1

UNIT 1
Nutritional
Science
Photo: iStockphoto
 1
CHAPTER 1

Cells
Objectives
Cell structure and
function
How the body is
organized
Nutrition and
cellular interaction
Parts of cells
Body function
Cell types
Summary
Photo: iStockphoto
1
Objectives

In this chapter, you’ll learn how your body’s cells:

• get nutrients from the food that we eat, and
• use these nutrients for the raw materials and fuel
to keep us alive.
At the end of this chapter, you should have a
working knowledge of how humans are
organized, from the organismal level all the way
down to the atomic level.
You should be able to recognize:
• the main cell organelles;
• what each organelle does; and
• how each organelle interacts with organic
molecules to do its most important jobs in the
body.
You’ll start to build the foundation of physiological knowledge that you’ll need to
make and apply nutrition plans.
UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells 39
Cell structure and function
The cell is the most basic structural and functional unit of all living things. All living tissues are built from
cells.
In terms of nutrition, our cells have two basic roles:
• to get nutrients from the food that we eat, and
• to use these nutrients for the raw materials and fuel to keep us alive.
How your body works depends on how each cell works.
Adult humans have trillions of cells. All work together to keep us alive.
To do these basic jobs, cells must:
• grow, mature, and die;
• exchange gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide (i.e., respiration);
• absorb and digest nutrients;
• circulate blood and other fluids;
• get rid of waste; and
• reproduce.
Together, these cellular tasks are known as metabolism.
We need proper nutrition for our cells to work properly. This means getting the right nutrients, in the right
amounts.
When we eat well, our cells function well. When we don’t eat well, problems happen.
Healthy cells means healthy metabolism. Unhealthy cells means unhealthy metabolism.

How the body is organized

Cells — and by extension, our body — are organized into systems, each system nested into another. See
Figure 1.1.
And our body lives within even larger systems.

Ecosystem
Our body lives within ecosystems — dynamic, interactive, interconnected networks of living things.
Some scientists even think that given how many bacteria are on us and in us, humans aren’t even really
“separate” bodies at all!

Organism
The organism is, well, you.
An organism is a definably self-contained living system. For the purpose of this program, we can say that you as a
human are a distinct organism. (Bacterial buddies notwithstanding.)

As an organism, the human body can reproduce, replace, and repair itself, all to stay alive and to
maintain homeostasis: the state of balanced function in the body.

Organ systems
Complex organisms, such as humans, are made up of organ systems.
• Integumentary system: This system protects the body from external damage. It includes your skin,
hair, nails, sweat glands, and other external structures.
METABOLISM
Sum of reactions that take place to build up and break down the body

HOMEOSTASIS
The body’s ability to maintain a stable and constant internal condition
40 UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells
ENZYME
Substance that helps catalyze chemical reactions
• Skeletal system: This system gives the body a rigid structure so that it can move and hold itself up. It
includes your bones, tendons, ligaments, and other structures.
• Muscular system: This system moves us, whether it’s to move you across the room, to move your
blood through blood vessels, or to move food through your intestines. This system includes your
skeletal muscles, cardiac muscles (in your heart), and smooth muscles (part of arteries and veins,
bladder, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, uterus, and more).
• Nervous system: This system sends electrochemical signals that trigger thoughts, emotions, and
movement as well as involuntary activity (such as breathing). It includes your brain as well as a vast
network of nerves and supporting structures.
• Endocrine system: This is your cellular communication system. It includes your hormonal organs and glands,
including the hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, liver, pancreas, kidney, adrenal
glands, testes, ovaries, and more.
• Circulatory system: This system transports hormones, enzymes, nutrients, and other chemicals throughout
the body. It includes your heart, blood, and blood vessels.
• Immune system: This system protects against pathogens, tumor cells, and other foreign invaders. It includes
your thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and other similar organs.
• Respiratory system: This system brings in oxygen and excretes carbon dioxide. It includes your nasal cavity,
trachea, lungs, and other airways and gas exchange organs.
• Digestive system: This system breaks down and absorbs nutrients from food and drink. It includes your oral
cavity, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and the other organs associated with digestion including the liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, and bile duct.
• Urinary system: This system produces, stores, and eliminates urine. It includes your kidneys,
ureters, bladder, urethra, and related organs and glands.
• Reproductive system: This system controls reproduction as well as sexual development. It includes
your sex organs and glands.
While these organ systems have distinct jobs, they also work closely together. This is important for
nutrition coaching.
For instance, if something is out of order in the gastrointestinal tract (say, with a client who often gets an
upset stomach), it’s probably out of order elsewhere (for instance, in the endocrine system or nervous
system).
We’ll talk more about this in later chapters.

Organs
Organ systems are made up of individual organs. Each organ has at least one specific job, and often
several.

Tissues
Collectively, our tissues make up our organs.
• Epithelial tissues make up our skin.
• Connective tissues make up structures such as our joints and fascia.
• Muscle tissues make up our skeletal muscles and heart, and are part of several other organ
systems
• Nervous tissues make up our brain, nerves, and associated structures.
Our tissues do many things, such as:
• form protective barriers against outside invaders (epithelial tissues);
• hold us together (connective tissues);
 UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells

Organism (You) Organ systems Organs Tissues Cells

Made up of different Group of different Made up of Formed by Consists of
organ systems. organs working different similar many
together. tissues. cell types. organelles.

• move the body around (skeletal muscle tissues); or

• communicate between cells (nervous tissues).

Cells
Tissues are made up of large groups of cells.
Cells range in size from about 7 to 300 micrometers. To give you some perspective, the dot over this
letter “i” is about 100 micrometers.
Cells show us how living matter is wonderfully unique in its diversity. For example, immune cells can
engulf pathogens and destroy them, while muscle cells have sliding filaments that cause muscle
contraction and relaxation. (Fun factoid! The axon of a motor neuron in the spinal cord can be up to 1
meter long.)

Organelles
Each cell is like a tiny city. Within each cell are organelles, collections of molecules / chemicals that have
particular jobs, much like different utilities (such as power production or waste disposal) within a city.
There are over 24 known organelles. We’ll talk about the most important ones — such as the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria — in this textbook.
These organelles do their jobs in a semi-fluid matrix called the cytosol.

Chemicals
Fundamentally, we are a soup of chemicals.
 41

Organelle Chemical
Made up of
different
chemicals.

FIGURE 1.1
Structural levels of organization in the body

ORGANELLE
Component of the cell that is responsible for a specific task

CYTOSOL
Internal fluid portion of the cell

ATOM
Basic unit of a chemical element

MOLECULE
Group of atoms bonded together

MACROMOLECULES
Chemicals are built from structures of varying sizes, from atoms (smallest), to molecules, to A large
molecule.
macromolecules (largest).
42 UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells
 Plasma
membrane

Nucleus

Endoplasmic
reticulum

FIGURE 1.2
Cell structure
and organelles

MACRONUTRIENT
Nutrient the body requires in large amounts (i.e., protein, fat, carbohydrates)

MICRONUTRIENT
Organic compound the body requires in very small amounts (i.e., vitamins and minerals)

COMPOUNDS
 Mitochondria

Lysosome

Cytoplasm

Golgi apparatus

Peroxisome

Macromolecules are made up of groupings of molecules. Molecules are made up of tiny particles called
atoms. And these atoms, which are invisible to the naked eye, make up all material things of the
universe.
So if you think about it, nutrition coaching is really about harnessing the fundamental particles of
everything that exists.
As astronomer Carl Sagan famously said, “The cosmos is also within us. We’re made of star stuff.”
Our body can only do what it does if our cells, and the organelles within them, can do what they do: send and
receive messages, create proteins, etc. Indeed, nearly everything that happens in the body is based on making
proteins, and what those proteins do.
Think of the body as a manufacturing plant — that also manufactures itself. The proteins we make not
only break down and rebuild the plant itself, they break down and rebuild the machines, the workers, the
messengers, and lots of other stuff.
We’ll get more into this idea as the chapter progresses. For now, just remember that every level of human
organization depends on the health of important subunits — our cells — and the proteins they make.
Consisting of two or more substances

POTENTIAL ENERGY
Energy stored within a physical system

CO-FACTOR
Non-protein compound that interacts with another substance to facilitate a transformation
Nutrition and cellular interaction
In general, the macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals),
phytochemicals, and zoochemicals we eat are broken down through the digestive process into smaller compounds
such as amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, etc.

These digested and absorbed compounds then travel through our bloodstream to interact with our
cells. Our cells use those compounds in many ways, such as:
1. To provide potential energy that’s later released by breaking the chemical bonds between the
macronutrients.
 UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells

2. To provide raw materials that can then be incorporated into our body structures, including tissues and
organs.
3. To act as co-factors for chemical reactions in the body. All of the chemical reactions that take place in the
body require the help of particular proteins called enzymes. These enzymes often use nutrients gathered
from the food we eat to do their job.
4. To stimulate the release of hormones, which act as chemical messengers, directing overall body
function with their unique messages.
Because of these various and important roles that nutrients have, the food we eat can
fundamentally change how our body works.
No wonder nutrition is so critical!

NUTRITIONAL INDIVIDUALITY
In the previous chapter, we looked at why there is no one “best diet”.
One reason is that not everyone responds the same way to the digestion and absorption of particular foods —
or to the uptake of particular nutrients into the cell. Research suggests that although the basic mechanics are
the same, there are important and intriguing individual differences, which are likely due to our unique genetic
makeups.
Each cell in our body houses our genetic code, a series of nucleic acids called DNA, in an organelle called
the nucleus. This code, which is unique to each of us, provides cellular instructions for making proteins we
need for our structure and function.
As we all have slightly different genetic profiles, the proteins we make may also differ. These variations are responsible
for our individual responses to the food we eat. See Figure 1.3.

In general, these differences are quite small. All humans share over 99.9% of the same genes. You
may have even heard that humans and chimpanzees share between 95% and 98% similarity in their
DNA, which is also true.
In addition, many important genes have been evolutionarily conserved. This means that those genes
appeared very early in our evolutionary history, perhaps even back in the days of single-celled bacteria.
For instance, much of what we know about the health effects of fasting comes from research on a tiny, primitive
flatworm known as Caenorhabditis elegans. C. elegans has nearly 200 known genes that respond to dietary restriction.
These genes are involved in things like
 43

HORMONE
Compound created by one cell that travels to and stimulates another cell

GENETICS
Specific, inherited DNA of an organism, which influences what they become, although environment also plays a key role in the
expression of an organism’s genetic code

DNA
Nucleic acids that contain instructions for heredity

NUCLEUS
Organelle where genetic material is housed

GENE
A particular sequence in DNA or RNA that controls the expression of a protein, and by extension influences the characteristics of
an organism

EVOLUTIONARILY
CONSERVED
Something that’s remained essentially unchanged throughout evolution

FIGURE 1.3
DNA inside the nucleus
Cell nucleus contains chromosomes. Chromosomes contain DNA. DNA provides cellular instruction
for making proteins.
44

GENETIC POLYMORPHISM
Variation in the form of one or a sequence of genes

BIOACTIVE
Having a biological effect

UPREGULATED
An increase of a cellular component

DHA
Docosahexaenoic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid

NUTRIGENOMICS
Study of how genes respond to nutritional intake
UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells

knowing when metabolism is disrupted; looking for and repairing DNA damage; and hunting for cancer-
type overgrowths. We share 45 of those genes.
Thus, we are much more alike than we are different.
However, these small genetic differences, called genetic polymorphisms, explain why some people respond
slightly differently to various types of foods. These differences may also explain why many research studies
seem to have confusing or conflicting conclusions.

Differences in nutrient processing

For example, we all have a gene in our liver for making a particular enzyme that breaks down caffeine. However, due to
these small genetic differences, some of us have the enzyme that breaks down caffeine quickly. Others have the
enzyme that breaks down caffeine slowly.

• In people with the fast enzyme, caffeine is processed and removed quickly, while the antioxidants
found in coffee can help protect against free radicals.
• However, in people with the slow enzyme, the caffeine hangs around longer, causing health
problems.
So imagine a study that asks: “Is 1-3 cups of coffee a day healthy or unhealthy?”
The answer would be: “For whom?”

Differences caused by nutrients themselves

Not only are there individual differences in response to the same foods, different foods have particular
nutrients and other bioactive components that can actually change the message expressed by our
unique genes.
For example, isothiocyanates found in broccoli can switch on a gene in the liver that detoxifies
cancer-causing chemicals and other toxins.
Without the broccoli, this gene stays inactive. Our body looks for other detoxifiers. With the broccoli, this gene is
upregulated and participates more actively in the detoxification process.

Some of us have this gene, and some don’t. If we don’t have the gene, broccoli can’t help us fight cancer
in this particular way. (Of course, broccoli does other good things.)
Another example is cooked tomatoes, which contain compounds (lycopenes) that switch off growth-
promoting genes in the prostate. With cooked tomatoes in the diet, prostate cancer risk decreases;
without the tomatoes, risk increases.
Fish oil is yet another example. Fish oil (specifically DHA — a fatty acid found in fish, other marine animals, and
fish / algae oil supplements) might signal genes in the brain to produce a chemical that preserves brain function
with age. People who consume more omega-3 fats tend to have better cognitive function as they age, compared
with those who consume less.

Thus, nutrition can strongly influence our gene expression. And our genes, in turn, affect how we respond
(or don’t) to a given nutrition plan. This genetic diversity and its relationship with nutrition is an emerging
area of research called nutrigenomics.
 UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells 45

Nutrition in practice
Your skin color, body size, hair type, and risk of specific illnesses all depend on how your genes
interact with your environment.
For instance, your genes may suggest that you’ll grow to somewhere between 5'5" and 5'8". But your
actual height is an interaction between genes and environment. If you grow up malnourished, you
won’t ever reach 5'8".
What we eat early in life (and what our moms eat while they’re pregnant) can affect our genes
and regulate our traits — including the development of diseases, even decades later.
For example, data from the WWII Dutch Famine show that children of undernourished mothers
had higher risk for cardiovascular disease, obesity, and breast cancer later in life. (In fact, this
“famine memory” can persist for generations, “remembered” by descendants’ genes.)
Our genes can be influenced by all kinds of things, such as:
• nutrient deficiencies or excesses (especially at crucial developmental stages);
• dietary components (e.g., omega-3 fats, phytoestrogens, cruciferous vegetables, lycopene,
folate, carotenoids, and so forth);
• sunlight and vitamin D;
• toxins (such as industrial chemicals, pesticides, heavy metals);
• bacteria and viruses;
• exercise and activity;
• alcohol and other drugs;
• stress, trauma, and mood;
• circadian rhythms (such as sleep, shift work, light-dark cycles, and travel across time
zones); and
• a host of other factors we probably don’t even know about yet.
If that sounds a little scary, consider it from the opposite perspective: While we can’t control our
genes themselves, we can affect their expression — whether they’re likely to get “switched on” or
off.
Our genetic expression is strongly shaped by our environment… over which we do have some
power. So, if we know more about our genetic variants, we might be able to adjust our lifestyle or
environment in order to prevent some illnesses or become healthier.
For example, certain gene variants can tell us:
• how food is metabolized;
• whether carcinogens in cooked meats will influence the development of colon and prostate
cancers; or
• our inflammatory response and efficiency of DNA repair / replication.
If we know more about our own unique risk factors, we might be more likely to make healthier choices
— choices that could improve our genetic expression.
CIRCADIAN
Any biological process that reoccurs naturally on a day-night cycle
Genetic screening may show us the way to individualized nutrition and exercise
46 UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells

prescriptions. But we’re not quite there yet. Here’s what we know right
now.
ONE SIZE DOESN’T FIT ALL.

Genetic subgroups might respond differently to different foods and

activity types. In theory, genetic screening might help us
customize food (and supplement) intake and exercise
prescriptions for each person’s unique needs.
THE DETAILS ARE KINDA HAZY.

In practice, it’s not as clear how genetic diversity might play out
or how much it even matters. After all, we also choose food and
exercise based on other things like taste, preference,
convenience, price, and cultural norms.
GENE EXPRESSION ISN’T A DESTINY. IT’S A SET OF POSSIBILITIES.

What if your genes show you’re all slow-twitch endurance

athlete but you think fast-twitch sprint events are more fun?
How closely should you stick to your “blueprint”? How much
can you affect your genetic expression through environment
and habitual choices?
WE DON’T HAVE ALL THE ANSWERS YET.

Measuring nutrient-gene interactions takes time and effort.

Genetic mapping is complicated, sometimes expensive, and error-
prone. And for any of this to matter, gene testing has to tell us
what to actually do with that information.
Genetic testing is interesting. Provocative. Complex. And let’s
be honest, kinda cool. But for now, it raises more questions than
it answers.
STAY TUNED.

When genetic screening companies are able to more cost-

effectively test the entire genome (again, most only test a part of
it) we should have a greater understanding of gene sequencing
and its use in nutrition. Most experts predict that’ll happen within
a few years, as the cost of sequencing the entire genome drops
from $10,000 to $500.

Needless to say, there is an important relationship between what we eat

and how our cells function. Throughout this course, this interaction will
become clearer.
By the end of this course, you should have a better grasp of how to
optimize health, body composition, and performance by controlling
nutrient intake. However, before we talk more about food, let’s discuss
the cell in depth, and in particular, the main cellular components and
organelles.

Parts of cells
To better understand how the food we eat interacts with our body, it’s
important to learn about the structures, chemicals, and organelles within
each of our cells. In this chapter, we’ll review the following organelles:
Plasma membrane
Mitochondrion
Nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosome
Peroxisome
 UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells

These organelles and approximately 17 others (there are about 24 or so in total) give our cells their structure and
function, which are in turn often shaped by our nutrient intake.

Plasma membrane
Around the edge of each cell is a boundary, known as the plasma membrane, separates the cell from its
neighbors and from the rest of our body. The plasma membrane’s bilayer (double layer) acts like a
protective wall, keeping important chemicals in while keeping harmful chemicals out.
The plasma membrane is made up of lipids, proteins, cholesterols, and other chemicals. It has an
interesting nature: while it forms a structural boundary between the cell and the rest of the body, this
boundary is flexible and fluid-like. Membranous organelles — specialized sacs and canals — can float
around within the plasma membrane, rather like icebergs floating around in the ocean.
This fluid-like boundary is made up mostly of phospholipids, molecules with phosphate “heads” and fatty
acid “tails”. The phosphate “heads” of the lipid molecules that form the bilayer are hydrophilic (water-loving)
and therefore can bond to water-based molecules. On the other hand, the fatty acid “tails” of the lipid
molecules that form the bilayer are hydrophobic (water-fearing) and bond best with fat-based molecules.
 47

PLASMA MEMBRANE
Lipid bilayer that is permeable to certain compounds that contains the cell

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
A type of lipid with a hydrophilic phosphate group “head” and hydrophobic fatty acid “tail” that forms cell membranes
This dual-purpose membrane creates a boundary that regulates what gets into and out of cells. See
Figure 1.4.
The cell needs to be choosy about what can enter and exit. Thus, most molecules must enter the cell
through one of several membrane proteins. These proteins are like gates in a fence, allowing only
particular molecules to pass through. We’ll talk more about these cellular proteins later in this chapter.
Because of this lipid structure, the types of fats we eat can change how fluid or flexible the cell
membrane can be.
• Too much saturated fat may cause the membrane to be too rigid.
• Too much polyunsaturated fat may cause the membrane to be too fluid.

Extracellular fluid
Transported molecules

Region of
higher
concentration
Pump protein
Carrier protein

Phospholipid
bilayer

Energy

Region of ATP
lower
concentration (c) Active Transport
(a) Simple diffusion (b) Facilitated diffusion
(against concentration gradient)

Passive Transport
(follows concentration gradient) Cytoplasm
 HYDROPHILIC
Strong affinity for water

HYDROPHOBIC
Lack of affinity for water

FIGURE 1.4
Plasma membrane

Outside the cell

Cell membrane

Inside the cell

48

SATURATED FAT
A fat with fatty acids that have no double bonds between the individual carbon atoms of the fatty acid chain

TRANS FAT
Fat derived from the partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils

MONOUNSATURATED FAT
A fat with one double bond between the carbons in the fatty acid chain

POLYUNSATURATED
A fat with two or more double bonds between the carbons in the fatty acid chain

CYTOPLASM
The protoplasm of a cell exclusive of that of the nucleus and cell wall

MITOCHONDRIA
Organelles that supply the cells’ energy / ATP (singular: mitochondrion)

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
ATP, source of energy for physiological reactions

MITOCHONDRIAL
MEMBRANE
The double biomembrane surrounding the mitochondrion
UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells

Because most people eat too many saturated and trans fats, we often need to balance that with getting
enough mono- and polyunsaturated fats. We’ll look at this more later on. For now, just remember that fat
balance affects how the cell works in important ways.

Cytosol
The interior space of the cell is composed of a gel-like solution called cytosol. Many organelles, enzymes, salts
and other organic molecules, including stored carbohydrates and fats, are suspended and maintained by the
cytosol. The body carries out many of its chemical reactions in this gel-like matrix, including most of its
enzymatic reactions. Cytosol, together with all the organelles, except the nucleus, are called cytoplasm.
The cytosol is rich in stored carbohydrates that can be broken down quickly and used to transfer
energy. This process is controlled by cytosolic enzymes.
Exercise and other physical activity creates a demand for more energy. The cell responds by making more of these
enzymes along with storing more carbohydrate and fat for future use. The cell also gets better at breaking down these
carbohydrates for energy. This is especially true in skeletal muscle cells, since this is where active people need most
of their energy.

A key point here for nutrition coaching is that regular exercise and other activity can powerfully affect
cellular makeup, metabolism and function. Activity can fundamentally change how the body uses,
processes, and stores nutrients. Active bodies will thus respond differently than inactive bodies to the
same nutrition plan.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria (plural of mitochondrion) convert nutrients into energy.
Just like you can’t eat an egg until you crack open its shell (well, at least we don’t recommend it), you can’t
use the energy stored in carbohydrates, proteins, and fats until you break their chemical bonds.
Mitochondria convert the energy released from this process into adenosine triphosphate (or ATP), the
energy currency of the cell.
Mitochondria produce most of the body’s energy — about 95% of it. The rest is produced in other parts of the
cell. If mitochondria don’t work well, we don’t work well. (Or at all.)
Mitochondria make ATP in their inner mitochondrial membranes. The outer membrane of the
mitochondrion is porous, while the inner membrane is the main barrier between it and the rest of the cell.
The inner membrane contains folds called cristae, which are studded with the enzymes and structures that
help make ATP.
Since the mitochondria generate power for the cell, more mitochondria means more energy, and more active
cells. Conversely, the more active we are, the more mitochondria we likely have (and since your heart is beating
all day, every day, it also has plenty of mitochondria to keep pace). More mitochondria means more total energy
production for a muscle.
Elite athletes usually have a high mitochondrial density. This means they not only build more total mitochondria
with training, they also build more mitochondria per unit of muscle mass. This gives them the ATP they need for
high-level performance. Once again, we can see how regular movement and activity can change the fundamental
structure and function of cells.

Having a lot of mitochondria is good, but we also want them to be effective. In other words, we want
mitochondrial quality as well as quantity. In order to understand this, let’s look at a little bit of biochemistry.
When we make ATP for energy, our cells consume oxygen, and produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) as
a byproduct. Just as with nutrient processing, not everyone does this at the same rate.
UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells 49

Healthy food
Good environment

ATP (energy)

Exercise

Stress

Unhealthy food

Free radical

Toxins
Different people may make ATP at different rates. They may use different amounts of oxygen to do this;
they may need different amounts of food energy to do this; and they may produce different amounts of
ROS in the process.
In general, although ROS are a natural part of this reaction, we don’t want to make too many at once, or
have them hanging around too long. ROS can cause cellular damage, including damaging our DNA.
Scientists used to think that the more oxygen we consumed, the more ROS we’d make.
However, we now believe that mitochondrial efficiency changes this equation.
• People with less-efficient mitochondria make more ROS with every unit of ATP they produce.
• People with more-efficient mitochondria make fewer ROS for the same amount of ATP.

So if your mitochondria are efficient, you make lots of energy with fewer damaging waste products. You
feel great, you perform well, and you live longer.
While there is a genetic component to mitochondrial function, it’s strongly affected by how we live, what
we eat, and what we do.
See Figure 1.5 for more.
FIGURE 1.5
Mitochondria efficiency and effects
Nutrition in practice

Nutrient deficiencies can affect our mitochondrial function. Statin

drugs, depression, fibromyalgia, or Parkinson’s disease are all
associated with low levels of co-enzyme Q10 (CoQ10). We need
this compound for energy production in the mitochondria.
Another compound, an amino acid called L-carnitine, is also
involved in energy production in the mitochondria. L-carnitine is
found mainly in animal foods. While our body can make L-
carnitine, clients who eat a mostly or entirely plant-based diet
might find supplementation helpful.
50

CHROMOSOMES
Located in the nucleus, contain genetic information

TRANSCRIPTION
The synthesis of RNA using a DNA template

TRANSLATION
Forming a protein molecule based on the information contained in the mRNA

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Cytoplasmic membrane that translates proteins

GOLGI APPARATUS
Cytoplasmic organelle necessary for the modification and transport of proteins

RIBOSOMES
A complex rich in RNA and protein found in cells

LIPIDS
Any class of organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives

STEROID HORMONES
Hormones possessing steroid ring system, including androgens, estrogens, and adrenocortical hormones

GLYCOPROTEINS
Protein that contains a carbohydrate group, involved in membrane integrity

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Manufacturing of proteins from amino acids; guided by DNA

RIBONUCLEIC ACIDS (RNA)

Various nucleic acids on a single strand containing ribose and uracil, necessary for the control of cell activities

CISTERNAE
Flattened membrane disc of Golgi apparatus (plural: cisternae)
UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells

Nucleus
The nucleus, usually found in the central part of the cell, is the largest organelle. Most cells have only
one nucleus, though muscle cells have more than one. The nucleus is Mission Control, home of our
DNA, also known as the genetic code.
Wrapped up in chromosomes, our DNA dictates which proteins are formed in the body. This ultimately
determines everything from how the body develops, to how it repairs itself, to how it transports and / or
metabolizes every chemical introduced into circulation. In many ways, our DNA also determines how
muscular we can get.
As we’ve discussed, there is an important link between our DNA, our food intake, and our health. In
fact, much of what we eat interacts directly with our DNA or causes hormonal cascades that influence
our DNA.
These relationships begin in our nucleus: Chemicals can bond with our DNA to begin making cellular
proteins, processes called transcription and translation.

ER and Golgi apparatus

The endoplasmic reticulum, or ER, is a “circulatory” network found inside the cytosol, near the nucleus.
When our DNA sends out a signal to make proteins, the ER and Golgi apparatus receive this genetic
message. They then make and transport the proteins.
There are two types of ER: smooth and rough.
Rough ER is lined with ribosomes, which give it a “rough” appearance. Ribosomes are the protein
factories of the cell.
Smooth ER doesn’t have ribosomes, so it doesn’t make proteins. Instead, it builds lipids, steroid
hormones, and carbohydrates to use in glycoproteins.
Making proteins, or protein synthesis, takes place using ribonucleic acids (RNA).
Once these proteins are synthesized in the ribosomes of the rough ER, they move towards the Golgi
apparatus. This organelle prepares the newly formed protein molecules that will leave the cell.
The Golgi apparatus contains cisternae (tiny disc-like “holding tanks”, similar to the word “cistern”) that are
stacked on one another and small, circular vesicles. These vesicles (small sacs) act like little chaperones,
engulfing the protein molecules and transporting them to the cell membranes, where they’ll either be sent
elsewhere into the body, or incorporated into the membrane itself. See Figure 1.6.
Proteins are thus always being built up and broken down within our cells. This takes energy and protein
for raw materials. If we don’t eat enough, or don’t eat enough protein, our cells can’t do their jobs of
synthesizing and transporting the proteins we need. Over time, this can lead to problems such as
hormonal imbalances, depressed immune function, or poor recovery from exercise (perhaps even
injuries).

Lysosomes and peroxisomes

Lysosomes are the “garbage disposal units” of our cells. They are vesicles, containing more than 50 different
enzymes, which can break down cellular components and protect cells. If a large molecule, such as an old
cellular structure or a microorganism, enters the cell, the lysosome will engulf it then digest and dispose of it.
By keeping the cells clear of waste and debris, lysosomes help renew and protect the cell.
Peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes: they are small membranous sacs containing enzymes
 |
UNIT 1 Chapter 1 Cells
51
 incoming vesicles

enzyme

lysosome
contains digestive
enzymes that break
down cell parts or
substances entering
by vesicles

transport vesicle
takes lipids to
Golgi apparatus

lipid

smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
synthesizes lipids and
has various other functions

ribosome
 secretion

plasma
membrane

secretory vesicle

Golgi apparatus
modifies lipids and
proteins from the ER;
sorts and packages
them in vesicles

protein

transport vesicle

takes proteins to
Golgi apparatus

rough endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
synthesizes proteins and
Nucleus packages them in vesicles
FIGURE 1.6
Endoplasmic reticulum

VESICLES
Fluid filled pouch / sac that can transport and store compounds

LYSOSOME
Organelle containing
hydrolytic enzymes

MICROORGANISM
Organism of microscopic size

PEROXISOME
Cytoplasmic organelle with enzymes that help with the breakdown of fatty acids and other macromolecules
(catalase and oxidase), which also detoxify harmful substances that enter cells. Found commonly in liver
and kidney cells, peroxisomes are also important in cholesterol synthesis, bile acid synthesis, ß-oxidation,
and prostaglandin metabolism.
Like mitochondria, peroxisomes are able to break down fats for energy. However, when they do this, they
produce 30-40% more energy as heat but 30% less energy as ATP.
Since dietary omega-3s increase fat breakdown through peroxisomes, more fat is burned to do the same
daily activities when omega-3 intake is high. Unfortunately, omega-3 supplementation is not a magic fat loss
method: The overall impact is minor.

Body function
Let’s look now at how these cellular components, and the chemicals they make and use, work together
within the body.

Enzymes
Enzymes make up the largest group of proteins in the body. You can often spot enzymes by their names,
which typically end in “-ase”, such as:
• lipase (enzymes that break down lipids);
• protease (enzymes that break down proteins); or
• amylase (enzymes that break down carbohydrates).
Enzymes are important biological catalysts, substances that jump-start and speed up nearly every
chemical reaction that occurs in the body.
Enzymes work by exposing their own “active sites” to connect with particular molecules. Once the enzyme can
hold these molecules in place, reactions can occur. One model of this process is the lock-and-key model. In this
model, the enzyme and its chemical partner fit together tightly and carry out their reaction. In another model, the
induced fit model, the enzyme and chemical partner undergo structural changes when close to one another,
eventually fitting together properly and starting the reaction. You can think of this like puzzle pieces that change
their shape when they are near each other.
DETOXIFY
To remove a poison or toxin from the body

CHOLESTEROL
Synthesized in the liver of humans and other animals. A precursor of bile acids and steroid hormones

BILE
A yellow or orange fluid produced by the liver, concentrated and stored in the gallbladder; released into small intestine
for fat digestion

ß
Beta, the second letter of Greek alphabet

PROSTAGLANDIN
Class of physiologically active fatty acid compounds present in various tissues; can have hormone-like effects

CATALYST
A substance that accelerates a chemical reaction

LOCK-AND-KEY MODEL
Model that explains enzyme specificity
52

Bond

Active site
 UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells

1 The substrate, sucrose, consists of Glucose

glucose and fructose bonded
together.

2 The substrate binds to the enzyme,

forming an enzyme-substrate complex.

H2 O

3 The binding of the substrate

and enzyme places stress on
the glucose-fructose
bond and the bond breaks.
Enzyme
 Fructose

4 Products are released, and the enzyme is free to bind with other substrates.
FIGURE 1.7
Enzymes

INDUCED FIT MODEL

Model that suggests enzymes are rather flexible structures

CO-ENZYME
Non-protein compound that forms the active portion of an enzyme system
No matter what model you apply, the key idea is that enzymes must somehow fit and connect with their chemical
partners. Lipase can only work with lipids; it can’t work with proteins.

See Figure 1.7.

Many environmental, genetic, and nutritional factors — including temperature, pH, substrate concentration,
and vitamin and mineral status — can influence how enzymes work. Thus, nutrition plays an important role
in most enzymatic reactions.

Nutrition in practice

Salivary amylase is an enzyme in saliva that starts the digestion of starch. It helps to improve
our “mouth experience” while eating (e.g., enhanced taste of certain foods). We’ve known
about it for over 100 years.
Just recently, researchers found a correlation between obesity and a person’s ability to make
amylase. People with fewer AMY1 genes — thanks to genetic polymorphisms — might not
tolerate carbohydrates as well. People whose ancestors traditionally ate diets higher in starch
seem to have more AMY1. This is another example of the interaction between our environment,
culture, genes, and optimal dietary choices.

Co-enzymes
CATALYZE
Initiate or increase the rate of a chemical reaction
Just like a co-pilot works with a pilot, co-enzymes work with enzymes. Coenzymes are non-protein
molecules, made up wholly or partly of vitamins. We need them for enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells 53
For instance, pyridoxal phosphate, the active form of vitamin B6, acts as a co-enzyme in all
transamination reactions, a particular kind of chemical reaction involving amino acids. We’ll talk about
these types of chemical reactions later in the text.
And you may already have heard of co-enzyme Q10, which we mentioned earlier, and which is involved in
cellular respiration reactions.

Protein receptors
Protein receptors are found both in our cell’s plasma membranes and inside the cell.
As we’ve discussed, cell membranes help control what gets in and out of our cells. They do this, in part, with
membrane protein receptors that act like little chemical gates.
Cells get information about their outside world by signal transduction. The process is a little bit like the
telephone game you played as a kid.
A receptor on a cell binds to what is known as a ligand, forming a receptor-ligand binding complex. A ligand attaches
to its specific receptor and no other. The ligand activates its receptor, which then activates a second messenger inside
the cell. Then the second messenger activates another second messenger, and so on until the last second messenger
goes into the nucleus and triggers changes in gene expression that leads to some sort of cellular response.

An example of this process is our cellular response to insulin.

• After we eat, insulin is released from our pancreas and travels through the bloodstream.
• From there, it can bind to specific, insulin-friendly protein receptors on the membrane of our cells.
• Once bound, this connection signals to proteins inside the cells — usually called second messengers — to get
more channels to the membrane and accept glucose more readily.

Ligand
(primary
messenger)

1. Receptor- Receptor
ligand binding

CYTOSOL
Second
messenger
2. Signal
transduction 3. Cellular responses
(via second
messengers)

NUCLEUS
SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION
Conversion of one signal to another by a cell

RECEPTOR-LIGAND
BINDING COMPLEX
A complex formed between a receptor and a substance to allow for further cellular activity

LIGAND
An ion or molecule that binds to another molecule or metal atom

SECOND MESSENGER
Substance that mediates intracellular activity by relaying a signal from an extracellular molecule

FIGURE 1.8
Protein receptor and cellular signaling
4.
C
h
a
n
g
e
s

i
n

g
e
n
e

e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
54 UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells
COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL CELLS
Pillar-shaped cells that line many surfaces of the body

GOBLET CELLS
Mucus-secreting epithelial cell that distends taking on form of a goblet; found often in respiratory and intestinal tracts
As we’ve stressed already, physical activity changes how our cells respond to nutrients. Repeated
muscular contractions (for instance, 30 minutes of pumping our legs on a bike) tell the cell to move more
protein receptors to the cell membrane. This helps glucose get into the cell more efficiently and effectively
to help refill the fuel tank.
What we eat can also influence second messengers. For instance, caffeine in coffee / tea, theobromine in
cacao, and theophylline in tea / cacao can all inhibit phophodiesterase, an enzyme that breaks down
second messengers in cells. So, in the case of caffeine, this means stronger / faster heart muscle
contractions, greater blood vessel constriction, and enhanced stomach acid secretions.
See Figure 1.8.

Transport proteins
Transport proteins are also involved in cellular communication. These live in cell membranes and let molecules pass
between spaces inside the cells and spaces outside of cells.

This movement across the plasma membrane can take place via one of two mechanisms:

• passive transport (which doesn’t need energy), or

• active transport (which needs energy).
Active transport allows vitamins, minerals, glucose, and amino acids into cells. See Figure 1.9

In the next chapter, we’ll look at how some of these chemical processes and cellular structures
and tasks are involved in digestion.

Cell types
In the next chapter, you’ll meet some different cell types.
You’ll notice that many types end in the suffix “cyte”. This suffix will tell you that something is a cell. (For
more on this, see the “Language matters” sidebar.)
Each cell’s structure can tell you about its job. For instance:
• Enterocytes, which line the intestine, are shaped like little brushes. This increases their surface area
and helps them absorb nutrients.
Much of the gastrointestinal tract is lined with columnar epithelial cells. These are tall skinny cells.
• If their job is to absorb nutrients, there’s only one layer of them.
• If their job is to secrete things (like saliva), they’re stacked on top of each other like cases of beer.
Stacked cells are known as stratified cells.
Some columnar epithelial cells are known as goblet cells because of their shape.

• Cuboidal, or cube-shaped cells, are found in the salivary glands and the lining of the mouth.
Because of their shape, they tend to be a little stronger and tougher, so they’re often used as
structural cells.
• Squamous cells are flat cells that look a bit like layers of fish scales. They line the esophagus and help protect it from
stomach acid. They’re easily sloughed off and replaced.

The structure of myocytes, or muscle cells, allows them to produce force in order to move our body
around.
There are many types of cells within the human body. You won’t learn
them all.
 UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells 55

Extracellular fluid
Transported molecules

Region of
higher
concentration
Pump protein Outside the cell
Carrier protein

Phospholipid
bilayer
Cell membrane

Energy

Region of ATP
lower
concentration (c) Active transport Inside the cell
(a) Simple diffusion (b) Facilitated diffusion
(against concentration gradient)

Passive transport
(follows concentration gradient) Cytoplasm

Just get the general idea: Cells are not only diverse inside, they’re diverse outside too. Each FIGURE 1.9
unique cell type and structure is adapted for a specific job. Transport proteins

Language matters

Many of our English medical terms come from ancient Greek or

Latin, or even older sources. You’ll notice we often mention where
these terms come from.
Obviously, you don’t have to brush up on the classics to
become a nutrition coach.
But you may find it helpful to understand where words come
from, so that you can guess at what an unfamiliar word might
mean.
For instance:
“Entero” comes from the Greek enteron, or intestine.
“Hepatic” comes from the Greek hepatikos, or liver.
“Gastric” comes from the Greek gaster, or stomach.
“Cyte” comes from the ancient Greek kyto, which refers to a
hollow or empty container. We now use it to refer to cells.
“Epi” comes from the even more ancient Proto-Indo-European epi,
meaning near, at, or against.
So any time you see a form of these words, you’ll know what you’re dealing with.
For instance, enterocytes are intestinal cells. Hepatocytes are liver cells.
56 UNIT 1 | Chapter 1 Cells

Epithelial cells are cells that are the top layer of

something, such as the innermost layer of the
esophagus.
This study of where words come from is known as etymology.
This can give us clues about what those words mean. It can
also help you if English is not your first language.
If you’re having trouble recalling a particular term in this course,
try Googling “etymology” and that term. You might learn a little
factoid or two about that term that helps it stick with you.
Get to know the language of your field and where it comes
from, and you’ll probably find that your understanding and
comfort with the terminology improves. (And you’ll
remember it better when tested!)

Summary
1. The trillions of cells of the human body work together to form tissues,
organs, and organ systems. The total of all of the activities taking
place in these systems is what most people refer to as “metabolism”.
2. There are many levels of organization in the body, from microscopic
atoms up to fully functional organisms (and beyond, to ecosystems).
These systems are interconnected, and all must work properly for
organisms to thrive.
3. Our cells have many jobs, including:
• converting nutrients into energy (particularly ATP)
• making proteins (under the direction of our DNA)
• moving those proteins, nutrients and other substances around
(including in and out of the cell across the membrane) and
• clearing waste and debris from the cell.
4. Our cells use specialized structures and molecules (such as enzymes
and co-enzymes, or protein receptors) to begin and carry out chemical
reactions; to send cell signals; and / or to transport other molecules.
5. The food we eat interacts with the small chemical reactions and
processes taking place in our cells.
6. Food thus affects our health in five ways. It:
a. provides energy
b. provides molecules involved in
chemical reactions c. is incorporated
into body structures
d. influences chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters
e. affects genetic protein-making signals as well as the quality of the
proteins that are made