
such device can be placed on the shaft, and the energy that was in the vapor can now be stored
and used. The gas exits the turbine as a saturated vapor (or liquid-vapor mix depending on
application) at a lower temperature and pressure than it entered with and is sent to the condenser
to be cooled.[14] If we look at the first law we can find an equation comparing the rate at which
work is developed per unit mass. Assuming there is no heat transfer to the surrounding

environment and that the change in kinetic and potential energy is negligible when compared to
the change in specific enthalpy we come up with the following equation
Where Ẇ is the rate at which work is developed per unit time

ṁ is the rate of mass flow through the turbine
Isentropic turbine efficiency To measure how well a turbine is performing we can look at its
isentropic efficiency. This compares the actual performance of the turbine with the performance
that would be achieved by an ideal, isentropic, turbine. When calculating this efficiency, heat lost
to the surroundings is assumed to be zero. The starting pressure and temperature is the same for
both the actual and the ideal turbines, but at turbine exit the energy content ('specific enthalpy')
for the actual turbine is greater than that for the ideal turbine because of irreversibility in the actual
turbine. The specific enthalpy is evaluated at the same pressure for the actual and ideal turbines
in order to give a good comparison between the two.The isentropic efficiency is found by dividing
the actual work by the ideal work.
Where,
 h1 is the specific enthalpy at state one

 h2 is the specific enthalpy at state two for the actual turbine
 h2s is the specific enthalpy at state two for the isentropic turbine
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check that all the pipes are supported properly during blow down.
2. No one should move around the blowing area.
3. Necessary safety precautions must be taken such as fencing of the area and providing
ear protection against the inevitable noise generated during blow down process.
APPLICATIONS:
They are used in nuclear & thermal powerplants where water is heated to form steam
& then flowed through turbines to produce electricity.
EXPECTED OUTSCOME:

Viva Questions:
 What is the difference between gas turbine and steam turbine?
 What is the difference between Impulse turbine and Impulse-Reaction turbine?
 What are the applications of Impulse turbine?
 What are the applications of Impulse-Reaction turbine?
 What is compounding of a turbine?
 What are the types of compounding?

EXPERIMENT NO.9
OBJECT:
To conduct performance test on the given Pelton wheel turbine.
APPARATUS:
Pelton wheel turbine test rig.
INTRODUCTION:
The Closed circuit self-sufficient portal package system Pelton Turbine is of
improved version. This system has several advantages, like does not require foundation; trench
work etc. so that the experiments can be conducted with the unit soon after arrival of the
equipment and it can be placed anywhere in the laboratory.
The Pelton wheel Turbine Test Rig is supplied as a complete set to conduct
experiments on model Pelton Turbine Test Rig in Engineering Colleges and Technical
Institutions. It has been specially designed to conduct experiments in S.I units.
The test rig mainly consists of
1. A Pelton Turbine,
2. A Supply pump unit to supply water to the above Pelton Turbine,
3. Flow Measuring unit consisting of An Orificemeter,
4. Piping system and
5. Sump.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
The unit essentially consists of casing, with a circular transparent window kept at the
front for the visual inspection of the impact of the Jet on buckets. a bearing pedestal, a rotor
assembly of shaft, Runner & brake drum, all mounted on a suitable sturdy iron base plate, A rope
brake arrangement is provided to load the turbine. The input to the turbine can be controlled by
adjusting the spear position by means of a hand wheel fitted. The water inlet pressure is measured
by a pressure gauge and for the measurement of speed a digital tachometer is used.
An Optimum size sump is provided to store sufficient water from independent
circulation through the unit for experimentation.
CONSTRUCTIONAL SPECIFICATIONS:
CASING: made of iron and having a large circular transparent Window.

RUNNERS: made of electroplated MS disc fitted with accurately finished electroplated buckets.
SHAFT: madeof Stainless steel for rust free operation and for high strength.
NOZZLE: designed for smooth flow and efficient operation.
SPEAR: of stainless steel designed for efficient operation.
BALL BEARINGS: of double row deep groove rigid type in the casing and double row self
aligning type in the pedestal both of liberal size.
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:
Pelton Wheel Turbine Page 23

PELTON TURBINE:
1. Power output : 1 K Watt
2. No. of Buckets : 17Nos.
SUPPLY PUMPSET:
Capacity : 5 HP
Type : Centrifugal
FLOW MEASURING UNIT : Orifice meter
BEFORE COMMISSIONING:
1. Check whether all the joints are perfectly matched.

2. Check whether all the electric connection is correct.
3. See that the gauges are mounted on the correct position and their cocks are closed.
STARTING UP:
Pour adequate water in the sump. Make sure before starting that the pipe lines are
free from foreign matter. Also note whether all the joints are water tight and perfectly matched.
Prime the pump and start it with closed gate valve. Then slowly open the gate valve situated above
the turbine and open the cock fitted to the pressure gauge and so that the pump develops the rated
head. If the pump develops the required head, slowly open the turbine spear by rotating the hand
wheel until the turbine attains the normal rated speed (1000 RPM). Run the turbine at the normal
speed for about 10 minutes and carefully note the following:
1. Operation of the bearings, temperature rise, noise etc.

2. Vibration of the unit.
3. Steady constant speed and speed fluctuations if any.
In addition to this, on the sump side note the operation of the stuffing box. (The
stuffing box should show an occasional drip of water. If the gland is over tightened, the leakage
stops but the packing will heat up burn and damage the shaft.) .If the operation of the above parts
is normal, load the turbine slowly and take readings. Open the water inlet valve and allow some
cooling water through the brake drum when the turbine runs under load, so that the heat generated
by the brake drum is carried away by the cooling water.Do not suddenly load the turbine, load the
turbine gradually and at the same time open the spear to run the turbine at normal speed.
EXPERIMENT:
Water turbines are tested in the hydraulic laboratory to demonstrate the principles of
water turbines, to study their construction, and to give the students a clear knowledge about the
different types of turbines and their characteristics. Turbines shall be first tested at constant net
supply head by varying the load, speed and spear setting. However the net supply head on the
turbines tested in which case the power developed by the turbine and the best efficiently speed
will also be reduced. The output power from the turbine is calculated from the readings taken on
the brake and the speed of the shaft. The input power supplied to the turbine is calculated from

the net supply head on the turbine and discharge through the turbine. Efficiency of the turbine
being the ratio between the output and input and can be determined from these two readings. The
discharge is measured by the 50mm Venturi meter and with the Pressure Gauges. Supply Head is
measured with the help of the pressure gauge. The speed of the turbine is measured with digital
tachometer fitted to the turbine. After starting and running the turbine at normal speed for some
time, load the turbine and take readings.
Note the following:
1. Net supply head (pressure gauge reading + height of the gauge center above the
center line of the jet).
2. Discharge (Pressure Gauges readings)
3. Turbine shaft speed.
4. Alternator readings
For any particular setting of the spear first run the turbine at light load and then
gradually load it. The net supply head on the turbine shall be maintained constant at the rated
value and this can be done by adjusting the gate valve fitted just above the turbine.
SHUT DOWN:
Before switching off the supply pump set, first remove the load on the brake down.
Close the cooling inlet water Jet valve. Slowly close the spear to its full closed position. Then
close the gate valve just above the turbine. Pressure Gauge cocks and Venturimeter cocks should
be closed in order to isolate the pump set when the turbine is working under load. If the electric
line trips off when the turbine is working first unload the turbine, close all the valves and cocks.
Start the electric motor against, when the line gets the power and then operate the turbine by
opening the valve in the order said above.
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the supply water pump-water unit to 3ph, 440V, 30A, electrical supply, with neutral
and earth connections and ensure the correct direction of the pump motor unit.
2) Keep the Gate Valve and Sphere valve closed.
3) Keep the Brake Drum loading at zero.
4) Press the green button of the supply pump starter. Now the pump picks-
Up the full speed and becomes operational.
5) Slowly open the Sphere Valve so that the turbine rotor picks the speed and conduct experiment
on constant speed.
6) Note down the speed, load, and pressure gauge readings.
Tabulate the readings.
IMPORTANT FORMULA:
Discharge Q = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)


𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 * √2𝑔ℎ ∗ (𝜌𝑚 − 1)
𝑤
𝜔 𝑄𝐻
Input Power = 𝑘𝑊
1000
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Output Power = 60∗1000 𝑘𝑊
N = RPM of the turbine shaft

T= Torque of the turbine shaft
T= (W1-W2) x R x 9.81
W = Load applied on the turbine.
R = Radius of the brake drum with rope in meters = 0.12 meters
𝐼𝑁𝑃𝑈𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅
Efficiency =𝑂𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑈𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅 X 100
TABLE:
S. speed Pressure Gauges Readings Discharge Break wt Input Outpu Efficiency

No m³/sec t
P1 P2 P1 - P2 W1-W2 Power
. Power
1
2
3
4
5
CALCULATION:
PRECAUTIONS:
3. Necessary safety precautions must be taken such as fencing of the
area and providing ear protection against the inevitable noise
generated during blow down process.
APPLICATIONS:

EXPECTED OUTSCOME:
Viva Questions:
 Draw the velocity triangle diagram for Pelton turbine?
 What is casing of the Pelton turbine?
 Explain different types of Casing?
 What is draft tube?
 Why draft tube is not used in Pelton turbine?

EXPERIMENT NO.10
OBJECT:
To conduct performance test on the given Francis turbine.
APPARATUS:
Francis turbine test rig.
INTRODUCTION:
THEORY:
Reaction Turbine:-In this type of turbine the reis a gradual pressure drop and takes
place continuously over the fixed and moving blades or over guide vanes and moving vanes. The
function of the guides’ vanes is that they alter the direction of water as well as increases its
velocity. As the water passes over the moving vanes its kinetic energy is absorbed by them.
FRANCIS TURBINE:
The inward flower action turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as
Francis turbine, after the name of J.B Francis an American engineer hoin beginning designed in
ward radial flow reaction turbine. In the modern Francis turbine, the water enters the runner of
the turbine in the radial direction and leave sin the axial direction at the outlet of the runner. Thus
the modern Francis turbine is a mixed flow type Turbine.
The Francis Turbine Test Rig is supplied as a complete set to conduct experiments on model
Francis Turbine Test Rig in Engineering Colleges and Technical Institutions. It has been specially
designed to conduct experiments in S.I units.
The test rig mainly consists of
1) A Francis Turbine, 2)
2) A Supply pump unit to supply water to the above Pelton Turbine,
3) Flow Measuring unit consisting of an Orifice Meter and Pressure Gauges,
4) Piping system and
5) Sump.
The unit essentially consists of casing, a bearing pedestal, a rotor assembly of shaft, Runner
& brake drum, all mounted on a suitable sturdy iron base plate, A rope brake arrangement is
provided to load the turbine. The input to the turbine can be controlled by adjusting the valve. The
water inlet pressure is measured by a pressure gauge and for the measurement of speed a digital
tachometer is used. An Optimum size sump is provided to store sufficient water from independent
The main parts of the Francis turbine are:
Francis Turbine Page 28

1. Penstock
2. Casing
3. Guide mechanism
4. Runner
5. Draft tube
1. Penstock: - It is a long pipe at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted. The water from reservoir
flows through the penstock. The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of water flowing through the
penstock.
2. Casing: - In case of reaction turbine, casing and runner are always full of water. The water
from the penstocks enter the casing which is of spiral shape in which area of cross-section of the
casing goes on decreasing gradually. The casing completely surrounds the runner of the turbine.
The casing is made of spiral shape, so that the water may enter the runner at constant velocity
throughout the circumference of the runner. The casing is made of concrete or cast steel.
3. Guide Mechanism: - It consists of a stationary circular wheel all around the runner of the
turbine. The stationary guide vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide vanes allow the
water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shake at inlet. Also by a suitable arrangement,
the width between two adjacent vanes of a guide’s mechanism can be altered so that the amount
of water striking the runner can vary.
4. Runner: - It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed. The surface
of the vanes is made very smooth. The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters
and leaves the runner without shock. The runners are made of cast steel, cast iron or stainless steel.
They are keyed to the shaft.
5. Draft tube: - The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than
atmosphere pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or
pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the
tail race. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube. The draft tube, in addition to serve a
passage for water discharge, has the following two purposes also.
1. The turbine may be placed above the tail race and hence turbine may be inspected properly.
2. The kinetic energy rejected at the outlet of the turbine is converted into useful pressure energy.
1. Type –Reaction Turbine
2. Type of flow – Mixed (Redial & Axial)
3. Head –Medium 45 to 250m
4. Specific speed – Medium 50 to 250
5. Shaft position – Mainly vertical ( it may be horizontal also )
6. Discharge – Medium

FRANCIS TURBINE:
1. Power output : 1 K Watt

2. No. of GUIDE VANES : 10 Nos.
SUPPLY PUMPSET:
Capacity : 5 HP
Type : Centrifugal
FLOW MEASURING UNIT: ORIFIECE METER

STARTING UP:
1. Operation of the bearings, temperature rise, noise etc.,
In addition to this, on the sump side note the operation of the stuffing box. (The stuffing box
should show an occasional drip of water. If the gland is over tightened, the leakage stops but the
packing will heat up burn and damage the shaft.) .If the operation of the above parts is normal,
load the turbine slowly and take readings. Open the water inlet valve and allow some cooling
water through the brake drum when the turbine runs under load, so that the heat generated by the
brake drum is carried away by the cooling water. Do not suddenly load the turbine, load the turbine
gradually and at the same time open the spear to run the turbine at normal speed.
EXPERIMENTS:
Water turbines are tested in the hydraulic laboratory to demonstrate the principles of water
turbines, to study their construction, and to give the students a clear knowledge about the different
types of turbines and their characteristics. Turbines shall be first tested at constant net supply head
by varying the load, speed and spear setting. However the net supply head on the turbines tested
in which case the power developed by the turbine and the best efficiently speed will also be
reduced. The output power from the turbine is calculated from the readings taken on the brake
and the speed of the shaft. The input power supplied to the turbine is calculated from the net
supply head on the turbine and discharge through the turbine. Efficiency of the turbine being the

ratio between the output and input and can be determined from these two readings. The discharge
is measured by the orifice meter and with the Pressure Gauges. Supply Head is measured with the
help of the pressure gauge. The speed of the turbine is measured with digital tachometer fitted to
the turbine. After starting and running the turbine at normal speed for the some-time, load the
turbine and take readings.
Note the following:
a) Net supply head (pressure gauge reading + height of the gauge center above the centerline
of the jet).
b) Discharge (Pressure Gauges readings)
c) Turbine shaft speed.
d) Alternator readings
For any particular setting of the spear first run the turbine at light load and then gradually load
it. The net supply head on the turbine shall be maintained constant at the rated value and this can
be done by adjusting the gate valve fitted just above the turbine.
GOVERNINGMECHANISM:
The governing mechanism changes the position of guide blades to affect a variation in the water
flow rate in the wake of changing load condition of the turbine. When the load changes, the
governing mechanism rotates all guide blades about their ax is through the same angle so that the
water flow rate to the runner and its direction essentially remain the same at the all passages
between any two consecutive guide vans. The penstock pipe feeding the turbine is often fitted
with a life valve, also known as the pressure regulator. When guide vanes are suddenly closed,
the relief valve opens and diverts the water direct to tail race. The simultaneous operation of
guide vanes and relief valve is termed as double regulation.
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the supply water pump-water unit to 3ph, 440V, 30A, electrical supply, with neutral
2) Keep the Gate Valve and Sphere valve closed.
3) Keep the Brake Drum loading at zero.
4) Press the green button of the supply pump starter. Now the pump picks- up the full speed and
become operational.
5) Slowly open the Sphere Valve so that the turbine rotor picks the speed and conduct experiment
on constant speed.
6) Note down the speed, load and pressure gauge readings.Tabulate the readings.
IMPORTANT FORMULA:
Discharge Q = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)

𝑉 = 𝐶𝑣 * √2𝑔ℎ ∗ (𝜌𝑚 − 1)
𝑤

𝜔 𝑄𝐻
Input Power = 𝑘𝑊
1000
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Output Power = 60∗1000 𝑘𝑊
N = RPM of the turbine shaft

T= Torque of the turbine shaft
T= (W1-W2) x R x 9.81
W = Load applied on the turbine.
R = Radius of the brake drum with rope in meters = 0.12 meters
𝑂𝑈𝑇𝑃𝑈𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅
Efficiency = X 100
𝐼𝑁𝑃𝑈𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑊𝐸𝑅
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. Speed Supply Pressure Discharge WEIGHTS Input Output Efficiency

No. Gauges m³/sec Power
Head Power
Readings
W1 W2
P1
CALCULATION:
PRECAUTIONS:
3. Necessary safety precautions must be taken such as fencing of the area
and providing ear protection against the inevitable noise generated during
blow down process.
APPLICATIONS:

EXPECTED OUTSCOME:
Viva Questions:
 Define Degree of Reaction?
 Write down the formula for the efficiency of Pelton turbine?
 Write down the formula for the efficiency of Francis turbine?
 What is the role of Draft tube in Francis turbine?
 What is 50% Reaction turbine?
 What is Hero’s turbine?
Schematic diagram of a Francis turbine

EXPERIMENT NO.11
OBJECT:
To conduct performance test on the given Kaplan turbine.
APPARATUS:
Kaplan turbine test rig.
INTRODUCTION:
THEORY:
Axial flow Turbine:
1. Kaplan Turbine (Adjustable blades)
2. Propeller (Blades are fixed)
KAPLAN TURBINE:
Kaplan Reaction turbines are axial flow turbines in which the flow is parallel to the axis of
the shaft. They are low head, high discharge turbine. In this water turn at right angles between
the guide vanes, runner & then flow parallel to the shaft. It is inward flow reaction turbine. The
flow was along the radius from periphery to the center of the runner. (From outer diameter to the
inner diameter of the runner). It is capable of giving high efficiency at overloads (upto15-20%),
at normal loads (upto94%). The runner of this turbine is in the form of boss or hub which extends
in a bigger dia. Casing with proper adjustment of blades during running. The blade angles should
be properly adjusted so that water enters & flow through the runner blades without shock.
The KAPLAN Turbine Test Rig is supplied as a complete set to conduct experiments on model
Francis Turbine Test Rig in Engineering Colleges and Technical Institutions. It has been specially
designed to conduct experiments in S.I units. The test rig mainly consists of 1) A Turbine, 2) A
Supply pump unit to supply water to the above Pelton Turbine, 3) Flow Measuring unit consisting
of a Orifice Meter and Pressure Gauges, 4) Piping system and (5) Sump.
The unit essentially consists of casing, a bearing pedestal, a rotor assembly of shaft, Runner &
brake drum, all mounted on a suitable sturdy iron base plate, A rope brake arrangement is provided
to load the turbine. The input to the turbine can be controlled by adjusting the valve. The water
inlet pressure is measured by a pressure gauge and for the measurement of speed a digital
tachometer is used. An Optimum size sump is provided to store sufficient water from independent
1. PENSTOCK
Kaplan Turbine Page 34

2. SPIRAL OR SCROLL CASING
3. GUIDE MECHANISM
4. RUNNER
5. DRAFTTUBE
Penstock: It is the water way used to carry the water from the reservoir to the turbine. At
the inlet of the penstock trash cracks are used to prevent the debris from going into the
turbine.
Spiral or Scroll casing: In case of reaction turbine casing and runner are always full of
water. The water from the penstock enters the casing which is of spiral shape in which area
of cross-section of the casing goes on decreasing gradually. The casing completely
surrounds the runner of the turbine. The casing is made of spiral shape, so that the water
may enter the runner at constant velocity throughout the circumference of the runner.
Guide Mechanism: It consists of a stationary circular wheel all around the runner of the
turbine. The stationary guide vanes are fixed on the guide mechanism. The guide vanes
allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shock at inlet. Also by a
suitable arrangement, the width between two adjacent vanes of a guide mechanism can be
altered so that the amount of water striking the runner can be varied. A space, called whirl
Chamber, is provided between the guide vanes and the runner. In this chamber, the flow
turns by 90° & move as a free vortex i.e. without the aid of any external torque. The radial
component changes into axial component due to the guidance from the fixed housing.
Runner: It is a circular wheel, also called ‘hub’ or ‘bass’ on which a series of radial curved
vanes are fixed. The surface of the vanes is made very smooth. The radial curved vanes are
so shaped that water enters and leaves the runner without shock. The runners are made of
cast steel, cast iron or stainless steel. In Kaplan turbine, the shaft is the extended part of
runner with smaller diameter.
Drafttube: The pressure at the exit of an axial turbine is generally less than atmospheric
pressure. The water at exit can’t be directly discharged to the tailrace. A tube or pipe of
gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the
tailrace. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube.
 Type – Reaction turbine
 Type of flow – Axial
 Head – Low (below 40 m)
 Number of blades on runner – 3 or 4 (max. 6)
 Specific speed – High - 250 to 850
 Discharge – High
KAPLAN TURBINE:

POWER OUTPUT: 1.0 HP
SUPPLY PUMP SET:
Capacity : 7.5 HP
Type : Centrifugal high speed
FLOW MEASURING UNIT: Orifice meter

STARTING UP:
1. Operation of the bearings, temperature rise, noise etc.

In addition to this, on the sump side note the operation of the stuffing box. (The
stuffing box should show an occasional drip of water. If the gland is over tightened, the leakage
stops but the packing will heat up burn and damage the shaft.) .If the operation of the above parts
is normal, load the turbine slowly and take readings. Open the water inlet valve and allow some
cooling water through the brake drum when the turbine runs under load, so that the heat generated
by the brake drum is carried away by the cooling water. Do not suddenly load the turbine, load
the turbine gradually and at the same time open the spear to run the turbine at normal speed.
EXPERIMENTS:
Water turbines are tested in the hydraulic laboratory to demonstrate the principles of
water turbines, to study their construction, and to give the students a clear knowledge about the
different types of turbines and their characteristics. Turbines shall be first tested at constant net
supply head by varying the load. However the net supply head on the turbines tested in which
case the power developed by the turbine and the best efficiently speed will also be reduced. The
output power from the turbine is calculated from the readings taken on the brake and the speed of
the shaft. The input power supplied to the turbine is calculated from the net supply head on the
turbine and discharge through the turbine. Efficiency of the turbine being the ratio between the
output and input and can be determined from these two readings. The discharge is measured by
the orifice meter and with the Pressure Gauges. Supply Head is measured with the help of the

pressure gauge. The speed of the turbine is measured with digital tachometer fitted to the turbine.
After starting and running the turbine at normal speed for the some-time, load the turbine and take
readings.
Note the following:
1. Net supply head (pressure gauge reading + height of the gauge center above the center line
of the jet).
2. Discharge (Pressure Gauges readings)
3. Turbine shaft speed.
4. Alternator readings
For any particular SPEED first run the turbine at light load and then gradually load
it. The net supply head on the turbine shall be maintained constant at the rated value and this can
be done by adjusting the gate valve fitted just above the turbine.
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the supply water pump-water unit to 3ph, 440V, 30A ,electrical supply, with neutral
2) Keep the Gate Valve closed.
3) Keep the Brake Drum under loading.
4) Press the green button of the supply pump starter. Now the pump picks- up the full speed and
become operational.
5) Slowly open the Valve so that the turbine rotor picks the speed and conduct experiment on
constant speed.
6) Note down the speed, load and pressure gauge readings.
Tabulate the readings.
Discharge = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉 * √2𝑉ℎ
Here,
h = ( P1– P2 ) *10 m of water
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
Input Power = 𝑉𝑉
75
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
= ∗ 0.746 kW
75
𝑉 = 10 ∗ (𝑉𝑉 + 𝑉𝑉 ⁄760)
(w1 −w2 )Re 2πN

Output Power = HP
4500
(w1 −w2 )Re 2πN
= x 0.746 kW
4500
Effective Radius:
(D + 2d )
Re = m
2
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
Efficiency = X 100
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. Speed Pressure Gauges Readings Discharge Break wt Input Outpu Efficiency
Q m³/sec t
P1 P2 P1 - P2 W1-W2 Power
Power
CALCULATION:
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check that all the pipes are supported properly during
blow down.
3. Necessary safety precautions must be taken such as
fencing of the area and providing ear protection against
the inevitable noise generated during blow down
process.
APPLICATIONS:
EXPECTED OUTSCOME:
Viva Questions:
 What is the difference between Kaplan and Propeller turbine?

 How radial turbine and axial turbine are differentiated?
 For which kind of applications Kaplan turbine is used?
 Write down the formula to calculate efficiency of the Kaplan Turbine?

 What is the difference between inward reaction turbine and outward reaction turbine?
Figure: Schematic diagram of KAPLAN turbine

EXPERIMENT NO.12
OBJECT: -
To conduct a test at various heads of given centrifugal pump find its efficiency.
APPARATUS:
Centrifugal pump, stop watch, scale, collecting tank.
INTRODUCTION:
Closed Circuit Self sufficient portable package system Experimental single stage
Centrifugal pump Test Rig is designed to study the performance of the single stage Centrifugal
pump. In this equipment one can study the relationship between
1. Discharge Vs Head
2. Discharge Vs Input power
3. Discharge Vs Efficiency
This unit has several advantages like does not require any foundation, trench keeping in the
laboratory.
The Test Rig mainly consists of:
(1) Centrifugal pump set
(2) Panel Board,
(3) Pressure and vacuum gauges to measure the head,
(4) SS Measuring Tank to measure the discharge,
(5) Energy meter to measure the input to the motor and
(6) SS Sump.
CONSTRUCTIONAL SPECIFICATION:
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPSET:
The pump set is of special design, horizontal spindle, and vertical split case. The
pump is of such a size, type & design that 1) The total head 2) Discharge and 3) Power
requirements at normal speed is well suited for the experimental purposes in technical institutions.
A.C. MOTOR: The electric motor suitable for operation on 50 cycles A.C. supply is provided.
GAUGES: Suitable range of pressure and vacuum gauges to measure the total head on the pump
with reasonable accuracy.
SS MEASURING TANK:It provided to measure the discharge of the pump with overflow
arrangement. The tank is complete with gauge glass and scale arrangement.
PIPING SYSTEM: Suitable piping system with pipes, bends and valves are provided. A Simple
strainer valve is provided on the suction side to prevent any foreign matter entering into the pump.
Centrifugal Pump Page 40

The gate valve is provided in the delivery side to control the head on the pump. While starting the
motor always keep the valve in close position.
PANEL BOARD: The Panel Board houses all the necessary electrical items, like switch, starter
for the above pump set and an energy meter to read the power input and it is fitted with the unit
on a strong iron base with sufficient height.
INPUT POWER MEASUREMENT: A Kilowatt-hour meter is provided to measure the power

input to the motor. The energy meter constant (The Number of Revolutions per minute of the
energy meter Disc) is stamped on the meter from this the input power can be easily calculated.
SS SUMP Is provided to store sufficient water for independent circulation through the unit for
experimentation and arranged within the floor space of the main unit.
 Check whether all the joints are leak proof and watertight.
 Check the gauge glass and meter scale assembly of the measuring tank and see that
it is fixed water tight and vertically.
 Check whether all the electric connection is correct.
 See that the gauges are mounted on the correct position and their cocks closed.
STARTING:
Before starting the required electrical connection should be done correctly.
EXPERIMENT:
The apparatus is designed to study the performance of a single stage Centrifugal Pump. The
readings to be taken on the single stage centrifugal pump are:
(1) Total Head
(2) Discharge
(3) Power input and
(4) Efficiency.
Provision has been made to measure all these and hence the complete characteristics of the single
stage Centrifugal pump in question can be studied.
First prime the pump and start the motor. While starting closing and delivery valve and the gauge
cocks. Then slowly open the delivery valve and adjust to the required total head. The total head
is measured with the help of the pressure gauge. Total head is the sum of the pressure head,
Velocity head and the datum head.
Discharge is the amount of liquid the pump delivers over a definite period of time. It is usually
expressed in liter per minute. The actual discharge is measured with the help of the measuring
tank.
In this case the power input into the pump cannot be measured directly. Hence the power input
into the AC motor is measured with the help of the energy meter connected in the line.
Efficiency is the relation between the power input into the pump and the power output from the
pump. The power output from the pump is directly proportional to the total head and discharge.
As the power input into the pump cannot be measured the power input into the motor only is taken
into account and the overall efficiency of the pump is calculated.

If the total head (H) is measured in meters and the discharge (0) in liter per minute. The kilowatt
input to the motor is measured with the help of the meter constant stamped on the energy meter.
The efficiency is calculated by dividing the output by input.
For a particular desired speed of the pump, the entire above variable can be studied individually,
thus the complete characteristics can be studied.
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the motor keeping the delivery valve close.
2. Note down the pressure gauge and vacuum gauge reading by adjusting the delivery valve to
require head say 0 meters. Now calculate the total head (H).
Pressure Head = kg/cm² x 10 = meters.
mm of hg x 13.6
Vaccum Head= meters
1000
Datum head = Distance between pressure and vacuum gauge in meters
Total head ( H ) = Pressure Head + Vacuum Head + Datum Head
3. Note down the time required for the rise of 10cm (i.e. 0.1m) water in the collecting tank by
using stop watch. Calculate discharge using below formula.
FORMULAS:
Discharge:- The time taken to collect some ‘X’ cm of water in the collecting tank in m³/sec.
AxR
Q=
t
Where:
A = area of the collecting tank in m² (0.35m X 0.35m)
h = rise of water level taken in meters (say 0.1m or 10cm)
t = time taken for rise of water level to height ‘h’ in seconds.
4. Note down the time taken for ‘x’ revolutions of energy meter disk and calculate the
Input power
X x 3600 x 0.80
Input power =
C xT
Where,
0.80 = Motor efficiency
X = No. of revolutions of energy meter disc
T = Time for Energy meter revolutions disc. In seconds
C = Energy meter constant
5. Now calculate the output power
WxQxH
Output power = Kw
1000
Where:
W = Specific weight of water (9810 N/m³)
Q = Discharge
H = Total Head
6. Repeat the steps from 2 to 5 for various heads by regulating the delivery valve.
A Typical tabular form is given below for convenience during experiments.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Time
Pressure taken Total Discharg Input Outpu
Vacuum for 5 rev Time taken for
gauge head e t Efficiency
Sr. of collecting 10cm Powe
gauge
No reading energy rise of water In (P +V) Q r Power
reading collecting tank
Meter meters kW kW
disc
CALCULATIONS:
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ensure That the Equipment Operators Have Proper Training
2. Inspect the Suction and Discharge Lines
3. Take 5 Minutes to Double Check the System Before Start Up
4. Make the Instruction Manual Accessible for Easy Use
5. Use Caution and Be Aware of Your Surroundings
6. Flow and pressure relationship of a pump
7. Do not let a pump run at zero flow
8. Use pressure gauges
9. Do not let a pump run dry, use a check valve
10. Avoid running pump in reverse direction
APPLICATIONS:
The fact that centrifugal pumps are the most popular choice for fluid movement
makes them a strong contender for many applications and as mentioned
previously, they are used across numerous industries. Supplying water, boosting
pressure, pumping water for domestic requirements, assisting fire protection
systems, hot water circulation, sewage d rainage and regulating boiler water are
among the most common applications. Outlined below are some of the major
sectors that make use of these pumps:
1. Oil & Energy - pumping crude oil, slurry, mud; used by refineries, power
generation plants
2. Industrial & Fire Protection Industry - Heating and ventilation, boiler feed
applications, air conditioning, pressure boosting, fire protection sprinkler
systems.
3. Waste Management, Agriculture & Manufacturing - Wastewater processing
plants, municipal industry, drainage, gas processing, irrigation, and flood
protection
4. Pharmaceutical, Chemical & Food Industries - paints, hydrocarbons, petro-
chemical, cellulose, sugar refining, food and beverage pro duction

5. Various industries (Manufacturing, Industrial, Chemicals, Pharmaceutical,
Food Production, Aerospace etc.) - for the purposes of cryogenics and
refrigerants.
EXPECTED OUTSCOME:
Graphs for :-
Viva Questions:
 What is the difference between a pump and a turbine?
 What is the difference among pump, compressor and blower?
 Differentiate reciprocating pump and centrifugal pump?
 What is meant by a continuous supply pump?
 Write down the formula for calculating efficiency of the pump?

EXPERIMENT NO.13
OBJECT:
To conduct a test at various heads of given multistage centrifugal pump find its
efficiency.
APPARATUS:
Multistage centrifugal pump, stop watch, collecting tank.
INTRODUCTION:
Closed Circuit self-sufficient portable package system Experimental Multi stage
Centrifugal pump Test Rig is designed to study the performance of the Multi stage Centrifugal
pump. In this equipment one can study the relationship between
This unit has several advantages like does not require any foundation, trench keeping in the
laboratory.
The Test Rig mainly consists of:
(1) Multi stage centrifugal pump set
(2) Panel Board,
(3) Pressure and vacuum gauges to measure the head
(4) SS Measuring Tank to measure the discharge
(5) Energy meter to measure the input to the motor and
(6) SS Sump.
CONSTRUCTIONAL SPECIFICATION:
MULTI STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMPSET:

The pump set is of special design, horizontal spindle and vertical split case. The
pump is of such a size, type & design that
1) The total head
2) Discharge and
3) Power requirements at normal speed is well suited for the experimental purposes in technical
institutions.
A.C. MOTOR : The electric motor suitable for operation on 50 Hz A.C. Supply is provided.
GAUGES: Suitable range of pressure and vacuum gauges to measure the total head on the pump
with reasonable accuracy
SS MEASURING TANK: It is provided to measure the discharge of the pump. The tank is
complete with piezo-meter and scale arrangement.
Multistage Centrifugal Pump Page 45

PIPING SYSTEM: Suitable piping system with pipes, bends and valves are provided. A Simple
strainer valve is provided on the suction side to prevent any foreign matter entering into the pump.
The gate valve is provided in the delivery side to control the head on the pump. While starting the
motor always keep the valve in close position.
PANEL BOARD: The Panel Board houses all the necessary electrical items, like switch for the
above pump set and an energy meter to read the power input and it is fitted with the unit on a
strong iron base with sufficient height and with provisions for foundation.
SS SUMP: Is provided to store sufficient water for independent circulation through the unit for
experimentation and arranged within the floor space of the main unit.
INPUT POWER MEASUREMENT: A Kilowatt-hour meter is provided to measure the power

input to the motor. The energy meter constant (The Number of Revolutions per minute of the
energy meter Disc) is stamped on the meter from this the input power can be easily calculated.
 Check whether all the joints are leak proof and watertight.
 Check the piezo-meter assembly of the measuring tank and see that it is fixed water tight
and vertically.
 Check whether all the electric connection is correct.
 See that the gauges are mounted on the correct position and their cocks closed.
STARTING: Before starting the required electrical connection should be done correctly.
EXPERIMENTS:
The apparatus is designed to study the performance of a multi stage Centrifugal
Pump. The readings to be taken on the single stage centrifugal pump are:
(1) Total Head
(2) Discharge
(3) Power input and
(4) Efficiency.
Provision has been made to measure all these and hence the complete characteristics
of the single stage Centrifugal pump in question can be studied.
First prime the pump and start the motor. While starting closing and delivery valve
and the gauge cocks. Then slowly open the delivery valve and adjust to the required total head.
The total head is measured with the help of the pressure gauge. Total head is the sum of the
pressure head, Velocity head and the datum head.
Discharge is the amount of liquid the pump delivers over a definite period of time.
It is usually expressed in liter per minute. The actual discharge is measured with the help of the
measuring tank. In this case the power input into the pump cannot be measured directly. Hence
the power input into the AC motor is measured with the help of the energy meter connected in the
line.
Efficiency is the relation between the power input into the pump and the power output from the
pump. The power output from the pump is directly proportional to the total head and discharge.

As the power input into the pump cannot be measured the power input into the motor only is taken
into account and the overall efficiency of the pump is calculated.
If the total head (H) is measured in meters and the discharge (0) in liter per minute, the HO/6120
gives the output in kW. The kilowatt input to the motor is measured with the help of the meter
constant stamped on the energy meter. The efficiency is calculated by dividing the output by input.
For a particular desired speed of the pump, the entire above variable can be studied individually,
thus the complete characteristics can be studied.
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the motor keeping the delivery valve close.
2. Note down the pressure gauge and vacuum gauge reading by adjusting the delivery valve to
require head say 0 meters.
Now calculate the total head (H).
Pressure Head = kg/cm² x 10 meters.
mm of hg x 13.6
Vaccum Head= meters
1000
Datum head = Distance between pressure and vacuum gauge in meters
Total head ( H ) = Pressure Head + Vacuum Head + Datum Head
3. Note down the time required for the rise of 10cm (i.e. 0.1m) water in the collecting tank by
using stop watch. Calculate discharge using below formula.
Discharge:
The time taken to collect some ‘X’ cm of water in the collecting tank in m³/sec:
AxR
Q=
t
Where:
A = area of the collecting tank in m² (0.35m X 0.35m)
h = rise of water level taken in meters (say 0.1m or 10cm)
t = time taken for rise of water level to height ‘h’ in seconds.
4. Note down the time taken for ‘x’ revolutions of energy meter disk and calculate the Input
power
X x 3600 x 0.60
Input power =
C xT
0.6 = combined motor (0.75) and transmission losses (0.8).
X = No. of revolutions of energy meter disc (say 5 Rev.)
T = Time for Energy meter revolutions disc. In seconds
C = Energy meter constant
5. Now calculate the output power

WxQxH
Output power = Kw
1000
Where,
W = specific weight of water (9810 N/m³)

Q = Discharge
H = Total Head
6. Repeat the steps from 2 to 5 for various heads by regulating the delivery valve.
A Typical tabular form is given below for convenience during experiments.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Time taken
Pressure Vacuum Time taken for collecting Total head Discharge
Sr. for 5rev of 10 cm rise of
gauge gauge (P + V) Q
No. energy water In
reading reading collecting meters
Meter disc
tank
PRECAUTIONS:
Start:
1). The electric pump with a capacity of 11 kw allows direct start-up of.13 kW or more of
the electric pump to be equipped with a step-down starter cabinet to protect the safe
operation of the electric pump
2). In order to avoid the pump rotor moment on channeling and reduce the starting load.
When the electric pump is started to export the valve stroke off to 3/4. (1/4. In order to
release the air gap) to be started after the water slowly opened. To control the pump
operating point in the proper position.
3). After the start of the start of the operation, should strengthen the monitoring and
observation of water level changes to ensure that the electric pump in the operating range of
the operation
4). When the electric pump is put into operation for the first time for 5 hours, the thermal
insulation resistance can be measured rapidly and its value is not less than 0.5M ohm

In any of the following circumstances, the pump should be stopped immediately
:
 The working current of the pump is higher than the rated current of the motor
 Out of water, interstitial water
 The motor insulation resistance is less than 500 billion ohm
 The unit has a significant increase in noise and vibration
 The voltage of the power grid is not enough. It is lower than the rated voltage of 5%
 Fuse burning a phase
 Water pipeline damage
Use maintenance precautions :
1). Check the current voltage and outlet pressure every day, check the water level every 2
weeks
2). Check the insulation resistance of motor every four weeks.
3). To minimize the number of starts in use
4). If the pump is not used after the well, it should be turned on once a week, and run 5-10
minutes to prevent the pump can not start because of rust.
Storage and handling of electric pumps :
When you put a net storage pump motor cavity water. Dry shaft coupling. The surface to be
coated rust proof grease. Should be placed vertically. (in the case of rotor deformation.) in
dry. No chemical corrosive materials. At room temperature. Winter storage temperature is
not lower than -3 degree.
Operation and maintenance :
1). The electric pump should work in the design working condition. The axial force is
moderate and the pump efficiency is the highest
2). Every time the electric pump runs for 8 hours, it is necessary to conduct a comprehensive
inspection. If there is any change in the meter, the circuit node is hot or not
Stop pump:
Before the electric pump stops, to prevent the water from flowing back. Cut off the power
supply at the same time to close the valve. Restart time interval of 20 minutes or more
APPLICATIONS:
The horizontal configuration of multistage pumps is best applied in applications like:
 Reverse Osmosis
 Boiler Feed
 Shower
 Spray
 Cogeneration
 Pressure Boosting
 High Pressure Cleaning
 Snow making

 Condensate
 Mine dewatering
EXPECTED OUTSCOME:
GRAPHS FOR :
Viva Questions:
 What is meant by staging of a centrifugal pump?
 How does the discharge can be increased?
 How does the head can be increased?
 Draw characteristic curves for the pump?
 State few applications of staging in practical life?

CONTENT BEYOND SYLLABUS
EXPERIMENT-14
OBJECT:
An Experimental Study of Cryogenic Engine.
INTRODUCTION
Cryogenics originated from two Greek words “kayos” which means “cold or freezing”
and “genes” which means “born or produced”. Cryogenics is the study of very low
temperatures or the production of the same. Liquefied gases like liquid nitrogen and
liquid oxygen are used in many cryogenic applications.
HISTORY OF CRYONENIC
During World War II, when powerful rocket engines were first considered by the
German, American and Soviet engineers independently, all discovered that rocket
engines need high mass flow rate of both oxidizer and fuel to generate a sufficient thrust.
At that time oxygen and low molecular weight hydrocarbons were used as oxidizer and
fuel pair. At room temperature and pressure, both are in gaseous state. Hypothetically,
if propellants had been stored as pressurized gases, the size and mass of fuel tanks
themselves would severely decrease rocket efficiency. Therefore, to get the required
mass flow rate, the only option was to cool the propellants down to cryogenic
temperatures (below −150 °C, −238 °F), converting them to liquid form. Hence, all
cryogenic rocket engines are also, by definition, either liquid-propellant rocket engines
or hybrid rocket engines.
EARLY DAYS
Various cryogenic fuel-oxidizer combinations Various cryogenic fuel-oxidizer
combinations Have been tried, but the combination of liquid. Hydrogen (LH2) fuel and
the liquid oxygen (LOX) Oxidizer is one of the most widely used. Both components are
easily and cheaply available, And when burned have one of the highest entropy And
when burned have one of the highest entropy Releases by combustion, producing
specific Impulse up to 450 s, \(effective exhaust velocity 4.4 km/s).
CRYOGENIC ENGINES
Cryogenic Engines are rocket motors designed for liquid fuels that have to be held at
very low "cryogenic" temperatures to be liquid - they would otherwise be gas at normal
temperatures. Typically Hydrogen and Oxygen are used which need to be held below
20°K (-423°F) and 90°K (-297°F) to remain liquid. The engine components are also
cooled so the fuel doesn't boil to a gas in the lines that feed the engine. The thrust comes
from the rapid expansion from liquid to gas with the gas emerging from the motor at
very high speed. The energy needed to heat the fuels comes from burning them, once
they are gasses. Cryogenic engines are the highest performing rocket motors. One
disadvantage is that the fuel tanks tend to be bulky and require heavy insulation to store
the propellant. Their high fuel efficiency, however, outweighs this disadvantage. The
Space Shuttle's main engines used for liftoff are cryogenic engines. The Shuttle's smaller
thrusters for orbital maneuvering use non-cryogenic hypergolic fuels, which are
compact and are stored at warm temperatures. Currently, only the United States, Russia,
China, France, Japan and India have mastered cryogenic rocket technology.
CONSTRUCTION
Cryogenic Engine Page 51

The major components of a cryogenic rocket engine are the combustion chamber (thrust
chamber), pyrotechnic ignite, fuel injector, fuel cryopumps, oxidizer cryopumps, gas
turbine, cryo valves, regulators, the fuel tanks, and rocket engine nozzle. In terms of
feeding propellants to combustion chamber, cryogenic rocket engines (or, generally, all
liquidpropellant engines) work in either an expander cycle, a gas-generator cycle, a
staged combustion cycle, or the simplest pressure-fed cycle. The cryopumps are always
turbo pumps powered by a flow of fuel through gas turbines. Looking at this aspect,
engines can be differentiated into a main flow or a bypass flow configuration. In the
main flow design, all the pumped fuel is fed through the gas turbines, and in the end
injected to the combustion chamber. In the bypass configuration, the fuel flow is split;
the main part goes directly to the combustion chamber to generate thrust, while only a
small amount of the fuel goes to the turbine.
WORKING
For using cryogenic propellants, special insulated containers and vents are used to
prevent gas from the evaporating liquids to escape. The liquid fuel and oxidizer are fed
from the storage tank to an expansion chamber. Then it is injected into the combustion
chamber. In this chamber, they are mixed and ignited by a flame or spark. The fuel
expands as it burns and the hot exhaust gases are directed out of the nozzle to provide
thrust.
ROCKET ENGINE POWER CYCLES

Gas pressure feed system :- A simple pressurized feed system is shown schematically
below. It consists of a high-pressure gas tank, a gas starting valve, a pressure regulator,
propellant tanks, propellant valves, and feed lines. Additional components, such as
filling and draining provisions, check valves, filters, flexible elastic bladders for
separating the liquid from the pressurizing gas, and pressure sensors or gauges, are also
often incorporated. After all tanks are filled, the high-pressure gas valve is remotely
actuated and admits gas through the pressure regulator at a constant pressure to the
propellant tanks. The check valves prevent mixing of the oxidizer with the fuel when
the unit is not in an right position.
COMBUSTION IN THRUST CHAMBER

The four phases of combustion in the thrust chamber are – Primary Ignition Flame
Propagation Flame Lift off Flame Anchorin Primary Ignition : begins at the time of
deposition of the energy into the shear layer and ends when the flame front has reached
the outer limit of the shear layer starts interaction with the recirculation zone. phase
typically lasts about half a millisecond it is characterised by a slight but distinct
downstream movement of the flame.
FLAME PROPAGATION
This phase corresponds to the time span for the flame reaching the edge of the shear
layer, expands into in the recirculation zone and propagates until it has consumed all
the premixed propellants. This period lasts between 0.1 and 2 ms. It is characterised
by an upstream movement of the upstream flame front until it reaches a minimum
distance from the injector face plate.
ADVANTAGES
1. High Energy per unit mass: Propellants like oxygen and hydrogen in liquid form give
very high amounts of energy per unit mass due to which the amount of fuel to be carried
aboard the rockets decreases.

2. Clean Fuels Hydrogen and oxygen are extremely clean fuels. When they combine,
they give out only water. This water is thrown out of the nozzle in form of very hot
vapour. Thus the rocket is nothing but a high burning steam engine
3. Economical Use of oxygen and hydrogen as fuels is very economical, as liquid
oxygen costs less than gasoline.
CONCLUSION
The area of Cryogenics in Cryogenic Rocket Engines is a vast one and it cannot be
described in a few words. As the world progress new developments are being made
more and more new developments are being made in the field of Rocket Engineering.
Now a day cryo propelled rocket engines are having a great demand in the field of space
exploration. Due to the high specific impulse obtained during the ignition of fuels they
are of much demand.
PRECAUTIONS:
Liquid oxygen safety regulations recommend draining all transfer lines and allowing oxygen
vapors to disperse before starting engine of vehicle.
So others comply with liquid oxygen safety, clearly post signs inside and outside the vehicle
prohibiting smoking and open flames.
Vessels should be filled by trained personnel only.
When transporting liquid oxygen, vessels should be filled by trained personnel only.
APPLICATIONS:
Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic
applications.
Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is legally purchasable
around the world.
Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable temperatures to be
reached.
EXPERIMENT OUTCOME
COMMENTS OF STUDENTS
Viva Question:
1. Define refrigeration?
2. What is Cryogenics?
3. What are the applications of refrigeration?
4. What are the applications of cryogenics?
5. What is air conditioning?

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Objectives :- To perform constant speed load test on a single cylinder diesel engine and

Exp:-7 Objectives: - Determination of dryness fraction of steam.

Exp:-8 Objectives: - Study and Performance of Simple Steam Turbine

Exp:-9 Objectives: - Performance characteristics of Pelton wheel turbine.

Exp:-10 Objectives: - Performance characteristics of Francis turbine.

Exp:-11 Objectives: - Performance characteristics of Kaplan turbine.

Exp:-12 Objectives: - Performance characteristics of variable speed centrifugal pump.

3. Diameter of Orifice = 32. mm.

RAC System Page 1

W = Weight of Hydraulic Dynamometer

2. TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION:

RAC System Page 2

3. BREAK SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION:

Where, TFC in kg/hr and BP in kW

4. BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY:

CV= 42500 kJ /kg

5. AIR FUEL RATIO:

RAC System Page 3

(A)Total heat input

(B)Heat Carried Away by Cooling Water (In Engine Cooling Jacket)

Convert this into % by

(C)Heat Converted to BP (HBP)

(D) Heat Carried Away by Exhaust Gases (kJ/sec)

RAC System Page 4

The efficiency and BHP of four stroke diesel engine is ---------.

RAC System Page 5

RAC System Page 6

RAC System Page 7

RAC System Page 8

Figure 1: Tank Calorimeter

ps= Gauge pressure of steam (kPa)

Dryness Fraction Page 9

Dryness Fraction Page 10

Dryness Fraction Page 11

Figure 3: Throttling calorimeter

Dryness Fraction Page 12

Figure 4: Schematic diagram for the separating and throttling Calorimeters

Dryness Fraction Page 13

COMMENT FROM STUDENTS:

Dryness Fraction Page 14

The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by the Anglo-IrishengineerSir

Simple Steam Turbine Page 15

Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type

Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce

Simple Steam Turbine Page 16

Casing or shaft arrangements

Principle of operation and design An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic

Simple Steam Turbine Page 17

Simple Steam Turbine Page 18

Simple Steam Turbine Page 19

Thermodynamics of steam turbines

Rankine cycle with superheat

Simple Steam Turbine Page 20

Where Ẇ is the rate at which work is developed per unit time

 h1 is the specific enthalpy at state one

Simple Steam Turbine Page 21

Simple Steam Turbine Page 22

CASING: made of iron and having a large circular transparent Window.

Pelton Wheel Turbine Page 23

FLOW MEASURING UNIT : Orifice meter

1. Check whether all the joints are perfectly matched.

1. Operation of the bearings, temperature rise, noise etc.

Pelton Wheel Turbine Page 24

Discharge Q = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉(𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐)