LAB REPORT 1:

TENSILE TEST OF ALUMINUM 6061-T6511

Date of Lab Experiment: January 19, 2010, January 26, 2010

Date of Submission: February 2, 2010

By

_______________

Prannoy A Agarwala

agarwalp@erau.edu

Submitted to Dr. David Lanning

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

College of Engineering

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements

Of

ES321

Engineering Materials Science Lab

Spring 2010

Embry Riddle Aeronautical University

Prescott, Arizona
 Al 6061 Tensile Test i

Abstract
Aluminum alloys play a critical role in structural components of aircrafts and yachts. A specimen
of Aluminum 6061-T6511 has been subjected to a standardized tensile test (ASTM standards).
Data such as the Young’s Modulus, Ultimate Tensile strength and a Stress-Strain curve of the
tensile test is reported. The published value of the Young’s Modulus for Aluminum 6061 is
10,000ksi. Alloys can exhibit ductile and brittle failure. Ductile failure is accompanied by plastic
deformation whereas brittle failure is not. Necking exhibits plastic deformation and hence occurs
in materials which are ductile when subjected to stress. The first phase of the experiment
involves measuring dimensions, hardness, and roughness of the specimen before and after the
tensile test. The second phase of the experiment involves, investigating the fracture surface
macroscopically and microscopically with the use of a stereomicroscope and a scanning electron
microscope.

The values obtained from the experiment are in accordance with the published values.
Phenomena such as necking, strain hardening and a change in the texture of the surface after
failure are observed. The specimen exhibits a transitional ductile to brittle fracture.

This paper introduces the theoretical principles behind ductile and brittle fracture and publishes
data and results related to the tensile test of the specimen of Aluminum 6061-T6511.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ………………………………………….……………………………. … i

List of Tables …..……………………………………………………………….. iii

List of Figures …..………………………………………………………………. iv

List of Graphics ….……………………………………………………………. v

List of Symbols ………………………………………………………………… vi

List of Abbreviations/Acronyms ...…………………………………………… vii

1.0 Introduction ...……………………………………………………………… 1

2.0 Theory ………………………………………………………………………. 2

3.0 Apparatus and Procedures ...……………………………………………….. 9

3.1 Apparatus .…………………………………………………………… 9

3.2 Procedures …………………………………………………………… 13

3.1.1 Phase 1……………………………………………………….. 13

3.1.2 Phase 2 ………………………………………………………. 14

4.0 Results and Discussion ……………………………………………………. 15

5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations ……………………………………….. 22

6.0 References ………………………………………………………………… 23

7.0 Appendix I: Sample Calculations ………………………………………….. 25

8.0 Appendix II: Raw Data …………………………………………………….. 26

 Al 6061 Tensile Test iii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Aluminum 6061-T651 Data Sheet ………………………………… 4

Table 4.1: Dimensional Data of Al 6061-T6511 Specimen ………………….. 16

Table 4.2: Specimen Hardness Data ………………………………………... 17

Table 4.3: Specimen Roughness Data ………………………………………. 17

 Al 6061 Tensile Test iv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Stress Vs. Strain Curve for a ductile material ….………………………………….. 3

Figure 2.2: Ductile Overload ………………………….……………………………………….. 6

Figure 2.3: Transition from Ductile to Brittle Fracture ….…………………………………….. 7

Figure 2.4: Ductile and Brittle Fracture ………………….…………………………………….. 7

Figure 3.1: Tensile test bar ……………………………….…………………………………….. 9

Figure 3.2: Tensile Testing Machine …………………...……………………………………... 10

Figure 3.3: Surface Roughness Tester ………………...………………………………………. 10

Figure 3.4: Rockwell Hardness Tester ………………...……………………………………… 11

Figure 3.5: Vernier Calliper …………………………...……………………………………… 11

Figure 3.6: Micrometer Screw Gage ………………...………………………………………... 12

Figure 3.7: Ultrasonic Cleaner ……………………...………………………………………… 12

Figure 3.8: Stereomicroscope ……………………...…………………………………………. 12

Figure 3.9: Scanning Electron Microscope …...……………………………………………… 13

Figure 4.1: Stress vs Strain Plot ……………..………………………………………………. 15

Figure 4.2: Plot to find Young’s Modulus ……...……………………………………………. 16

Figure 4.3: Stereomicroscope Image 1, Necking …..………………………………………… 18

Figure 4.4: Fracture surface under stereomicroscope …..……………………………………. 19

Figure 4.5: Fracture surface under Scanning Electron Microscope -Al 6061-T651…...……... 19

Figure 4.6: Fracture surface under SEM (2500x) ………………………………..………….. 20

Figure 4.7: Backscatter image of fracture surface using SEM ………………..……………... 21

 Al 6061 Tensile Test v

LIST OF GRAPHICS
Figure 2.1: Stress Vs. Strain Curve for a ductile material ………………..…………………… 3

Table 2.1: Aluminum 6061-T651 Data Sheet ……………………………..………………….. 4

Figure 2.2: Ductile Overload ……………………………………………….…………………. 6

Figure 2.3: Transition from Ductile to Brittle Fracture …………………….…………………. 7

Figure 2.4: Ductile and Brittle Fracture …………………………………….…………………. 7

Figure 3.1: Tensile test bar ………………………………………………….…………………. 9

Figure 3.2: Tensile Testing Machine ………………………………………...………………. 10

Figure 3.3: Surface Roughness Tester ………………………………………...…………….. 10

Figure 3.4: Rockwell Hardness Tester ……………………………...……………………….. 11

Figure 3.5: Vernier Calliper ………………………………………...……………………….. 11

Figure 3.6: Micrometer Screw Gage ………………………………...………………………. 12

Figure 3.7: Ultrasonic Cleaner ……………………………………...……………………….. 12

Figure 3.8: Stereomicroscope ………………………………………..……………………… 12

Figure 3.9: Scanning Electron Microscope ………………………….……………………… 13

Figure 4.1: Stress vs Strain Plot ……………………………………………………………. 15

Figure 4.2: Plot to find Young’s Modulus …………………………………………………. 16

Table 4.1: Dimensional Data of Al 6061-T6511 Specimen ………….………………….. … 16

Table 4.2: Specimen Hardness Data ………………………………….….……………......... 17

Table 4.3: Specimen Roughness Data ………………………………….…………………… 17

Figure 4.3: Stereomicroscope Image 1, Necking ………………………..………………….. 18

Figure 4.4: Fracture surface under stereomicroscope …………………….………………… 19

Figure 4.5: Fracture surface under Scanning Electron Microscope -Al 6061-T651………….. 19

Figure 4.6: Fracture surface under SEM (2500x) ……………………………….. ………... 20

Figure 4.7: Backscatter image of fracture surface using SEM …………………… ………. 21
 Al 6061 Tensile Test vi

LIST OF SYMBOLS
σ……………………………...Stress...............................................Lb/in2
ε………………………………Strain………………………………..—
ν………………………Poisson’s Ratio……………………………..—
 Al 6061 Tensile Test vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS

ASTM………American Society for Testing and Materials……………………--

SEM……………….Scanning Electron Microscope…………………………...--

 Al 6061 Tensile Test 1

1.0 Introduction

Ever since its discovery, Aluminum has been critical to human beings. Scientists and
engineers have spent decades on studying and understanding the behavior and chemistry
of metals under different conditions. With time, human beings have also learnt how to
create alloys, which are matrices of different metals and elements.

Alloys such as bronze and brass have been known to man since prehistoric times. Alloys
have an advantage over simple elements because their composition can be adjusted based
on how they are being used. Qualities such as better resistance to corrosion, improved
strength, better ductility and other benefits allow alloys to be used in the production and
manufacture in a number of applications today.

Alloys of aluminum are extensively used in the production of yachts, aircrafts and also
for welding. Many structural components in aircraft such as the fuselage and wings use
these aluminum alloys. Hence, it is critical for us to understand how these alloys behave
under extreme loads and conditions.

Aluminum alloy 6061 is one such alloy that has been employed over the years for the
aforementioned applications.

The purpose of this lab, then, is to subject a test specimen of Aluminum 6061-T6511 to a
tensile test and record data related to the test. After fracture, the fracture surface and the
region around the fracture surface is viewed under and electron microscope and a light
microscope.

The results of the tensile test of Aluminum 6061-T6511 are summarized. Details such as
the Modulus of Elasticity, Proportional Limit and the Ultimate Tensile Strength are
reported. Also, a discussion of the fracture of the specimen is carried out.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 2

2.0 Theory
Stress(σ ¿: Stress is defined as the force experienced by an element over the cross
sectional area subjected to that force. Its units are expressed as force/area, for example –
pounds per square inch(psi) or Newtons per square metre(N/m2).

Strain(ε): Strain represents the elongation experienced by a material due to application

of a stress. It is dimensionless or unit less.

Young’s Modulus(E): Also known as the modulus of elasticity, is defined as the ratio of
the axial stress over the axial strain. The three are related by the Hooke’s Law.

Shear Modulus(G): Also known as the modulus of rigidity, is defined as the ratio of the
shear stress over the shear strain.

Poisson’s ratio(ν): Defined as the ratio of the transverse strain to the axial strain
experienced by a material.

Stress-Strain curve: The stress strain curve is a graphical plot, representing the stress
experienced by a material on the y-axis, and the strain experienced by the material due to
the stress on the x-axis.

Elastic Deformation: When the stress applied to a material is removed, the

material(solid) regains its original shape.

Plastic Deformation: Is the deformation experienced by a material when it no longer

behaves as an elastic material. In other words, once the stress is removed from the
material, it does not regain its original shape.

Fracture: Is the point at which a material breaks into two or more pieces due to an
application of stress.

Ultimate Tensile Strength: Is the maximum stress a material can experience before
fracture or failure. It is the maximum stress on the stress-strain curve.

Offset Yield Strength: Is found using the stress-strain curve, and is the stress required to
produce a 0.2% plastic strain.

Proportional Limit: Defined as the maximum stress at which stress is directly

proportional to the strain.

Hardness: Is the property of a material to resist indentation by a hard object.

Roughness: It can be defined as the measure of the texture of a surface.

Ductility: Is the ability of a material to deform before failure.

 Al 6061 Tensile Test 3

Theoretical principles:
Stress exists in two forms – normal or axial stress, represented by sigma (σ), and shear
stress, represented by tau (τ). Shear stresses are caused due to forces acting in the plane of
the cross section while normal stresses are caused due to forces acting perpendicular to
the plane of the cross section.

The Stress-Strain curve illustrated in figure 2.1 is a means of expressing stress versus
strain for materials. The stress vs strain curve is distinct for each kind of material and
thus, is of significant importance as it is used to express the different material properties
of materials.

Figure 2.1: Stress Vs. Strain Curve for a ductile material.

(Source: Interactive Nano-Visualization in Science and Engineering Education,
2010)

The Young’s Modulus is usually found by measuring the slope of the linear portion of the
stress-strain curve(i.e. the elastic region). In Table 2.1 below, we see that the typical
value for the Young’s Modulus for Al 6061-T651 is around 10,000ksi. The Young’s
Modulus is related to stress and strain by the Hooke’s Law.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 4

Physical Properties Metric English Comments

Density 2.7 g/cc 0.0975 lb/in  AA; Typical

³

Mechanical Properties

Hardness, Brinell 95 95  AA; Typical; 500 g load; 10 mm ball

Hardness, Knoop 120 120  Converted from Brinell Hardness

Value

Hardness, Rockwell A 40 40  Converted from Brinell Hardness

Value

Hardness, Rockwell B 60 60  Converted from Brinell Hardness

Value

Hardness, Vickers 107 107  Converted from Brinell Hardness

Value

Ultimate Tensile 310 MPa 45000 psi  AA; Typical

Strength

Tensile Yield Strength 276 MPa 40000 psi  AA; Typical

Elongation at Break 12 % 12 %  AA; Typical; 1/16 in. (1.6 mm)
Thickness

Elongation at Break 17 % 17 %  AA; Typical; 1/2 in. (12.7 mm)
Diameter

Modulus of Elasticity 68.9 GPa 10000 ksi  AA; Typical; Average of tension and

compression. Compression modulus
is about 2% greater than tensile
modulus.

Notched Tensile 324 MPa 47000 psi  2.5 cm width x 0.16 cm thick side-

Strength notched specimen, Kt = 17.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 5

Ultimate Bearing 607 MPa 88000 psi  Edge distance/pin diameter = 2.0

Strength

Bearing Yield Strength 386 MPa 56000 psi  Edge distance/pin diameter = 2.0

Poisson's Ratio 0.33 0.33  Estimated from trends in similar Al

alloys.

Fatigue Strength 96.5 MPa 14000 psi  AA; 500,000,000 cycles completely

reversed stress; RR Moore
machine/specimen

Fracture Toughness 29 MPa- 26.4 ksi-  KIC; TL orientation.

m½ in½

Machinability 50 % 50 %  0-100 Scale of Aluminum Alloys

Shear Modulus 26 GPa 3770 ksi  Estimated from similar Al alloys.

Shear Strength 207 MPa 30000 psi  AA; Typical

Table 2.1: Aluminum 6061-T651 Data Sheet. (Source: Aerospace Specification

Metals, Inc, 2010)

Figure 2.1 illustrates the elastic region of a material. This region is the region where
elastic deformation takes place. As defined earlier, it is the region where the stress and
strain are directly proportional to each other. Also, on removal of the load the material
regains its original shape. The elastic limit or the proportionality limit is the point where
the linear relationship between stress and strain ends. It is not well defined for every
material and hence is not published on data sheets, compared to say the ultimate tensile
strength. The reason for elastic deformation can be attributed to chemical bonding. As a
tensile load is applied to a material, the bonds stretch and when the load is removed the
bonds regain their equilibrium lengths. This is true for elastic deformation only (Fischer
2009).

Plastic deformation occurs when the metal or material no longer behaves as an elastic
material. Qualities such as ductility and malleability are due to the plastic deformation of
metals. All materials behave very differently in the plastic region. A phenomenon known
as strain hardening is experienced by metals when a tensile stress is applied. This strain
hardening actually strengthens metals. This phenomenon happens because as the crystals
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 6

within the metal matrix are dislocated, a resistance to further dislocations is developed
resulting in the observed strengthening of the metal. Another phenomenon observed
under the application of tensile stress, is necking. Necking is the reduction of cross
sectional area, where a large amount of strain is localized. It occurs around the region
where fracture would eventually take place.
In Engineering Materials, there are two kinds of fracture which take place, ductile and
brittle. The main difference between the two is the amount of plastic deformation that can
be withstood. Ductile materials can withstand plastic deformation whereas brittle
materials fracture rather rapidly after the elastic region. In ductile materials, crack
propagation is slow and the amount of plastic deformation is large. Only when a larger
stress is applied will the crack propagate. In brittle materials, crack propagation is rapid
and is not accompanied by a large amount of plastic deformation. The cracks continue to
grow until fracture.

Figure 2.2: Ductile Overload. (Source: Argo-Tech Materials Laboratory, 2010)

Figure 2.2 is a scanning electron microscope image captured by ATC Labs based out of
Cleveland, Ohio of a ductile material after fracture. At the microscopic level, ductile
surfaces appear to have a large number of voids and dimples in a very irregular manner.
The presence of ductile dimples indicates a ductile overload as seen in Fig 2.2. Also, as
the smaller microvoids grow, they start linking up to form voids leading to cracks which
lead to fracture. In comparison, brittle fracture seems to occur due to granular fracture.
There are two kinds of granular fracture, transgranular or intergranular fracture. The
former is when the crack travels through the grain of the material while the latter is when
the crack travels through the grain boundaries. Fig 2.3 shows a ductile to brittle fracture
transition. On the right hand side of the image we notice ridges, which is nothing but
granular fracture. The transition occurs due to a change in density or temperature.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 7

Figure 2.3: Transition from Ductile to Brittle Fracture. (Source: The Hendrix
Group, 2010)

When observed at a macroscopic level, ductile fracture surfaces are rough and a
noticeable shear tip is seen. Usually, ductile failure occurs due to shear stress resulting in
a large necking region. As seen in Fig 2.4, the fracture on the left is ductile fracture, the
shear tip can be seen, as well as the rough and irregular surface. Brittle fracture on the
other hand seems to be a cleaner kind of fracture where the amount of necking occurring
is smaller. This is due to the fact that a large amount of plastic deformation does not
occur. The surface of fracture is also smoother.

Figure 2.4: Ductile and Brittle Fracture. (Source: Charles Sturt University, 2010)
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 8

The tensile test is used to determine the properties of a material. The specimen used in
the test is prepared in accordance with the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) standards.

The fracture surfaces are usually observed under stereomicroscopes at the macroscopic
level and scanning electron microscopes at the microscopic level. The magnification
produced by stereomicroscopes is in the range of 10-2000x and visible light is used to
produce the image. Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) have the ability to magnify up
to 300,000x. They use high-speed electron to produce an image. The lens of an SEM is
electromagnetic, while that of a stereomicroscope is glass.

Expected Results:

The values published for Aluminum 6061-T651 in Table 2.1, give an idea on what value
the Modulus of Elasticity, Ultimate Tensile Strength, the Proportional Limit and the yield
at 0.2% strain should be for our specimen. Also, as Aluminum is a ductile metal, its alloy
should exhibit ductile fracture. However, there is a possibility for the alloy to exhibit a
ductile to brittle transition fracture as shown in Fig 2.3. This is because of the presence of
elements such as Silicon, and Nickel in the alloy.

Equations used:

Stress is measured using the equation:

Force
σ= Equation 2.1
Area

Strain is measured using the equation:

change∈length
ε = original length Equation 2.2

Young’s Modulus of Elasticity is calculated using the equation:

σ = Eε Equation 2.3

% Elongation of gage section:

Final length−Original length

% elongation= × 100 % Equation
Original length
2.4

% Reduction in Area:
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 9

Original area−Final area

%reduction= × 100 % Equation
Original area
2.5

Justification:

Aluminum alloys are of great value, due to their relatively low weight, high yield strength
and their ability to withstand a relatively large amount of plastic deformation. This makes
them ideal for use in structural components in the aircraft and yachts. Aluminum alloy
T6061 is widely used in the fuselage and wings of aircraft.

3.0 Apparatus and Procedures:

3.1 Apparatus:

The following equipment was used during the lab:

 One (1) Aluminum 6061-T6511 tensile test bar,
 One (1) Tensile testing machine,
 One (1) Extensometer,
 One (1) sheet of 600 grit sandpaper,
 One (1) TR200 Surface Roughness Tester,
 One (1) Rockwell Hardness Tester,
 One (1) Vernier Calliper,
 One (1) Micrometer Screw Gauge,
 One (1) Band saw,
 One (1) Ultrasonic cleaner,
 One (1) Stereomicroscope,
 One (1) Scanning Electron Microscope.

The Aluminum 6061-T6511 tensile test bar is prepared according to American Society
for Materials and Testing (ASTM) standards. Figure 3.1 illustrates the bar.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 10

Grip
section Gage section
length

Gage section width

Specimen length

Figure 3.1: Tensile test bar.

The tensile testing machine used is illustrated in Figure 3.2. The machine measures force
in pounds. The extensometer measures extension in inches.

Figure 3.2: Tensile Testing Machine. (Source: Direct Industry, Instron, 2010)
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 11

The surface roughness tester used is illustrated in Figure 3.3. It reads measurements in
micrometers.

Figure 3.3: Surface Roughness Tester. (Source: M & I Instruments, Inc, 2010)

The hardness tester used is illustrated in Figure 3.4. It gives readings in the Hardness
Rockwell B scale.

Figure 3.4: Rockwell Hardness Tester. (Source: FAR Asia Co., Ltd, 2003)

The Vernier Calliper used is illustrated in Figure 3.5. The readings are taken in inches.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 12

Figure 3.5: Vernier Calliper. (Source: Painter Guitars, 2010)

The screw gage used is illustrated in Figure 3.6 on the next page. It gives readings to a
thousandth of an inch.

Figure 3.6: Micrometer Screw Gage. (Source: eHow, 2010)

The ultrasonic cleaner used is illustrated in Figure 3.7.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 13

Figure 3.7: Ultrasonic Cleaner. (Source: MIT, 2010)

The stereomicroscope used is illustrated in Figure 3.8. The images are captured on
computer.

Figure 3.8: Stereomicroscope. (Source: Nikonians, 2010)

The scanning electron microscope used is illustrated in Figure 3.9. The images are
captured on computer. The units is expressed in micrometers.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 14

Figure 3.9: Scanning Electron Microscope. (Source: Carleton College, 2010)

3.2 Procedures
3.2.1 Phase One
The following procedures were used for Phase One of the experiment that
was conducted on January 19, 2010:
1.0 The surface of the tensile test bar was smoothened with sandpaper. All
large scratches were removed.
2.0 The dimensions of the tensile test bar was measured and recorded
using a set of vernier callipers and a micrometer screw gage. The gage
section width, thickness, length and the specimen’s length were noted.
3.0 Three roughness measurements were made across the gage section
using the roughness tester. The direction in which the measurement
was made was perpendicular to the loading direction. The
measurements were recorded.
4.0 Three Rockwell Hardness tests were made. The load used was set to a
100 kilograms. The readings were recorded.
5.0 Two pencil marks were made on the gage section approximately 2.5
inches apart. The actual distance between the marks was then
recorded.
6.0 The bar was then tensile tested, by placing the grip sections in the
appropriate slots and attaching an extensometer on the gage section to
measure the elongation.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 15

7.0 The data was recorded computationally. The excel spreadsheet with
the tensile test data was then obtained.
8.0 Repeat step 2. Dimensions after failure were recorded.
9.0 Repeat step 3. Roughness tests around the region of failure were
undertaken and the readings were recorded.
10.0 Repeat step 4. The hardness tests are carried out near the region of
failure to check for the phenomenon of strain hardening.
3.2.2 Phase Two
The following procedures were used for Phase Two of the experiment
which was conducted on January 26, 2010:
1.0 The tensile test bar is cut using a band saw. The bar is cut at
approximately 1.5 inches from the failure surface.
2.0 The 1.5 inch specimen was then washed in an ultrasonic cleaner for
about 5 minutes.
3.0 The failure surface was then viewed under a stereomicroscope to
observe the failure surface macroscopically to look for details such as
dimples, and necking. Digital photographs were taken.
4.0 The failure surface was then viewed under a scanning electron
microscope. The objective was to observe whether the specimen
underwent a ductile or brittle fracture. Digital photographs of the
specimen under the SEM were taken.

4.0 Results and Discussion:

 Al 6061 Tensile Test 16

Stress vs Strain
5

0
0 0

-1

Figure 4.1: Stress vs Strain Plot.

Figure 4.1 is the plot for the Stress vs Strain for the tensile test of Aluminum 6061-
T6511. From the plot we see that there is an elastic region, a plastic region and finally
fracture. The plastic region shows that the alloy does show ductility as discussed in
section 2.0 of this report. Comparing the values from Figure 4.1 to the published values
in Table 2.1, we observe that the Ultimate Tensile Strength calculated experimentally is
close to the published value. In fact, the published value for Al 6061-T651 is 45000psi,
and that obtained from the experiment is approximately 49000psi, an error of about
8.89%. The Tensile Yield Strength published in Table 2.1 is 40000psi, the offset yield
strength from the experiment was about 46000psi (from Figure 4.1). Also using a
straight edge, and solving for the slope of the linear portion of the curve. We find the
Young’s Modulus equal to about 10000ksi, which is in agreement with published values.
We notice that the strain experienced at rupture was around the 0.02, very close to
published values.

Overall, the stress strain plot obtained experimentally is agreeable to published stress
strain plots of Aluminum 6061.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 17

40000
Stress vs Strain
f(x) = 10350661.55 x + 637.72
35000

30000

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Figure 4.2: Plot to find Young’s Modulus.

Figure 4.2 plots the linear portion of the stress vs strain curve for the tensile test of
Aluminum 6061-T6511. The equation y = 10,350,661.55x + 637.72 is the equation for
the trend line of the Elastic Region of the stress strain curve. It follows that the Young’s
Modulus is approximately 10,350ksi. Again, this value is in accordance with published
data as shown in Table 2.1, where the Young’s Modulus is gives as 10,000ksi.

Dimensional Data
Dimension Type Before Failure After Failure
Gage Section Width 0.4963 in 0.48 in
Gage Section Length 2.045 in 2.155 in
Gage Section
Thickness 0.1283 in 0.1197 in
Specimen Length 8.22 in 8.468 in
Table 4.1: Dimensional Data of Al 6061-T6511 Specimen

Table 4.1, gives the record of the measurements made of the specimen, before and after
the tensile test. As expected from theory, we see that the gage section width decreased
after the test; the gage section length increased after the test; the gage section thickness
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 18

decreased after test and the overall specimen length increased after the test. This
dimensional data shows that necking did occur in the specimen before fracture. Hence,
the theoretical principles hold true for the experiment.

This dimensional data allows us to calculate the % elongation of the gage section and the
%reduction in Area of the gage section. We use equation 2.4 to calculate %elongation of
the gage section and find it equal to 5.38%. The data published in Table 2.1, is the
percent elongation at break for a 1/16in specimen and is equal to 12%. Our specimen, is
about 1/10th of an inch, and hence has a lower percent elongation at failure. We can also
calculate the % reduction in area of the gage section using data from table 4.1 and
making use of equation 2.5. The % reduction in area of the cross section is equal to
9.89%. This shows significant necking in the region around fracture. Again, theoretical
principles is backed by experimental data.

Hardness Data
Serial No. Before Failure After Failure
1 59.2 HRB 65 HRB
2 61.1 HRB 65.5 HRB
3 60.6 HRB 64.7 HRB
Table 4.2: Specimen Hardness Data

Table 4.2 gives the record of the hardness data calculated before and after the test. From
published values of the specimen hardness in table 2.1, where hardness in the Rockwell B
Scale was measured to be 60HRB, we see that our specimen for the test has similar
hardness, around the 60HRB mark. After the tensile test, we see that there is significant
hardening of about 4HRB around the fracture region. This, is in agreement with theory
where we had discussed about the phenomenon of strain hardening. Strain hardening
occurs in our test specimen.

Roughness Data
Serial No. Before Failure After Failure
1 0.309 μm 1.146 μm
2 0.316 μm 1.510 μm
3 0.281 μm 1.509 μm
Table 4.3: Specimen Roughness Data

Table 4.3 shows the roughness data accumulated before and after failure. We notice that
the surface of the specimen around the fracture region got significantly rougher after
fracture. This can be explained due to dislocation of the metal matrices due to the applied
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 19

stress. This dislocation of the structure caused irregularities in the material causing the
surface to become significantly rougher.

Figure 4.3: Stereomicroscope Image 1, Necking.

Figure 4.3, captures the fracture surface perpendicular to the loading direction. The image
is taken by a stereomicroscope. Firstly, we observe the cross sectional area of the
specimen decrease near the fracture region. This decrease in area clearly indicates
necking in the specimen. Secondly, we notice a shear tip on the edge. This shear tip
indicates that the fracture could be ductile. However, as we observe the shear tip is not
very distinct, suggesting a fracture which could be a ductile to brittle transition.

Figure 4.4, is another image of the fracture surface, in higher magnification. We notice
development of ridges right next to the fracture surface, suggesting that the fracture was
pretty violent. There seems to be a shear tip on the edge of the fracture surface. However,
the rest of the fracture seems is not as rough as a pure ductile fracture. There seems to be
an element of brittle fracture. There is also a presence of dimples on and around the
fracture surface. Macroscopically the ridges can indicate a presence of granular fracture.
To confirm this fracture we would have to take a look at the surface at a microscopic
level using a scanning electron microscope. This is illustrated in Figure 4.5.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 20

Figure 4.4: Fracture surface under stereomicroscope.

Figure 4.5: Fracture surface under Scanning Electron Microscope -Al 6061-T651.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 21

As mentioned on the previous page, we now take a look at the fracture surface
microscopically in Figure 4.5 under an SEM. The image is magnified by a 1000 times
and the charge of electrons used is 13kV. At first look at the image, we notice a few
distinct features, such as the presence of a ridge which resemble a rift valley at the center
of the image, we also notice an irregular distribution of voids and dimples. The surface
seems to be very irregular in terms of whether it is purely ductile fracture or brittle
fracture. The surface seems to exhibit features of both kinds of fractures. As discussed in
section 2.0, and illustrated in figures 2.2 and 2.3, the fracture seems to be a transitional
ductile to brittle fracture. The size of the central rift valley is approximately 25
micrometers, using the scale of 10 micrometers as a reference. Also the voids seem to be
more profound around the central rift valley. This could be due to the presence of
different types of atoms. Let us take a closer look at the rift valley under a higher
magnification in the next image.

Figure 4.6: Fracture surface under SEM (2500x)

In figure 4.6, we take a look at the rift valley which we spotted in figure 4.6 under higher
magnification (2500x). The so called valley indicates brittle fracture in that particular
region. The valley is formed due to the propagation of voids along the grain boundaries
or along the grains of the material. As discussed in section 2.0, this could be intergranular
or transgranular fracture. Also the presence of distinct voids around the valley, indicates
the presence of ductile fracture. This transition from ductile to brittle fracture and vice
versa can be attributed to the presence of different atoms in the alloy, as Al 6061 has the
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 22

presence of elements like Nickel and Silicon. To confirm this theory we use the same
image in Figure 4.6 and increase the charge of the electron to 20 kV, using the back
scatter of electrons to produce images of particles.

Figure 4.7: Backscatter image of fracture surface using SEM.

Figure 4.7 illustrates the image captured using the backscatter of electrons to produce
images of the particles present in the specimen. We also notice the presence of another
rift valley indicating granular failure. The dark patches indicate the presence of dimples,
which are seen in ductile fracture. As mentioned before, there is a presence of a large
number of particles of different sizes and densities, leading to the transitional ductile to
brittle fracture.

Overall, the achieved results were in accordance with the published values and theoretical
principles. Although, the ultimate tensile strength was higher than that published. This
could be attributed due to the preparation of the alloy. The slightest change in
composition of the elements in the alloy can lead to significantly different results.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 23

5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations:

This lab was performed to tensile test a specimen of Aluminum 6061-T6511. The
experiment was performed over two phases. The first phase involved taking dimensional,
hardness and roughness data of the test specimen, and then subjecting it to a tensile test.
After the tensile test, the dimensions, hardness and roughness were measured. The second
phase of the lab was to inspect the fracture surface under a stereomicroscope and a
scanning electron microscope to discuss the kind of fracture that took place.

The results obtained were in agreement with the published values, such as the Young’s
Modulus was found to be equal to 10,350ksi, the Ultimate Tensile Strength was found to
be equal to 49000psi, the Yield at 0.2% offset was found to be equal to 46000psi, and the
material was found to exhibit a ductile to brittle transitional fracture. The most significant
result of the tensile test was that Aluminum 6061-T6511 exhibited both ductile and brittle
properties in fracture allowing it to undergo plastic deformation even though there is a
presence of brittle failure.

One of the most significant limitations encountered in the lab was the pressure of time on
individual groups when it came to taking images of the fracture surface under the stereo
and scanning electron microscopes. This could have been overcome if groups more time
was available to perform the experiment.

The presence of scratches on the surface of the specimen could have also led to a
discrepancy between published and experimental values. This limitation can be overcome
by ensuring the removal of scratches by the use of sandpaper.
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 24

6.0 REFERENCES

Aerospace Specification Metals, Inc (2010). ASM Material Data Sheet. Retrieved January 28,
2010, from http://asm.matweb.com/search/SpecificMaterial.asp?bassnum=MA6061T6

Argo-Tech Materials Laboratory. (2003). SEM Imaging. Retrieved January 28, 2010, from
http://www.atclabs.com/Photos.htm

Boyer, H.E., Gall, T.L. (1985). Metals Handbook. American Society for Metals, Materials Park,
OH.

Carleton College. (2010). Scanning Electron Microscopy(SEM). Retrieved January 30, 2010,
from http://serc.carleton.edu/research_education/geochemsheets/techniques/SEM.html

Charles Sturt University. (n.d.). Retrieved January 28, 2010, from

http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/engineering_studies/lifting/3210/index.html

Direct Industry. (n.d.). Tensile/Compression testing machines – INSTRON. Retrieved January 29,
2010, from http://www.directindustry.com/prod/instron/tensile-compression-testing-machine-
18463-41713.html

Far Asia Co., Ltd (China). (2003). Rockwell Hardness Tester. Retrieved January 29, 2010, from
http://www.farasia.com.cn/products/prod0071.htm

Fischer, Traugott (2009). Materials Science for Engineering Students. Burlington, MA: Elsevier
Inc.

Hendrix Group, Inc. (2004). The Hendrix Group – Ductile/Brittle Fracture. Retrieved January
29, 2010, from http://www.hghouston.com/x/50.html

Interactive Nano-Visualization in Science and Engineering Education. (n.d.). Retrieved January

27, 2010, from http://invsee.asu.edu/srinivas/stress-strain/ssgraph.jpg.

Holt, J.M. (1996). Structural Alloys Handbook. CINDAS/Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (2010). CPRL. Retrieved January 29,2010, from

http://web.mit.edu/cprl/www/other.shtml

M & I Instruments Inc. (2008). Surface Roughness Tester TR200. Retrieved January 29, 2010,
from
http://www.microinstruments.ca/Products/SurfaceRoughnessTesters/SurfaceRoughnessTestersT
R200.htm
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 25

(n.d.). Tools. Retrieved January 29, 2010, from http://www.painterguitars.com/Dave/tools.htm

 Al 6061 Tensile Test 26

7.0 Appendix I: Sample Calculations

Dimensional Data
Dimension Type Before Failure After Failure
Gage Section Width 0.4963 in 0.48 in
Gage Section Length 2.045 in 2.155 in
Gage Section
Thickness 0.1283 in 0.1197 in
Specimen Length 8.22 in 8.468 in

Cross sectional area used for computing stress = gage section width X gage section
Thickness
2
= (0.1283in)(0.4963in) = 0.0637in

Final Area = (0.48in)(0.1197in) = 0.0575in2

% reduction in area = (0.0637 – 0.0575)/(0.0637) X 100 % = 9.89%

%elongation of gage section = (2.155 – 2.045)/(2.045) X 100 % = 5.38%

 Al 6061 Tensile Test 27

8.0 Appendix II: Raw Data

TESTNU POINTNU Stress
M M TIME POSIT FORCE EXT σ(psi) Strain(ε)  
-
0.0420 21.424 0.00054 -5.4829E- -5.49387E-
525 1 7.393 5 9 8 336.3406 06 06
12.57 0.0459 27.426 0.00132 430.56125 1.32501E- 1.32766E-
525 2 7 5 75 5 7 05 05
14.15 0.0512 33.342 0.00223 523.42293 2.23882E-
525 3 7 25 04 9 6 05 2.2433E-05
17.49 40.512 0.00300 635.98938 3.00638E- 3.01239E-
525 4 7 0.0623 52 6 2 05 05
18.73 0.0663 47.264 0.00370 741.98760 3.70085E- 3.70825E-
525 5 7 25 61 1 3 05 05
19.80 0.0700 54.233 0.00427 851.38317 4.27656E- 4.28511E-
525 6 1 25 11 7 9 05 05
21.19 0.0746 62.615 0.00515 982.97490 5.15379E-
525 7 7 5 5 4 4 05 5.1641E-05
22.25 0.0780 69.670 0.00603 6.03102E- 6.04308E-
525 8 9 25 56 1 1093.7294 05 05
22.79 0.0798 75.758 0.00661 1189.3089 6.61589E- 6.62912E-
525 9 8 75 98 6 5 05 05
23.13 0.0811 82.280 0.00771 7.71247E- 7.72789E-
525 10 8 25 22 2 1291.6832 05 05
23.67 0.0829 89.277 0.00860 1401.5316 8.60795E- 8.62517E-
525 11 7 75 57 8 3 05 05
24.37 0.0851 99.117 0.00986 1555.9989 9.86896E-
525 12 8 25 13 9 7 05 9.8887E-05
24.91 0.0869 107.25 0.0001115
525 13 7 75 43 0.01113 1683.7403 0.0001113 23
25.25 113.38 0.01182 1779.9993 0.0001182 0.0001184
525 14 7 0.0882 6 5 1 45 82
25.61 0.0894 120.18 0.01286 1886.6768 0.0001286 0.0001289
525 15 8 5 13 6 1 63 2
26.13 0.0909 129.37 0.01402 2030.9520 0.0001402 0.0001405
525 16 8 75 16 7 1 68 48
26.68 0.0928 140.17 0.01553 2200.5942 0.0001553 0.0001556
525 17 1 25 79 5 9 45 56
27.03 0.0940 146.29 0.01664 2296.6266 0.0001664 0.0001668
525 18 7 75 51 9 9 94 27
27.37 154.12 0.01742 2419.6115 0.0001742 0.0001746
525 19 7 0.0953 93 6 7 61 09
27.91 0.0968 163.13 0.01870 2560.9422 0.0001870 0.0001874
525 20 7 25 2 5 1 54 28
28.25 0.0980 170.11 0.01958 2670.5640 0.0001958 0.0001962
525 21 9 75 49 3 4 27 18
28.43 0.0986 176.43 0.02070 2769.7672 0.0002070 0.0002074
525 22 7 75 42 7 5 66 81
28.79 0.0999 183.79 0.02192 2885.2779 0.0002192 0.0002196
525 23 8 25 22 2 6 2 58
28.97 0.1005 189.86 0.02274 2980.6307 0.0002274 0.0002278
525 24 8 25 62 4 8 44 99
525 25 29.31 0.1017 198.58 0.02381 3117.4316 0.0002381 0.0002386
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 28

7 75 04 4 9 35 12
29.67 204.61 3212.1049 0.0002480 0.0002485
525 26 7 0.1027 11 0.02481 3 96 92
29.85 210.52 3304.9662 0.0002565 0.0002570
525 27 7 0.1033 64 0.02565 8 03 16
30.19 0.1045 220.19 0.02711 3456.7155 0.0002711 0.0002716
525 28 7 5 28 2 3 24 66
30.55 0.1057 229.78 0.02860 3607.3324 0.0002860 0.0002865
525 29 9 75 71 2 8 18 9
30.91 238.38 0.02981 3742.3210 0.0002981 0.0002987
525 30 7 0.107 58 7 2 72 69
31.07 0.1076 245.23 0.03106 3849.9043 0.0003106 0.0003113
525 31 7 25 89 9 5 91 12
0.1085 252.40 0.03205 3962.4706 0.0003205 0.0003212
525 32 31.44 5 94 6 1 6 01
31.79 0.1097 263.02 0.03362 4129.1682 0.0003362 0.0003369
525 33 8 75 8 8 1 77 5
32.13 0.1110 273.48 0.03521 4293.3743 0.0003521 0.0003528
525 34 8 25 79 8 4 77 81
32.49 0.1122 284.09 0.03671 0.0003671 0.0003678
525 35 8 5 21 6 4459.8451 64 98
32.85 0.1134 294.49 0.03827 4623.1452 0.0003827 0.0003835
525 36 7 75 44 9 8 89 55
33.19 303.59 4766.0609 0.0003961
525 37 7 0.1144 81 0.03954 7 0.0003954 91
33.55 0.1156 0.04151 4947.2534 0.0004151 0.0004159
525 38 9 25 315.14 4 6 38 68
33.91 0.1168 327.04 0.04329 5134.1091 0.0004329 0.0004338
525 39 7 75 28 6 9 57 23
34.25 338.51 0.04498 5314.1691 0.0004498 0.0004507
525 40 9 0.1181 26 6 2 62 62
34.61 0.1193 350.92 0.04697 5508.9512 0.0004697 0.0004707
525 41 7 25 02 8 8 83 22
34.97 0.1205 362.85 0.04875 5696.2592 0.0004875 0.0004884
525 42 8 5 17 1 6 11 86
35.31 0.1214 371.24 0.04995 0.0004995 0.0005005
525 43 7 75 85 7 5828.077 73 72
35.49 380.75 0.05134 0.0005134 0.0005144
525 44 7 0.1221 62 6 5977.3343 63 9
35.85 0.1233 392.87 0.05327 6167.5867 0.0005327 0.0005338
525 45 7 5 53 4 3 43 09
36.19 0.1245 406.01 6373.9195 0.0005512 0.0005523
525 46 7 75 87 0.05512 7 02 05
36.55 418.44 0.05711 6568.9283 0.0005711 0.0005722
525 47 7 0.1258 07 2 3 23 65
36.91 0.1267 426.82 0.05829 6700.5189 0.0005829 0.0005840
525 48 7 25 31 1 8 11 77
37.07 0.1273 436.76 0.05979 6856.5711 0.0005979 0.0005991
525 49 7 5 36 9 2 89 85
37.43 0.1285 449.32 0.06178 7053.8445 0.0006178 0.0006190
525 50 7 75 99 2 1 18 53
37.79 0.1298 463.07 0.06375 7269.6900 0.0006375 0.0006388
525 51 9 25 93 6 2 56 31
0.1304 471.62 7403.7723 0.0006487 0.0006500
525 52 37.96 25 03 0.06487 8 04 02
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 29

38.31 0.1316 486.45 0.06712 7636.6047 0.0006712 0.0006726

525 53 9 5 17 8 3 75 18
38.67 0.1328 501.45 0.06952 7872.1544 0.0006952 0.0006966
525 54 7 75 62 2 4 17 07
39.01 0.1338 509.33 0.07073 7995.8181 0.0007073 0.0007087
525 55 7 25 36 7 8 7 85
39.19 0.1344 519.80 0.07228 8160.2499 0.0007228 0.0007242
525 56 7 25 79 1 6 14 59
39.55 0.1356 534.27 8387.4195 0.0007452 0.0007466
525 57 7 75 86 0.07452 5 01 92
39.91 547.26 0.07660 8591.2606 0.0007660 0.0007675
525 58 7 0.1369 33 4 9 36 68
40.07 0.1375 555.81 0.07789 8725.5706 0.0007789 0.0007804
525 59 8 25 88 2 1 2 78
40.43 0.1387 572.59 0.08042 8988.9770 0.0008042 0.0008058
525 60 7 5 78 3 7 33 41
40.80 0.1396 581.18 0.08189 9123.7392 0.0008189 0.0008205
525 61 2 75 22 4 5 45 83
40.95 592.29 0.08343 0.0008343 0.0008360
525 62 9 0.1403 13 9 9298.1369 88 57
41.31 0.1415 605.39 0.08547 9503.7899 0.0008547 0.0008564
525 63 7 25 14 7 3 66 75
41.49 0.1421 613.36 0.08669 9629.0394 0.0008669 0.0008686
525 64 7 5 98 2 4 19 53
41.67 0.1427 620.95 0.08778 9748.1720 0.0008778 0.0008796
525 65 7 5 86 8 1 85 41
41.85 0.1433 629.29 0.08918 9879.0833 0.0008918 0.0008936
525 66 7 75 76 7 2 66 5
42.01 0.1439 637.70 0.09033 10011.127 0.0009033 0.0009051
525 67 8 75 88 8 2 8 87
42.19 645.68 0.09175 10136.376 0.0009175 0.0009193
525 68 7 0.1446 72 4 7 43 79
42.55 0.1455 658.41 0.09344 10336.139 0.0009344 0.0009363
525 69 7 25 21 5 9 49 18
42.73 0.1461 666.67 0.09481 10465.919 0.0009481 0.0009500
525 70 7 5 91 6 6 56 52
42.89 0.1467 674.44 10587.770 0.0009593 0.0009612
525 71 7 75 1 0.09593 5 04 23
43.07 0.1473 683.03 0.09722 10722.758 0.0009722 0.0009742
525 72 7 75 97 8 8 8 24
43.25 691.75 0.0009847 0.0009867
525 73 8 0.148 38 0.09848 10859.558 99 69
43.43 699.87 0.09974 10987.071 0.0009974 0.0009994
525 74 7 0.1486 65 1 7 1 04
43.64 0.1492 708.57 0.10115 11123.644 0.0010115 0.0010135
525 75 7 25 62 7 8 73 96
43.77 0.1498 716.98 0.10259 11255.688 0.0010259 0.0010279
525 76 7 5 74 2 6 2 72
43.96 0.1504 725.16 0.10355 11384.108 0.0010355 0.0010375
525 77 2 75 77 1 7 15 86
44.13 0.1510 733.50 0.10501 11515.019 0.0010501 0.0010522
525 78 8 75 67 4 1 35 36
44.47 741.29 0.10611 11637.324 0.0010611 0.0010633
525 79 8 0.1517 75 9 1 93 15
525 80 44.65 0.1526 752.89 0.10790 11819.421 0.0010790 0.0010811
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 30

7 25 72 1 6 11 69
44.83 0.1532 760.86 11944.443 0.0010929
525 81 8 25 1 0.10908 1 0.0010908 81
45.01 0.1538 769.22 0.11046 12075.807 0.0011046 0.0011068
525 82 8 5 89 9 6 89 98
45.19 0.1544 777.10 12199.471 0.0011162 0.0011184
525 83 7 75 63 0.11162 3 03 35
45.37 784.86 0.11284 12321.322 0.0011284 0.0011307
525 84 7 0.1551 82 5 2 48 05
45.53 792.68 0.11406 12444.079 0.0011406 0.0011429
525 85 9 0.1557 79 9 5 93 74
45.71 0.1563 799.80 0.11517 12555.738 0.0011517 0.0011540
525 86 7 25 05 5 4 5 53
45.89 0.1569 807.86 0.11633 12682.346 0.0011633 0.0011656
525 87 7 25 55 5 6 55 82
46.25 0.1578 818.39 12847.683 0.0011787 0.0011811
525 88 7 5 75 0.11788 8 98 56
46.43 0.1584 825.66 0.11903 0.0011903 0.0011926
525 89 7 75 88 1 12961.834 12 92
46.59 0.1590 833.11 0.12034 13078.702 0.0012034 0.0012058
525 90 7 75 33 7 4 71 78
46.77 840.32 0.12137 0.0012137 0.0012161
525 91 7 0.1597 7 1 13191.947 05 33
0.1603 847.80 0.12271 13309.268 0.0012271 0.0012295
525 92 46.96 25 04 4 7 38 92
47.13 0.1609 855.31 0.12369 13427.269 0.0012369 0.0012393
525 93 8 25 71 2 7 16 89
47.31 0.1615 862.37 0.12469 13538.023 0.0012469 0.0012494
525 94 9 5 21 7 1 67 61
47.49 0.1621 869.93 0.12588 13656.703 0.0012588 0.0012613
525 95 7 75 2 5 4 47 64
47.65 876.81 0.12701 13764.737 0.0012701 0.0012727
525 96 7 0.1628 38 8 5 78 18
48.01 0.1637 888.37 0.12876 13946.156 0.0012876 0.0012902
525 97 7 25 02 3 6 31 07
48.19 0.1643 895.75 14062.118 0.0013000
525 98 7 25 7 0.12975 7 0.0012975 95
48.37 0.1649 903.57 0.13089 0.0013089 0.0013115
525 99 7 5 66 2 14184.876 23 41
48.53 0.1655 910.93 0.13206 14300.384 0.0013206 0.0013232
525 100 7 5 45 2 8 19 61
48.71 0.1661 918.36 0.13330 14417.027 0.0013330 0.0013357
525 101 7 5 46 5 1 47 13
48.89 0.1667 926.25 0.13450 14540.916 0.0013450 0.0013477
525 102 9 75 64 2 9 18 08
934.06 0.13577 14663.447 0.0013577 0.0013604
525 103 49.08 0.1674 16 2 2 2 35
49.25 942.08 0.13684 14789.375 0.0013684 0.0013711
525 104 7 0.168 32 1 1 11 48
49.43 0.1686 949.94 0.13795 14912.811 0.0013795 0.0013823
525 105 7 25 61 6 7 59 18
49.61 0.1692 958.31 0.13926 15044.175 0.0013926 0.0013954
525 106 7 25 4 3 3 27 12
49.95 0.1701 969.40 0.14084 15218.343 0.0014084 0.0014112
525 107 7 25 85 4 9 35 52
 Al 6061 Tensile Test 31

Hardness Data
After
Serial No. Before Failure Failure
1 59.2 HRB 65 HRB
2 61.1 HRB 65.5 HRB
3 60.6 HRB 64.7 HRB

Roughness
Data
After
Serial No. Before Failure Failure
1 0.309 μm 1.146 μm
2 0.316 μm 1.510 μm
3 0.281 μm 1.509 μm

Note : the raw data shown above is one part of the entire data collected in the lab. More
raw data is contained in the CD attached with this lab report.