Aws C4.4 C4.4M-07

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2nd Edition
Supersedes AWS C4.4/C4.4M:2004
Prepared by the
American Welding Society (AWS) C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting
Under the Direction of the

AWS Technical Activities Committee
Approved by the
AWS Board of Directors
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This second edition of Recommended Practices for Heat Shaping and Straightening covers the shaping of metal products
by prudent use of heat to obtain a desired configuration. The text reviews the theory and analytical calculations that
explain how heat shaping and straightening occurs. Sample calculations and tables are presented for typical materials.
General heating patterns and heat shaping and straightening techniques are discussed. Specific heating applications are
illustrated for various sections.
550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126
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International Standard Book Number: 978-0-87171-079-6

American Welding Society
550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126
© 2007 by American Welding Society
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
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All standards (codes, specifications, recommended practices, methods, classifications, and guides) of the American
Welding Society (AWS) are voluntary consensus standards that have been developed in accordance with the rules of the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). When AWS American National Standards are either incorporated in, or
made part of, documents that are included in federal or state laws and regulations, or the regulations of other govern-
mental bodies, their provisions carry the full legal authority of the statute. In such cases, any changes in those AWS
standards must be approved by the governmental body having statutory jurisdiction before they can become a part of
those laws and regulations. In all cases, these standards carry the full legal authority of the contract or other document
that invokes the AWS standards. Where this contractual relationship exists, changes in or deviations from requirements
of an AWS standard must be by agreement between the contracting parties.
AWS American National Standards are developed through a consensus standards development process that brings
together volunteers representing varied viewpoints and interests to achieve consensus. While the AWS administers the
process and establishes rules to promote fairness in the development of consensus, it does not independently test, evalu-
ate, or verify the accuracy of any information or the soundness of any judgments contained in its standards.
AWS disclaims liability for any injury to persons or to property, or other damages of any nature whatsoever, whether
special, indirect, consequential, or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use of, or reliance
on this standard. AWS also makes no guarantee or warranty as to the accuracy or completeness of any information
published herein.
In issuing and making this standard available, AWS is neither undertaking to render professional or other services for or
on behalf of any person or entity, nor is AWS undertaking to perform any duty owed by any person or entity to someone
else. Anyone using these documents should rely on his or her own independent judgment or, as appropriate, seek the
advice of a competent professional in determining the exercise of reasonable care in any given circumstances. It is
assumed that the use of this standard and its provisions are entrusted to appropriately qualified and competent personnel.
This standard may be superseded by the issuance of new editions. Users should ensure that they have the latest edition.
Publication of this standard does not authorize infringement of any patent or trade name. Users of this standard accept
any and all liabilities for infringement of any patent or trade name items. AWS disclaims liability for the infringement of
any patent or product trade name resulting from the use of this standard.
Finally, the AWS does not monitor, police, or enforce compliance with this standard, nor does it have the power to do so.
On occasion, text, tables, or figures are printed incorrectly, constituting errata. Such errata, when discovered, are posted
on the AWS web page (www.aws.org).
Official interpretations of any of the technical requirements of this standard may only be obtained by sending a request,
in writing, to the appropriate technical committee. Such requests should be addressed to the American Welding Society,
Attention: Managing Director, Technical Services Division, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126 (see Annex C).
With regard to technical inquiries made concerning AWS standards, oral opinions on AWS standards may be rendered.
These opinions are offered solely as a convenience to users of this standard, and they do not constitute professional
advice. Such opinions represent only the personal opinions of the particular individuals giving them. These individuals
do not speak on behalf of AWS, nor do these oral opinions constitute official or unofficial opinions or interpretations of
AWS. In addition, oral opinions are informal and should not be used as a substitute for an official interpretation.
This standard is subject to revision at any time by the AWS C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting. It must
be reviewed every five years, and if not revised, it must be either reaffirmed or withdrawn. Comments (recommendations,
additions, or deletions) and any pertinent data that may be of use in improving this standard are required and should be
addressed to AWS Headquarters. Such comments will receive careful consideration by the AWS C4 Committee on Oxyfuel
Gas Welding and Cutting and the author of the comments will be informed of the Committees response to the
comments. Guests are invited to attend all meetings of the AWS C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting to
express their comments verbally. Procedures for appeal of an adverse decision concerning all such comments are
provided in the Rules of Operation of the Technical Activities Committee. A copy of these Rules can be obtained from
the American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126.
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AWS C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting

A. T. Sheppard, Chair The DuRoss Group
M. J. Hogan, 1st Vice Chair The Harris Products Group, A Lincoln Electric Company
D. B. Overvaag, 2nd Vice Chair Smith Equipment Company, Division of ITW
A. M. Alonso, Secretary American Welding Society
J. D. Compton JD & Associates
J. D. Karow American General Corporation
L. L. Liston, Jr. Consultant
C. R. McGowan McGowan Technical Services
D. Mirgliotta Forest City Erectors, Incorporated
D. A. Pryor Thermadyne Industries, Incorporated
R. A. Smith Compressed Gas Association
Advisors to the AWS C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting

J. G. Dawson, Jr. Consultant
D. Hambleton Smith Equipment Company, Division of ITW
C. M. Hightower BMS, Incorporated
R. E. Holt Retired
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This foreword is not part of AWS C4.4/C4.4M:2007, Recommended Practices for Heat Shaping and
Straightening with Oxyfuel Gas Heating Torches, but is included for informational purposes only.
The shaping of metals by the use of heat has a long history of successful applications. This shaping has been used to
curve, camber, or otherwise shape a product as well as to correct members that have become distorted or damaged by
accident or fire.
This second edition of Recommended Practices for Heat Shaping and Straightening with Oxyfuel Gas Heating Torches
presents methods and techniques used by engineers and technicians to shape and straighten metal parts by careful appli-
cation of heat.
All revisions to the 2004 edition are identified by a vertical line in the margin next to the text.
Comments and suggestions for the improvement of this standard are welcome. They should be sent to the Secretary,
AWS C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road,
Miami, FL 33126.
vii
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viii
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Personnel......................................................................................................................................................................v
Foreword ....................................................................................................................................................................vii
List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................................................xi
List of Figures..............................................................................................................................................................xi
1. Scope.....................................................................................................................................................................1
2. Normative References .........................................................................................................................................1
3. Terms and Definitions.........................................................................................................................................2
4. Theory of Heat Shaping......................................................................................................................................2
5. Distortion..............................................................................................................................................................6
6. Fundamentals and Precautions..........................................................................................................................7
7. Equipment and Supplies.....................................................................................................................................8
7.1 Standard Equipment.....................................................................................................................................8
7.2 Special Equipment .......................................................................................................................................8
7.3 Oxygen Supply ............................................................................................................................................8
7.4 Fuel Supply..................................................................................................................................................8
7.5 Maximum Acetylene Pressure.....................................................................................................................9
7.6 Pressure Regulators .....................................................................................................................................9
7.7 Hoses and Fittings .....................................................................................................................................11
7.8 Heating Torches.........................................................................................................................................12
7.9 Heating Tip/Head.......................................................................................................................................12
7.10 Maintenance of Heating Tips or Heads .....................................................................................................12
7.11 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) .......................................................................................................13
7.12 Safe Use, Handling, and Storage of Gas Cylinders ...................................................................................14
8. Startup and Shutdown Procedure ...................................................................................................................15
8.1 Setting Up Equipment ...............................................................................................................................15
8.2 Lighting the Torch .....................................................................................................................................16
8.3 Equipment Shutdown ................................................................................................................................17
8.4 Equipment Not in Use ...............................................................................................................................17
8.5 Reuse of Equipment Already Connected...................................................................................................17
9. Flame Adjustment .............................................................................................................................................17
9.1 Types of Flames.........................................................................................................................................17
9.2 Flashback Arrestors and Check Valves .....................................................................................................18
10. General Technique ............................................................................................................................................19
11. Procedures for General Applications ..............................................................................................................20
11.1 Mechanically Restrained Structures ..........................................................................................................20
11.2 Freestanding Unrestrained Members.........................................................................................................21
11.3 Shaping of Plate.........................................................................................................................................23
11.4 Flattening Plates ........................................................................................................................................23
11.5 Plate Tightening.........................................................................................................................................23
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12. Procedures for Specific Applications...............................................................................................................23
12.1 Bending of Flat Bar, V Heat ......................................................................................................................23
12.2 Bending of Channel, V Heat......................................................................................................................26
12.3 Bending of Beams......................................................................................................................................26
12.4 Bending of Angle.......................................................................................................................................27
12.5 Bending of T Sections ...............................................................................................................................27
12.6 Bending of Plate ........................................................................................................................................30
12.7 Pipe ............................................................................................................................................................30
13. Line Heating and Flame Bending in Shipyards..............................................................................................30
13.1 Background................................................................................................................................................30
13.2 Basic Concepts...........................................................................................................................................32
13.3 Planning and Methods ...............................................................................................................................32
13.4 Recommended Practices............................................................................................................................33
13.5 Code Compliance.......................................................................................................................................33
13.6 Conclusions ...............................................................................................................................................33
14. Safety and Health ..............................................................................................................................................33
Annex A (Informative)Informative References .....................................................................................................35
Annex B (Informative)Fuel Gas Withdrawal Rates ...............................................................................................39
Annex C (Informative)Guidelines for the Preparation of Technical Inquiries.......................................................41
List of AWS Documents on Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting................................................................................43
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B.1 Acetylene Withdrawal..................................................................................................................................39
B.2 Methylacetylene-Propadiene Stabilized (MPS) Withdrawal .......................................................................39
B.3 Propylene Withdrawal..................................................................................................................................40
B.4 Propane Withdrawal.....................................................................................................................................40
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1 Shortening of Bar from Application of Heat .................................................................................................3
2 Variation in Yield Strength and Modulus of Elasticity with Respect to Temperature for
ASTM A 36 Steel...........................................................................................................................................4
3 Imperceptible Welding Distortion of a Thick Steel Plate ..............................................................................5
4 Welding Distortion of a Thin Steel Plate .......................................................................................................7
5 Oxygen Cylinder ............................................................................................................................................9
6 Typical Fuel Gas Cylinders............................................................................................................................9
7 Pressure Regulators......................................................................................................................................10
8 Hoses and Fittings ........................................................................................................................................11
9 Manual Heating Torch .................................................................................................................................12
10 Multi-Flame Heating Heads.........................................................................................................................13
11 Water-Cooled Flame Hardening Head.........................................................................................................13
12 Carburizing Flame........................................................................................................................................18
13 Neutral Flame...............................................................................................................................................18
14 Oxidizing Flame...........................................................................................................................................18
15 Basic Heating Patterns .................................................................................................................................20
16 Externally Restrained Plate ..........................................................................................................................21
17 Externally Restrained Beam.........................................................................................................................21
18 V Shape Heat Pattern for Straightening or Shaping a Flat Bar....................................................................22
19 Dimensions for Calculating Upset ...............................................................................................................23
20 Behavior of ASTM A 36 Steel Perfectly Confined in One Axis as a Function of Temperature .................24
21 Heat Patterns in Rolled Shapes ....................................................................................................................25
22 Spot Heat Repair of Dent in Plate ................................................................................................................25
23 Spot Heat Repair (Tightening) on Irregular Plate ........................................................................................26
24 Application of V Shape Heat Pattern and Direction of Movement .............................................................26
25 Bending of Channel Toward Flange ............................................................................................................27
26 Bending of Channel Toward Web ...............................................................................................................27
27 Bending of Channel Toward Open Side ......................................................................................................27
28 Bending of Beam Toward Open Side ..........................................................................................................28
29 Bending of Beam Toward Flange ................................................................................................................28
30 Bending of Angle Toward Face of Leg .......................................................................................................28
31 Bending of Angle Toward Edge of Leg.......................................................................................................29
32 Bending of T Section Toward Web .............................................................................................................29
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33 Bending of T Section Toward Flange ..........................................................................................................29
34 Bending of Plate...........................................................................................................................................29
35 Bending of Plate (More Movement) ............................................................................................................30
36 Decreasing Diameter of Heavy Wall Pipe ...................................................................................................31
37 Straightening of Pipe or Round....................................................................................................................31
38 Straightening Pipe or Round StockV Shape Heating with Serpentine Path ............................................31
39 Straightening Pipe or Round StockV Shape Heating with Line Heating Pattern ....................................32
xii
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1. Scope recommended practice is limited to fundamentals and sim-

ple applications (see Annex A for additional information).
This publication describes some causes of distortion and
This standard makes use of both U.S. Customary Units and
corrective actions through the use of heat. It also
the International System of Units (SI). The latter are shown
describes some heat shaping techniques and the direction
within brackets [ ] or in appropriate columns in tables
of movement expected in the heated metal. Equations are
and figures. The measurements may not be exact equiva-
provided to aid in estimating the amount of movement
lents; therefore, each system must be used independently.
for a given heating technique. The methods discussed are
specifically applicable to ferrous metals, but many of the Safety and health issues may not be fully addressed by
methods can be applied to nonferrous metals as well. For this standard. Users of this standard should consult ANSI
a more comprehensive description of specific applica- Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes,
tions, see Annex A, Informative References. applicable federal, state, and local regulations and other
relevant documents concerning safety and health issues
Heat has been used to shape and straighten structural ele- not addressed herein.
ments in bridges, buildings, and marine constructions for
over a hundred years. Since the late 1930s, the use of
oxyfuel gas torches to do this work has become more
prevalent. This publication is a recommended practice 2. Normative References
for using the torch process for work on bridges and The following standard contains provisions, which,
buildings, and to some extent, shipbuilding. through reference in this text, constitute mandatory pro-
visions of this AWS standard. For undated references,
Mechanical forces in fabrication and erection, forces
the latest edition of the referenced standard shall apply.
occurring in service, accidental impacts from external
For dated references, subsequent amendments to, or revi-
forces, fire, and explosion, all cause stress in a structural
sions of, any of these publications do not apply.
member or a part of a member. If that stress exceeds the
elastic limit of the material, distortion will occur, and the AWS documents:1
member will not conform to its desired shape. Heat shap-
ing and straightening is an economical method to pro- AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions,
duce the desired movement to bring the member into Including Terms for Adhesive Bonding, Brazing, Solder-
conformance. ing, Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying; and
AWS F4.1, Recommended Safe Practices for Prepara-

The shipbuilding industry throughout the world has
tion for Welding and Cutting of Containers and Piping.
taken heat shaping to new heights in shaping technology.
Particularly, the use of line heating to shape complex Other documents:
curves in hull structures has become an integral part of a
group technology in shipbuilding which also includes ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied
product work packages and accuracy control. Processes;2
Basically, straightening and shaping involves controlled 1 AWS standards are published by the American Welding Society,
thermal expansion and contraction of a structural ele- 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126.
2 ANSI Z49.1 is published by the American Welding Society,
ment. The method, location, and shape of the heat appli-
cation are covered briefly in this publication. This 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126.
1
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CGA E-5, Torch standard for welding and cutting;3 and whereby; it can potentially cause an explosion at any
point in the system.
ISO 5175, Equipment used in gas welding, cutting
and allied processes Safety devices for fuel gases and line heat. Heat applied in a linear manner.
oxygen or compressed air General specifications,
requirements and tests.4 modulus of elasticity (or Youngs Modulus). A physi-
cal constant, usually represented by the letter E, that
expresses the ratio of stress and strain below the
proportional limit in pounds per square inch.
3. Terms and Definitions
patterns. See V heat, line heat, spot heat, and block
All the terms in this section are used in various parts of
heat.
this document and require definition for correct interpre-
tation of the instructions. AWS A3.0, Standard Welding plastic flow. Slip or atomic movement within a material
Terms and Definitions, Including Terms for Adhesive when stressed beyond its elastic limit into a plastic (or
Bonding, Brazing, Soldering, Thermal Cutting, and permanent) deformation mode.
Thermal Spraying, provides the basis for terminology
used in this document. Some of the terms are listed in quenched and tempered. A heat treatment of steel per-
AWS A3.0, but their definitions have been enhanced to formed by heating steel to not less than 1650°F
clarify their use in this document, as noted below. [899°C], quenching in water or oil, then tempering at
not usually less than 1100°F [593°C].
For the purposes of this document, the following terms
and definitions apply: shape. To camber, curve, straighten, or produce sweep in
a member.
apex. The narrow or pointed end of a V heat shape
pattern (see Clause 10). spot heat. A flame bending pattern at a given point (see
Clause 10).
backfire. The momentary return of the flame into the
torch that is usually signaled by a popping sound. The strain. Deformation in inches per inch [mm/mm].
flame may either extinguish or reignite at the end of
the tip. sustained backfire. The return of the flame into the
torch with continued burning inside the torch. This
block heat. A heating pattern that moves in a linear fash- event can be identified by an initial popping sound
ion, weaving back and forth in a marked area main- followed by a squealing or hissing sound caused by
taining the same width. the continued burning inside the torch.
coefficient of thermal expansion. An alloy-specific thermal stress. Stress in metal resulting from nonuni-
numerical value (with units of in/in/°F [mm/mm/°C]) form temperature distributions.
which can be used to calculate the change in unit
length or the change in volume of a solid when its upset. The localized material thickening resulting from
temperature is changed. the application of heat.
cold restraining material. The material, or portion V heat. Heat applied for flame bending in a V-shaped
thereof, preventing movement (expansion) of the pattern (see Clause 10).
heated area, thus causing the heated portion to upset.
yield strength. Stress level at which permanent dimen-
flashback. The return of the flame through the torch and sional changes begin to take place in a material.
into the hose and/or regulator. It may also reach the
cylinder. This event is caused by the oxygen and fuel
mixing in one side of the oxyfuel system and subse-
quently being ignited at the tip. This condition is gen- 4. Theory of Heat Shaping
erally caused by the reverse flow of one gas into the
other side of the system. Flashback can be hazardous, Much has been written about heat curving/straightening
(see Annex A), and most of the literature delves into
3 CGA standards are published by the Compressed Gas Associ- engineering theory. This document will do that to some
ation, 4221 Walney Road, 5th Floor, Chantilly, VA 20151. extent in the paragraphs below, but first there will be a
4 ISO standards are published by the International Organization practical example of the phenomenon so that the user can
for Standardization, 1, rue de Varembé, Case Postale 56, CH- better understand what happens to the steel member that
1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland. needs to have a change in geometry.
2
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Take a steel bar of 1 in I 1 in I 6 in [25 mm I 25 mm I if the logic described above is followed, the mystery
150 mm] and heat it to 1100°F [593°C]. The bar will disappears.
attain a dull red color. The bar will expand three dimen-
sionally; length, width, and depth. When it cools it goes The engineering theory follows.
back to its original shape.
Metal expands as it is heated. The restraint of this expan-
If the bar is put in a vise (see Figure 1) and is similarly sion by adjacent cooler metal causes plastic strain, and
heated, it will try to expand in all directions. It will not be cooling causes deformation which can change the shape
able to expand lengthwise; however, it will become of a member. If there is no restraint, or if the attempt to
thicker (it expands in the width and depth directions). expand does not cause stresses to exceed the yield
When the heat source is removed, the material will cool strength of the metal, there will be no permanent defor-
and contract in all three dimensions. What was the mation. However, restraint of the expansion of a metal,
thicker portion, width and depth, contracts and the bar as it is heated, can stress a portion of the member beyond
shortens. its yield point and cause permanent deformation (plastic
strain). The basic equations for expansion and contrac-
In practice, the surrounding unheated steel will act like tion are as shown below.
the vise to restrain movement. In a beam, girder, or other
shape, the unheated portion of the flange or web restrains At or below the elastic limit,
the movement of the heated zone. The material gets
thicker in the heated zone and shortening follows during Ô ã Ôø ¬÷ (1)
cooling. This shortening causes movement of the mate-
rial. Thus by the application of heating patterns in proper Beyond the elastic limit,
locations, the curvature wanted or unwanted is counter-
Í
balanced by the movement (shortening) of the steel. ÔãÔ ø ¬÷ – (2)
Û
As a result, bent portions of beams and girders can be
straightened, dimples in webs can be removed, camber At or below the elastic limit,
can be added or removed, and all kinds of heat shaping
can be performed. The use of heat to straighten or curve Ô
ãÆã I ¬ (3)
a steel member has been called black magic; however, Ô
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ã êòë I ïðŠê ·²ñ·²ñpÚ Åïïòé I ïðŠê ³³ñ³³ñpÝÃ
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Figure 1Shortening of Bar from Application of Heat
3
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Beyond the elastic limit, NOTE: Both S and E change with changes in tempera-
ture (see Figure 2).
Ô Í (4)
ã Æ ã ø I ¬÷ – Structural steel has an average coefficient of thermal
Ô Û expansion ( ) of 6.5 I 106 in/in/°F [11.7 I 106 mm/
mm/°C]. It has a Modulus of Elasticity (E) of 29 000 ksi
where:
30 000 ksi [200 000 MPa207 000 MPa]. Using Equation
L = initial length, in inches [millimeters] (1), if a bar of ASTM A 36 material is heated so that the
= coefficient of thermal expansion, in inch temperature increases by 180°F [100°C], the bar will
change in length per inch length per ºFin/ elongate approximately 0.0012 in [0.03 mm] for every
in/ºF [millimeter change in length per milli- inch [25.4 mm] of initial length of the bar. This amounts
meter length per °Cmm/mm/°C] to slightly more than 1/8 inch in ten ft [3 mm in 3 m].
t = change in temperature, °FFahrenheit, [°C Å L = (1 in) (6.5 I 106 in/in/°F I 180°F) = 0.0012 in
Celsius]
L = (25.4 mm) (11.7 I 106 mm/mm/°C I 100°C) =
S = yield strength, psi [MPa]This changes with 0. 030 mm]
temperature for A 36 steel (see Figure 2)
E = Modulus of Elasticity, psi [MPa]This Å L/L = 0.0012 in/1 in = 0.0012 in/in
changes with temperature for A 36 steel (see L/L = 0.030 mm/25.4 mm = 0.0012 mm/mm]
Figure 2)
When the bar is restrained, the restraint prevents the
L = change in length, in inches [millimeters] due
elongation in the example above, and this in turn induces
to the change in temperature
a stress (f) in the bar. This is sometimes called residual
L/L = unit deformation, in inches per inch [milli- tensile stress (see Figure 3).
meter per millimeter]
Z = strain, in inches per inch [millimeter per milli- L
fã IE or Z I E (5)
meter], also Z = L/L L
Figure 2Variation in Yield Strength and Modulus of Elasticity

with Respect to Temperature for ASTM A 36 Steel
4
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Ì®¿ª»®-» -¸®·²µ¿¹» ·²¬»²¼»¼ ã ðòððîé ·²ñ·² I í ·² ã ðòðèï ·² øðòððîé ³³ñ³³ I éê ³³ ã ðòîï ³³÷
Figure 3Imperceptible Welding Distortion of a Thick Steel Plate
where: tained. However, various stress levels, depending on

temperature change, would be induced in the bar.
f = stress, in pounds per square inchpsi
[pascalsPa] The equations will only give approximations of the
L/L = unit deformation, in inches per inch [milli- changes since they assume perfect restraint and instanta-
meters per millimeter] neous uniform heating and cooling. In practice, these
L/L = Z or strain, in inches per inch [millimeters conditions can be approached but not obtained.
per millimeter]
NOTE: The numerical values shown in the examples are
E = Modulus of Elasticity, in pounds per square
rounded off to simplify the text.
inchpsi [pascalsPa]
For example: if there is a temperature change of +180°F
For mild steel the unit deformation at the yield strength
[100°C] (see calculations above), the stress (f) induced in
(S) is approximately 0.015 inches per inch [0.015 milli-
the bar by complete restraint will be:
meters per millimeter]. By inspection one can see that
the elongation in the example above does not exceed this Åf = Z I E or f = 0.0012 in/in I 30 000 000 psi =
unit deformation; therefore the stress is at or below the 36 000 psi
elastic limit. If the bar is heated and cooled uniformly
without restraint, its length when cooled to the initial [f = Z I E or f = 0.0012 mm/mm I 207 000 000 kPa =
temperature will be the same as the initial length. 248 000 kPa]
If the expansion of a bar is completely restrained, the This stress level is close to the yield strength of the mate-
original length of the bar would be mechanically main- rial, but it does not exceed it. Since the elastic limit has
5
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
not been exceeded, there will be no permanent set (defor- 5. Distortion

mation) in the bar.
Distortion is movement from the original shape or condi-
If another ASTM A 36 bar is completely restrained, and tion that remains in place after the source of such move-
the temperature is elevated by 400°F [222°C] the yield ment has been removed. Temperature change or
strength (S) and the Modulus of Elasticity (E) will change mechanical force can result in distortion of metals.
slightly and decrease in value (see Figure 2). S would be Change in temperature caused by welding or flame heat-
approximately 30 000 psi [207 000 kPa] and E would be ing and cutting can result in distortion. For example, dur-
approximately 28 000 000 psi [193 000 000 kPa]. ing welding, the weld zone material is at or near the
From (4): melting point, but the adjacent material is at a relatively
low temperature. The heated area expands but is
ÅZ = (6.5 I 106 in/in/°F I 400°F) (30 000 psi/ restrained by the cooler metal. Thus, a condition of non-
28 000 000 psi) = 0.0015in/in uniform expansion and contraction exists. In the case of
a weldment, when the molten weld metal (totally
[Z = (11.7 I 106 mm/mm/°C I 222°C) (207 000 kPa/ unstressed) and hot base metal (with very low yield
193 000 000 kPa) = 0.0015mm/mm] strength) begin to cool, they also begin to shrink. Their
yield strength steadily increases, ultimately stressing the
From (5):
cooler metal at its yield strength level. If this results in
Åf = Z I E = 0.0015 in/in I 28 000 000 psi = 42 000 psi distortion, proper application of heat will provide correc-
tive straightening or shaping.
[f = Z I E = 0.0015 mm/mm I 193 000 000 kPa =
290 000 kPa] Consider a very stiff plate, 3 in [75 mm] thick and 12 in
[305 mm] square, as shown in Figure 3, with a weld bead
In this case the induced stress (f) is above the elastic of similar strength down the center of the plate. The
limit, yield strength = 36 000 psi [248 200 kPa] and upon newly deposited, cooling bead attempts to shrink, but is
cooling there would be a permanent set due to plastic restrained from doing so by the stiff plate. Thus, a state
strain. The new length would be shorter than the initial of residual tensile stress develops in the weldment, but
length by 0.0015 in [0.038 mm] for every inch [milli- no appreciable distortion results.
meter] of original length.
If the plate is relatively thin, for example, 3/16 in
If a third ASTM A 36 bar were fully restrained and the [4.8 mm] the weld bead shrinkage will distort the plate
temperature elevated by 1000°F [555°C], the unit elonga- (see Figure 4). Much has been written about welding
tion would be: heat distortion and ways to avoid it.
ÅZ = (6.5 I 106 in/in/°F I 1000°F) (13 000 psi/ Some understanding of the basic theory of distortion is
23 000 000 psi) = 0.0059 in/in required in planning welding sequences. Helpful refer-
[Z = (11.7 I 106 mm/mm/°C I 555°C) (89 600 kPa/ ences are listed in Annex A, Informative References.
158 579 400 kPa) = 0.0059 mm/mm] Distortion can also be caused by mechanical forces
Note how much lower the yield strength is at this temper- which exceed the elastic limit of the material. A vehicle
ature. The restraint will induce a stress (f) of: hitting a bridge may distort local structural members of
the bridge. Wide variations in temperature caused by
Åf = 0.0059 in/in I 23 000 000 psi = 135 700 psi severe weather or other catastrophic conditions such as
fire may result in distortion. The more one knows about
[f = 0.0059 mm/mm I 159 000 000 kPa = 935 600 kPa] the damaged material the better. After assessing the dam-
It can be concluded then that the ASTM A 36 steel bar, age, there are four alternatives to take: no action
under complete restraint in the longitudinal direction, required, repair, repair and strengthen, or replacement. It
when heated more than 180°F [100°C] above its initial is often more desirable to make repairs by mechanical,
temperature will be permanently shortened when it cools heat shaping, or combined mechanical-heat methods
to the initial temperature. than to entirely rebuild or replace parts of a structure.
The decision to repair is based on many considerations
Figure 1 depicts a case similar to the examples shown such as costs, user inconvenience, esthetics, safety
above. The calculations in Figure 1 are also similar and (safety of the structure and for the people making the
should be self explanatory. repair or replacement), and future maintenance.
6
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Figure 4Welding Distortion of a Thin Steel Plate
6. Fundamentals and Precautions development of strain aging, embrittlement, and fracture

of the steel.
The goals of flame straightening are to heat rapidly, con-
sistent with staying below the maximum permissible It may be difficult to accurately predict the amount of
temperature and to attain uniform heat distribution movement from heat shaping and straightening, due to
within the zone being heated. One of the primary reasons variables inherent to the material. Heat shaping results
for using substantial heat input is to ensure heating com- will vary as a result of rolling, mechanical working,
pletely through the thickness of the metal. This will more welding, or other processing. Heat shaping and straight-
evenly distribute the final residual stresses. Another rea- ening should be closely monitored to assess the response
son for using substantial heat input is to ensure the com- to the heat applications for each particular case.
plete upsetting of the metal through its thickness. Rapid When properly applied, heat shaping can be used on any
heating will reduce expansion of adjacent parts by mini- metal that can be welded. General recommendations for
mizing heat flow. upper temperature limits are shown below.
It is necessary to know the part the member plays in the
Plain Carbon Steel 1200°F [649°C]
structure, what its specifications are, and the cause and
extent of the damage.
High Strength Low Alloy 1200°F [649°C]
The recommended heat shaping and straightening tem- (HSLA) Steels
peratures to prevent adverse metallurgical effects on
a base material such as ASTM A 36 will range from Quench and Tempered (Q & T) Steels 1050°F [566°C]
700°F [370°C] to 1200°F [650°C]. Temperatures in the
Stainless Steels 800°F [427°C]5
transformation range of structural steel are usually
avoided for metallurgical reasons (see Table B.1). Consult
Evaluation of procedure test samples prior to the applica-
applicable contracts, codes, and specifications for heating
tion on the intended component is advised, to confirm
limitations.
resulting properties are acceptable.
A most important precaution in heating any steel that has
been severely cold worked is to avoid slow heating or 5 Maintaining this temperature for more than a few seconds
holding at temperatures in the range of 400°F to 700°F could cause the stainless steel to become susceptible to inter-
[204°C to 371°C]. Disregarding this precaution can cause granular corrosion.
óóÀôôÀôôÀôôôôôÀÀÀôôôÀÀôôÀôÀÀÀôôóÀóÀôôÀôôÀôÀôôÀóóó 7
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7. Equipment and Supplies (2) Dial indicators and surveying equipment
To perform heat shaping, some or all of the following (3) Strain gauges
equipment and supplies are required: 7.2.3 Fixturing and Positioning Devices
(1) Oxygen (1) Jacks
(2) Fuel gas (2) Chainfalls and come-alongs
(3) Cylinder or line pressure regulators (3) Strongbacks and other mechanical movement
(4) Oxyfuel hoses devices (i.e., C clamps, wedges etc.).
(5) Heating torches 7.2.4 Marking Equipment
(6) Heating tips (size and type may vary with the (1) Chalk
application) (2) Soapstone
(7) Mechanical movement measuring devices, other (3) Paint stick marking devices.
measuring devices
7.2.5 Other Devices
(8) Spark lighters
(1) Metallic heat shields designed to confine heat to
(9) Tip cleaners the desired location, heat dams.
(10) Safety equipment and protective clothing 7.3 Oxygen Supply. Oxygen of high purity (99.5% min-
imum) is supplied in individual cylinders of various sizes
(11) Marking devices
(see Figure 5) or may be distributed by pipeline from
(12) Heat dams manifold cylinders or bulk liquid tanks. Oxygen from
on-site oxygen generators, while of a lesser purity, may
(13) Temperature indicating devices be used for flame cutting in some applications. Always
call oxygen by its proper name, OXYGEN. It should
CAUTION: Check valves or flashback arrestors can never be called AIR. Regardless of the source, be sure
be used. However, before using these devices, the that sufficient pressure and flow capabilities are avail-
user must determine that they will allow adequate able for the work to be done. Consult heating apparatus
flow capacity for the equipment being used. manufacturers literature for pressure and volume
requirements.
NOTE: These devices restrict flow which could result
in a backfire or sustained backfire. See Clause 9 for
more information on these devices. CAUTION: Oxygen vigorously accelerates combus-
tion. Improper use may result in fire or explosion.
Never use oxygen in pneumatic tools, to clean equip-

7.1 Standard Equipment. Consult manufacturers ment, dust off clothing, provide ventilation, or any
instructions for use of oxyfuel equipment, ANSI Z49.1, other application not intended for pure oxygen.
Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes, and
NOTE: Oil, grease, and dust are highly combustible
AWS C4.3/C4.3M, Recommended Practices for Safe
when mixed with pure oxygen. Equipment damage or
Oxyfuel Gas Heating Torch Operation.
a serious personal injury may result from improper
7.2 Special Equipment use of oxygen.
7.2.1 Temperature Indicating Devices
(1) Temperature indicating crayons: these tempera- 7.4 Fuel Supply. Many different fuel gases are utilized
ture-sensitive consumables indicate that a desired tem- in the oxyfuel gas heating process. They include acety-
perature has been reached or exceeded. lene, propane, natural gas, methylacetylene-propadiene
stabilized (MPS), propylene, hydrogen, and several pro-
(2) Pyrometers: these devices provide a continuous pane-based mixtures. The different fuel gases vary in
indication of the temperature. flame characteristics. The oxyfuel operator should
become familiar with the proper flame adjustments for
7.2.2 Measuring Devices
the fuel gas being used. The gas supplier should be con-
(1) Straight edge and rules tacted for the proper fuel gas parameters.
8
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ÛÈÝÛÍÍ ÑÚ îððð °-· Åïì ÓÐ¿Ã
Figure 6Typical Fuel
Gas Cylinders
Absolute pressure is equal to gauge pressure plus atmo-

Figure 5Oxygen Cylinder
spheric pressure, which at sea level is approximately
15 psia [103 kPa].
Thus, at sea level, a gauge reading of 15 psig [103 kPa] is
Fuel gases are supplied in individual cylinders (see Fig- equal to an absolute pressure of 30 psia [207 kPa]. If
ure 6) or distributed by pipeline from manifolded cylin- higher operating pressures are required, switch to another
ders or bulk sources. Every fuel gas cylinder has a limit fuel gas with the appropriate equipment.
as to its maximum safe withdrawal rate capabilities (see 7.6 Pressure Regulators. Regulators are pressure con-
Tables B.1B.4). trol devices used to reduce high pressures to desired
DO NOT EXCEED THE MAXIMUM SPECIFIED working pressures. Two different types of regulators for
WITHDRAWAL RATE. Contact your gas supplier or use in oxyfuel gas heating are available. One is for use
equipment manufacturer to determine the number of on cylinders, and the other is for attachment to valved
cylinders to be manifolded for proper operation. outlets (stations) on gas piping systems (see Figure 7).
7.5 Maximum Acetylene Pressure. Except in approved Cylinder regulators generally have two gauges: one to
cylinder manifolds, acetylene shall not be generated or indicate cylinder pressure, the other to indicate working
piped, or utilized at a pressure in excess of 15 psig pressure. Station regulators generally have one gauge
[103 kPa] (gauge) pressure or 30 psia [207 kPa] (abso- that indicates working pressure.
lute) pressure. Use at higher pressure is hazardous result-
ing in the possibility of acetylene decomposition CAUTION: Regulators designed for station use shall
(explosion) from sudden shock or heat. not be attached to high-pressure cylinders. Cylinder
pressure may exceed the design rating of the regulator
The 30 psia [207 kPa] limit is intended to prevent unsafe
in these cases and result in damage to the equipment
use of acetylene in pressurized chambers such as cais-
and injury to personnel.
sons, underground excavations, or tunnel construction.
9
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ÍÌßÌ×ÑÒ ÎÛÙËÔßÌÑÎ ÝÇÔ×ÒÜÛÎ ÎÛÙËÔßÌÑÎ
Figure 7Pressure Regulators
CAUTION: Regulators shall be in good operating CAUTION: Special precautions must be observed in
condition and shall be used only with the gases for the use of oxygen regulators to reduce hazards of fire
which they are designed. Acetylene regulators are or explosion (see CAUTION, 7.3).
designed to deliver acetylene at pressures up to
15 psig [103 kPa]. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
regulators are designed to deliver gas at pressures to It is imperative to avoid contamination of oxygen regula-
60 psig [414 kPa] or greater; and therefore, should tors with hydrocarbons, oil, grease, dust, dirt, or any
never be used with acetylene. other foreign matter. High pressure oxygen coming in
contact with contamination of this type can cause explo-
sions or extremely rapid burning fires resulting in equip-
ment damage, personal injury, or both.
CAUTION: Never force a regulator connection onto
Before attaching any oxygen regulator to a supply valve,
a cylinder or pipeline valve.
be sure that the regulator inlet connection, the inlet filter,
NOTE: The result of doing so could be damage to the the valve outlet, and all other connections are clean and
regulator, the cylinder, or both, and leakage of the free of oil, grease, or other contaminants. Prior to opening
gases involved. the oxygen cylinder valve, ensure that the regulator pres-
sure adjusting screw is backed out. Do not handle oxygen
regulators with oily hands and NEVER apply oil to any
part of an oxygen regulator. It is essential that proper reg-
CAUTION: Never modify a regulator, as damage to ulators are used for the heating torch operation. The regu-
the equipment or a serious personal injury may result. lators shall have sufficient pressure range and sufficient
flow capacity to perform the heating operation required.
10
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Hoses and fittings should be checked for leaks by closing

CAUTION: Failure to obtain proper flow rates of
the torch valve and pressurizing the system. If leaks are
each gas can cause tip overheating, backfire, or sus-
present, or if kinks, burns, cuts, or badly worn areas are
tained backfire, and can damage the equipment or
identified, the hoses should be replaced. Never use tape
cause injury to the operator.
to repair a leaking hose. Use of faulty hoses or fittings
will create safety hazards that could result in a fire or a
serious injury to personnel. When testing for leaks, only
Manufacturers specify both the pressure and flow rate
approved leak-detection solutions should be used. Using
required for their heating tips and heads. Pressures a flame to test for leaks can result in a serious injury to
should be measured at the torch inlet with gases flowing personnel.
in order to verify that sufficient gas flow is available for
safe, efficient heating operations. Pressure gauges can be Hoses and fittings used with any heating apparatus
attached to the torch handle inlets to measure oxygen and should be of sufficient size to provide the required flow
fuel gas pressure. Measurements should be made with of gases. Follow manufacturers recommendations. The
the torch lit and gases flowing. use of small I.D. hoses, improper splices, fittings, exces-
sive hose length, check valves, or flashback arrestors will
7.7 Hoses and Fittings. Green oxygen hose and red fuel cause pressure drops and can result in insufficient gas
hose requirements apply to the hose manufactured in the flow. Low flow of gases can result in overheating of
U.S. Hoses for use outside the U.S. may have other heating tips and possibly cause a flashback or backfire
which can cause damage to the apparatus, injury to the
colored covers. The oxygen hex nuts have right-hand
operator, or both. (Refer to 9.2 for description of flash-
threads with a smooth outside surface. The fuel gas nuts
back and backfire.)
have left-hand threads and are notched on the outside
(see Figure 8). Some other common causes of low gas flow are:
improper pressure settings, inadequate fuel or oxygen
Both hex nuts are designed to help form gas tight seals
supply sources, improper flame adjustments, dirty tips,
with the application of mechanical force when using a
and plugged or dirty in-line filters.
properly fitted wrench. However, over-tightening can
damage the seal and cause gas leaks. There are three types of fuel-gas hoses for heating appli-
cations. Grade R hose (for acetylene only) has a non-oil-
resistant tube and cover. Grade RM hose (for acetylene
CAUTION: Never use a fuel gas hose for oxygen or
only) has a non-oil-resistant rubber tube and a flame and
an oxygen hose for fuel gas. Interchanging of hoses
oil-resistant cover. Grade T hose (for all fuel gases,
can result in equipment damage and personal injury.
including acetylene) has a flame and oil resistant tube
Figure 8Hoses and Fittings
11
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§

and cover. For further information refer to RMA IP-7, 7.9.1 Single-Flame Heating Tips. Single-flame oxy-
Specifications for Rubber Welding Hose, and CGA E-1, fuel gas heating tips are normally made from pure or
Standard Connections for Regulator Outlets, Torches, alloyed copper. They are manufactured in various sizes
and Fitted Hose for Welding and Cutting Equipment. and shapes. Some manufacturers supply a separate mixer
with each size tip, while other manufacturers supply a
7.8 Heating Torches. Always use equipment in accor- universal mixer for a range of tips. Smaller tips may be
dance with the manufacturers recommendations. See used for light heating. Larger tips may be used for heavy
ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied heating or flame hardening. Various types of flames can
Processes, Part IISpecific Processes, Clause 10, Oxy- be obtained by adjusting the oxygen to fuel gas ratio.
fuel Gas Welding and Cutting Safety, for additional Special tips are available for pointed and bulbous-shaped
information. flames. If more or less heat is desired, always use a larger
or smaller tip rather than just increasing or decreasing the
7.8.1 Manual Heating Torch. The manual heating
gas flow.
torch is composed of, but not limited to, the following
components: torch handle, mixer, extension, and heating 7.9.2 Multi-Flame Heating Heads. Multi-flame
tip or head (see Figure 9). The torch handle is equipped heating heads are usually attached to an extension tube
with valves to control the flow of oxygen and fuel gas. from the mixer. Typical designs are shown in Figure 10.
The torch handle is designed to accept a mixer for the Multi-flame heating heads are efficient for distributing
fuel gas and oxygen. Some equipment has an individual the heat over a given area. They are manufactured of
mixer with each tip. To ensure proper operation of the copper or copper alloys. Acetylene heads are normally
equipment and to prevent a serious personal injury, manufactured by drilling or swaging multiple holes into
always follow the manufacturers mixer and tip recom- one head. Other fuel gas heads may be manufactured by
mendations for the fuel type being used. drilling or splining the orifices. There are heads and
torches available which can efficiently operate with a
7.8.2 Machine Heating Torch. The machine heating flow rate of up to 700 cfh [330 liters/minute] of fuel gas.
torch consists of an arrangement which incorporates All equipment should be used in accordance with manu-
valves to control the flow of oxygen and fuel gas, and it facturers recommendations.
is fixtured and moved by some type of mechanical
device. 7.9.3 Water-Cooled Flame Hardening Head. These
heads are normally used with special equipment and are
7.9 Heating Tip/Head. Heating tips are precision tools manufactured from brass or copper with a large number
which should not be subjected to physical or thermal of flame ports (see Figure 11). Heads may be manufac-
abuse. Exposure to excessive heat by the deflected flame tured up to 12 in [305 mm] or more in width, and contain
or excessively hot metal can result in overheating, melt- an inlet and outlet for the cooling water.
ing of the tip, backfire, or flashback. When not in use,
heating tips should be carefully stored to avoid damage. 7.10 Maintenance of Heating Tips or Heads. Heating
Damage to the threads or seating surfaces can result in tips or heads are precision tools. Orifices that have been
gas leaks and have an adverse effect on the adjustment excessively enlarged or distorted can result in severe
and operation of the apparatus and can cause possible overheating of equipment or personal injury, and these
injury to the operator. tips or heads should be replaced.
Figure 9Manual Heating Torch
12
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Figure 10Multi-Flame Heating Heads
7.10.2 Chemical Cleaning. Chemical cleaning

should be done in conformance to the manufacturers
instructions.
7.11 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). Protective
clothing and equipment for any heating operation will
vary with the size, nature, and location of the work to be
performed. Some or all of the following may be required:
(1) Shaded goggles, glasses, or face shields.
(2) Hard hats (at times, a close fitting hat may be
needed underneath the hard hat).
(3) Flame resistant clothing: jackets, coats, hoods,
Figure 11Water-Cooled aprons, etc.
Flame Hardening Head
(a) Sleeves and collars should be kept buttoned.
(b) Pants and shirt cuffs should be eliminated.
(c) Pockets should be kept buttoned.
7.10.1 Mechanical Cleaning. Mechanical cleaning is (4) Appropriate gloves and wristlets.
done with special cleaning tools. It is important to (5) Leggings and spats.
remember that cleaning tools are only intended to
remove contaminants from the tip. Since many heating (6) Ear muffs or plugs.
tips are either swaged or contain splines, these orifices (7) Respiratory protection may be needed for heating
should only be cleaned with the proper tools to insure plated or coated material, or when there is inadequate
that the holes or spline areas are not enlarged or dis- ventilation.
torted. If the face of the tip requires cleaning, it should be
For further information, refer to the publications listed in
done with a fine abrasive paper, and care should be exer-
Clause 2 and Annex A, Informative References.
cised to remove only the smallest amount of material.
Repeated cleaning will degrade the performance of the To help prevent a personal injury due to fire, clothing
tip. should be free of grease, oil, and ragged edges. Matches,
13
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lighters, and other flammables should be removed from 7.12.3 Storage. Valves should be closed and caps
pockets before starting work. replaced on all cylinders that are empty or not in use.
Oxygen and fuel gas cylinders should always be segre-
7.12 Safe Use, Handling, and Storage of Gas Cylinders gated during storage. Empty cylinders should be marked
7.12.1 Use. All gas cylinders shall be secured or accordingly and segregated from full cylinders. Unused
located where they are not likely to be knocked over or gas should not be released from cylinders. For further
struck by falling objects. Fuel gas cylinders shall always information, refer to NFPA-51, Standard for the Design
be secured vertically with valve end up. This will help and Installation of Oxygen-Fuel Gas Systems for Weld-
prevent the hazard of liquid withdrawal from an LPG ing, Cutting, and Allied Processes.
cylinder or acetone from an acetylene cylinder.
7.12.4 Safe Working Environment. Oxyfuel gas
heating equipment should be operated only in areas free
CAUTION: Liquefied gases may cause freeze burns of conditions or materials that could be hazardous to the
if allowed to contact skin. A spill of liquefied gas will operator or others. The following is a summary of some
result in an uncontrolled release of a large volume of important considerations:
the gas involved.
(1) Do not use lighted torches where chlorinated
hydrocarbon solvent vapors are present. Exposure of
such vapors to heat may result in the formation of phos-
Compressed gas cylinders supplied with protective caps
gene (an extremely poisonous gas), hydrochloric acid
shall have the cap in place at all times except when in use
fumes, and other corrosive or toxic products.
or connected ready for use. All cylinders shall be secured
to prevent them from falling. Cylinders shall never be (2) Be sure that adequate ventilation exists when
placed in locations that are exposed to excessive heat or heating materials containing lead. Similar precautions
open flames. A cylinder should never be heated by are to be taken when heating other toxic metals such as
applying a flame on the cylinder walls. It could cause the cadmium, zinc, mercury, and beryllium. Use exhaust and
cylinder to rupture violently or cause the release of its respiratory protection when working in confined areas
contents through the pressure relief device. where fumes or gases may exceed safe breathing limits.
Cylinders shall not be placed where they might become (3) Do not use a flame in, or on a closed vessel or
part of an electrical circuit. For example, cylinders pipeline if that vessel or pipeline has contained gasoline,
should not be secured to welding tables. Poor grounding or any other flammable or explosive materials, or if the
during arc welding could result in arcing to the cylinder, previous contents of the vessel or pipeline are unknown,
which could cause weakening of the cylinder walls and without ensuring that said vessel or pipeline has been
possible rupture. An arc shall never be struck on any gas properly prepared for heating and/or welding. See the
cylinder. latest edition of AWS F4.1, Recommended Safe Prac-
7.12.2 Handling. Any action that may cause cylinders tices for Preparation for Welding and Cutting of Con-
to be damaged by impact should be avoided. Before tainers and Piping.
moving the cylinders, the regulators should be removed (4) Provide adequate ventilation to insure the supply
and the protective caps installed, except when moved on of fresh air for breathing and to prevent being overcome
a cylinder cart designed for gas cylinders. Slings or mag- by hazardous fumes when working in confined areas.
nets should never be used to move cylinders. Cylinders
shall not be lifted by the cap. Cylinders should never be (5) Oxyfuel gas heating equipment requires atmo-
used as a support or roller of any kind. spheric air to function properly. Do not use a flame in a
confined area without providing adequate ventilation.
If any cylinder is damaged or defective in any way, it Oxygen in the air is consumed by the flame and asphyxi-
should be removed from service immediately. The sup- ation can occur. Proper safety precautions shall be fol-
plier should be notified and the cylinder should be lowed at all times, especially when working in confined
returned with a tag stating the problem. If a cylinder is spaces (see Clause 14).
leaking, it should be immediately removed to a safe out-
side location. The supplier should be notified, and their (6) To prevent a fire, a careful inspection of the work
instructions followed. Under no circumstances should area is required before heating is started. All combustible
anyone try to fill one cylinder from another. This opera- materials shall be moved to a safe distance away or pro-
tion is extremely dangerous, and can result in an explo- tected from heat or sparks. For further information on
sion of gases or cylinder rupture resulting in personal fire safety or hot work areas see documents referenced in
injury. Clause 2 and Annex A.
14
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(7) Know the location of the nearest fire extinguish- have a connecting nut with right-hand threads and should
ers and know how to use them properly. be connected to the oxygen regulator. Fuel gas hoses
have a notched connecting nut with left-hand threads and
(8) Do not direct any flame onto concrete. Concrete
should be connected to the fuel gas regulator. The con-
can spall violently (explode) from the applied heat.
nections should not be forced when tightening, as over-
(9) To prevent leaks and burned hoses, protect the tightening can cause leaks.
hose from sparks, hot objects, sharp edges, or open
flames. Do not use any part of the human body to support
hoses or wrap a hose around the forearm during heating CAUTION: Before lighting, the system must be
applications. purged. Unpurged hoses may contain an explosive
mixture of residual mixed gases that can cause flash-
back.
8. Startup and Shutdown Procedure 8.1.4 Purging Hoses Before they are Attached to
The correct methods of using oxyfuel gas heating equip- the Heating Torch Handle. New hoses or hoses that
ment have been established from many years of experi- have been in storage should be purged before connecting
ence. It is imperative that all oxyfuel gas heating to the torch handle. Purging limits the possibility of pro-
operators become thoroughly familiar with safe proce- pelling dirt, insects or other foreign matter into the torch.
dures and conscientiously follow them at all times. An New hoses may contain residue from the manufacturing
attempt to bypass any detail could result in fire or explo- process which should be blown out (purged) before
sion and possible injury to the operator and others. The using. One recommended method is as follows:
steps listed in 8.1 should be followed in the sequence
given to assure safe operation. While holding the outlet end of each hose to prevent
possible whipping, adjust the oxygen regulator to deliver
8.1 Setting Up Equipment 5 psig [239 Pa] outlet pressure. Allow the oxygen to flow
for about 5 seconds for each 50 ft [15 m] of hose into an
8.1.1 Cylinders. Cylinders should always be secured
area away from open flames or combustible material. Do
in an upright position to a sturdy support or in cylinder
not direct oxygen at clothing. Next, back out the adjust-
carts designed to safely secure compressed gas cylinders.
ing screw to shut off the flow of oxygen. Repeat the pro-
8.1.2 Attaching the Regulator. To help prevent regu- cedure with the fuel gas regulator and hose, making sure
lator fires, remove any foreign matter that may be that the gas is vented away from open flames or other
present in or on the valve outlet or regulator inlet before sources of ignition. Then back out the fuel gas regulator
attaching any regulator to a cylinder or pipeline valve. adjusting screw.
No oil or grease shall be present. With the outlet facing
away from any personnel, the valve should be quickly 8.1.5 Assembly. Hoses and fittings should be
opened and closed (defined as cracking) to blow out any inspected for cleanliness and damage before being
foreign matter. There should be no combustible materi- attached to the heating torch. To prevent unexpected gas
als, open flames or other sources of ignition present flow, the heating torch valves should be closed. Sealing
before cracking the oxygen or fuel gas valves. A hammer surfaces of the torch and mixer should be inspected prior
or wrench should not be used on valves that will not open to assembly to ensure they are in good condition. The
by hand, except those wrenches supplied for some acety- heating tip or head shall be designed for the fuel gas
lene cylinders. Attach the regulator according to the being used. Install the selected heating tip or head in
manufacturers instructions. accordance with the equipment manufacturers instructions.
8.1.3 Hoses. Hoses should be inspected for visible
damage. Damaged or worn hoses should be repaired or CAUTION: Before opening any cylinder or pipeline
replaced by qualified persons. Hose splices or fittings valve, check the regulator pressure adjusting screw. It
with small inside diameter can seriously restrict gas must be backed out until no pressure is being exerted
flow. Green oxygen hose and red fuel hose requirements on the adjusting spring.
apply to hose manufactured in the United States. Hose
NOTE: Failure to do so could cause damage to the
for use outside the United States may have other colored
valve seat and other internal parts from high pressure
covers. International colors generally recognized are
surges introduced when opening the cylinder or station
described in ISO 3821, Welding Rubber hoses for
valves.
welding, cutting, and allied processes. Oxygen hoses
15
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8.1.6 Opening the Oxygen Supply Valve When there are hoses with small inside diameters, long
lengths, multiple splices, flashback arrestors, or when
check valves are installed, it is recommended that pres-
CAUTION: The operator should open the supply
sures be measured at the torch inlet, with gases flowing.
valve while standing to the side of the valve and Restrictions to gas flow will result in starvation of equip-
regulator. ment causing overheating, backfires, flashbacks, equip-
NOTE: This position will help protect the operator ment failure, and possible injury to the operator.
from personal injury in the event of unexpected regu-
8.1.9 Test for Leaks. Check the equipment for leaks
lator fires or explosions.
using an approved oil-free leak detection fluid. With the
torch handle valves closed, and the system pressurized,
apply the leak detection fluid to all connections. If a leak
The oxygen cylinder or pipeline valve shall be opened is detected, depressurize the system and re-tighten leak-
SLOWLY to allow pressure to build up gradually in the ing connections. Do not use the equipment until leakage
regulator. This procedure shall be carefully followed to is corrected. All repairs are to be performed by autho-
minimize the possibility of fire or explosion in oxygen rized service personnel.
regulators. When constant pressure is indicated on the
regulator high pressure gauge, the oxygen supply valve 8.2 Lighting the Torch
should be opened fully (all the way).
CAUTION: The equipment manufacturer or gas sup-
8.1.7 Opening the Fuel Gas Supply Valve. Acety-
pliers instructions for correct lighting, flame settings,
lene valves should be opened about 3/4 turn and no more
and pressure adjustments shall be followed. In the
than 1-1/2 turns. This permits closing the valve quickly
absence of the manufacturers directions the follow-
in the event of an emergency. If the acetylene cylinder
ing procedure may be used.
valves are opened with a wrench, the wrench should be
left in place on the cylinder valve while the cylinder is in
use to allow for a quick shutdown in the event of an
8.2.1 General. When lighting any torch, use a spark
emergency. For all other fuel gases, the cylinder valve
lighter or other recommended lighting devices which are
should be fully opened.
manufactured specifically for the purpose of properly
8.1.8 Pressure Adjustment. Pressure adjustment igniting oxyfuel gas torches. Do not use matches or ciga-
should be made at the recommendation of the manufac- rette lighters; this can cause serious injury to the operator
turer. With the torch and tip properly attached and both and others. When using a spark lighter with a cup, hold
torch valves closed, the torch oxygen valve should be the cup at an angle (45°) to the tip end to prevent the
opened. The adjusting screw on the oxygen regulator flame from washing back over the operators glove.
should be turned clockwise until the recommended oxy- Wear recommended shaded safety eye protection.
gen pressure for the tip being used is obtained. Allow 8.2.1.1 Torches Using Acetylene as the Fuel Gas.
oxygen to flow for 5 seconds for each 50 ft [15 m] of Torches using acetylene as the fuel gas may be ignited in
hose in an area away from open flames or combustible the following sequence:
material. Avoid directing the oxygen stream at person-
nel. Clothing saturated with oxygen can be a fire hazard. (1) open the fuel gas valve slightly, 1/8 to 1/4 turn;
(2) ignite the gas with an approved lighter;
Close the torch oxygen valve.
(3) continue to open the fuel valve slowly until the
Next, the torch fuel gas valve is opened and the adjusting flame is about to leave the end of the tip and all heavy
screw should be turned clockwise on the fuel gas regula- carbon soot has cleared;
tor until the recommended pressure is obtained. Allow
fuel to flow about five seconds for each 50 ft [15 m] of (4) open the oxygen valve until a stable flame has
hose in an area away from open flames or any source of been set; and
ignition. Then close the torch fuel gas valve. (5) increase flows of fuel and oxygen, alternately in
successive steps, until the desired flame is obtained.
NOTE: With certain types of equipment, fuel gas regula-
tor adjustments may not be possible or required. Follow 8.2.1.2 Torches Using a Positive Pressure Fuel
the equipment manufacturers recommendations in all Gas Other than Acetylene. Torches using a positive
cases. Have the regulator repaired if any malfunction is pressure fuel gas other than acetylene may be ignited in
noticed. the following sequence:
16
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(1) open the fuel gas valve slightly, 1/8 to 1/4 turn; 8.3.1 Close the torch handle valves in the sequence
recommended by the equipment manufacturer.
(2) ignite the gas with an approved lighter;
8.3.2 Both fuel gas and oxygen supply valves should
(3) continue to open the fuel valve slowly until a sta-
be closed at the cylinder or manifold.
ble flame is maintained at the end of tip;
8.3.3 The torch handle fuel gas valve should be
(4) open the oxygen valve slowly until a neutral
opened and the fuel gas pressure bled from the regulator,
flame is obtained (see 9.1); and
hose and torch. Gauge pressure will drop to zero. The
(5) increase flows of fuel and oxygen, alternately in fuel gas regulator adjusting screw (or knob) should then
successive steps, until the desired flame is obtained. be backed out and the heating torch fuel gas valve be
closed. This prevents the possibility of oxygen flowing
8.2.1.3 Low Pressure Torches. These torches use into the fuel gas hose and regulator.
an injector or venturi mixing method with relatively low
fuel gas pressures. Prior to lighting the torch, it is recom- 8.3.4 The heating torch oxygen valve should be
mended that the low pressure fuel gas line be purged as opened and oxygen bled from regulator, hose and torch.
follows: Gauge pressure will drop to zero. The oxygen regulator
adjusting screw (or knob) should then be backed out and
(1) open the oxygen valve one turn on the injector the heating torch oxygen valve closed. This prevents the
style torch for a period of approximately 5 seconds for possibility of fuel gas flowing into the oxygen hose and
every 50 ft [15 m] of hose length; regulator.
(2) fully open the fuel gas valve for a period of 8.4 Equipment Not in Use. When not in use, equipment
approximately 5 seconds for every 50 ft [15 m] of hose should be secured in a manner to prevent damage, con-
length while the oxygen valve remains open; and tamination, or tampering. All cylinder or pipeline valves
(3) shut off the gas flow prior to lighting the torch by should be closed when the equipment is not in use. If the
first fully closing the fuel valve and then fully closing the equipment will not be used for an extended period of
oxygen valve. time, it should be dismantled and stored in a clean, pro-
tected area.
To light the torch after purging:
8.5 Reuse of Equipment Already Connected. Equip-
(1) open the fuel gas valve about 3/4 turn; ment should always be examined for any signs of dam-
(2) open the oxygen valve slightly, 1/8 to 1/4 turn, and age before using. If the cylinder or pipeline valves are
ignite the gas with an approved lighter; and closed, regulator pressure adjusting screws (or knobs)
should be backed out and the entire system relieved of
(3) adjust the oxygen valve to obtain the desired pressure. Then proceed as in 8.1.68.1.9 inclusive, and
flame. 8.2.
8.2.1.4 Heating tips shall always be used at speci-
fied pressures and flow rates since the flow of gases
keeps the tips cool. If part overheating occurs, change to 9. Flame Adjustment
a smaller heating tip rather than reducing the gas flow.
Flame adjustment is a critical factor in attaining satisfac-
8.3 Equipment Shutdown tory torch operation. The amount of heat transferred by
the flame depends on the intensity and type of flame
used.
CAUTION: The oxygen and fuel gas torch valves
should never both be opened at the same time when 9.1 Types of Flames. Three types of flames: carburizing
lighting the torch, during purging or bleeding of the (reducing), neutral, and oxidizing can be set by properly
hoses. adjusting the gas flow.
NOTE: This may cause a reverse flow of gases which 9.1.1 A carburizing flame (excessive fuel) with acety-
can cause fires, explosions, damage the equipment or lene, methylacetylene-propadiene stabilized (MPS), or
cause personal injury if a flashback occurs. propylene is indicated by trailing feathers on the primary
flame cone or by long yellow-orange streamers in the
secondary-flame envelope (see Figure 12). Propane-based
Only low pressure torches are an exception when purg- fuels and natural gas have a long rounded primary flame
ing and lighting (see 8.2.1.3). cone.
17
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9.1.4 Before using any heating equipment, a final

check is required to make sure the correct size and type
of tip or head is being used as recommended by the man-
ufacturer. All major manufacturers issue charts indicat-
ing proper pressures, gas flow rates, and Btu/hr for each
size of tip or head. Large multi-flame tips and heads
require high volumes of gases for proper operation.
Starving the equipment of gases will cause overheating
resulting in backfire or flashback. Some manufacturers
also state the correct flame length for each heating tip or
head.
Figure 12Carburizing Flame 9.1.5 If difficulties are encountered with proper flame
adjustments, pressure test gauges should be installed at
the torch handle. The torch should be relit, and with the
gases flowing, the pressures at the torch handle should be
measured and adjusted as necessary.
9.1.2 A neutral flame with acetylene, MPS, or propy-
lene is indicated by sharply defined, incandescent pri- 9.2 Flashback Arrestors and Check Valves. Refer to
mary-flame cones and a blue secondary-flame envelope manufacturers instructions for operation and flow
(see Figure 13). Propane-based fuels and natural gas capacities of these devices. The user must determine that
have short and sharply defined cones. they will provide adequate flow capacity for the equip-
ment being used. The use of multiple flashback arrestors
9.1.3 An oxidizing flame (excessive oxygen) for acet- or check valves between the regulator and the torch may
ylene, MPS, or propylene has lighter color primary greatly reduce the flow. This may result in a backfire or
cones, a smaller secondary-flame shroud (see Figure 14) sustained backfire. It is important to note that most add-
and, generally, is accompanied by a harsh whistling on flashback arrestors also contain check valves,
sound. With propane-based fuels and natural gas, the pri- whereby there is no need to add additional check valves.
mary-flame cones are more sharply defined, although It is the operators responsibility to understand the use-
they have a lighter color. fulness and limitation of these devices before they are
installed.
NOTE: If properly operated and maintained, flashback

arrestors and check valves can provide an additional
degree of safety to the operator. However, these devices
should never take the place of proper equipment operation.
9.2.1 Flashback Arrestors. Flashback arrestors pre-

vent a flame from transmitting upstream of the flashback
arrestor itself. Flashback arrestors do not prevent the
reverse flow of gases that can cause flashback. Flashback
arrestors may either be mounted on the regulator or
torch. Regulator mounted flashback arrestors will protect
Figure 13Neutral Flame the regulator and cylinder from flashback. Torch
mounted flashback arrestors will protect the hose, regu-
lator, and cylinder from flashback.
Flashback arrestors generally contain a sintered stainless

steel filter element that quenches a flame in the event of a
flashback. The filter is a fine porous element that can
often become clogged by debris contained in the hose or
piping system. Clogging can often lead to flow restric-
tion and poor torch performance. For this reason, flash-
back arrestors should be periodically checked for proper
operation as recommended by the manufacturer. For fur-
Figure 14Oxidizing Flame ther information, refer to NFPA-51, Standard for the
18
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Design and Installation of Oxygen-Fuel Gas Systems for (5) Do not allow oxygen ports of the tip to become
Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes. clogged and restricted. The tip should be cleaned period-
ically or replaced as necessary.
9.2.2 Check Valves. Check valves are designed to
prevent the gases from flowing back into the system. If
the check valves are properly functioning and main-
tained, they can prevent the mixing of gases upstream of 10. General Technique
where they are located. These devices may be installed The selection of the proper torch tip and fuel gas has
either on the torch handle or the outlet side of the regula- become a matter of past practice, personal preference,
tor. and in some cases, a specification or code requirement.
NOTE: Check valves are not designed to stop the reces- For material less than 1/2 in [12.7 mm] thick, some peo-
sion of a fire back into the system and should not be used ple prefer a single orifice tip, and then they go to a multi-
in place of flashback arrestors. orifice tip for material over 1/2 in [12.7 mm] thick. When
using the multi-orifice tip, especially on very thick mate-
As with flashback arrestors, check valves can also cause rial, choose the largest diameter possible without causing
gas-flow restrictions. Gas flow requirements should be the metal surface to overheat. Some codes limit the max-
verified before using check valves. In addition, check imum diameter of multi-orifice tips to 1 in [25.4 mm].
valves should be periodically checked for proper opera- Past practice or experimental passes are usually the best
tion as recommended by the manufacturer. For further guides for tip selection.
information, refer to CGA E-5, Torch standard for weld-
First, a marker is used to outline the area to be heated,
ing and cutting; ISO 5175, Equipment used in gas weld-
tracing the selected heating pattern (see Figure 15).
ing, cutting and allied processes Safety devices for
Ignite the torch and adjust it to an appropriate flame.
fuel gases and oxygen or compressed air General
Begin heating the work at the starting point of the pat-
specifications, requirements and tests; and NFPA-51,
tern. Keep the point of the flame far enough above the
Standard for the Design and Installation of Oxygen-Fuel
surface to prevent the surface from melting; oscillate the
Gas Systems for Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes.
flame slightly.
9.2.3 What to Do in the Event of a Flashback. If a
Do not advance the torch until the starting spot reaches
flashback occurs in the hose and equipment, or there is a
the specified temperature as indicated by visual observa-
fire in the hose regulator connectors, or gas supply outlet
tion or the temperature indicating device. Progress
points, the oxygen and fuel gas supplies should be iso-
slowly along the marked path, progressively developing
lated at the cylinder valves or gas supply outlet points
the desired temperature at each location. The generally
(only if it can be done safely).
accepted method is not to go back over any part of the
(1) Control the fire using local or job site fire fighting heated area while it is still hot.
equipment unless there is an imminent danger of per- Depending on the application, one of the following four
sonal injury. basic heating patterns should be employed (see Figure 15).
(2) Call emergency fire fighting services if the fire (1) A spot heat is heat concentrated in a circular area,
cannot be put out at once. After the equipment has with essentially no forward motion. Note that the other
cooled, examine the system and replace defective com- basic heating patterns are essentially a moving spot heat.
ponents. It is essential to examine all of the components, Spot heats, among other uses, can be applied to remove
not just the torch. shrinkage from plates which have been welded on multi-
ple edges and display distortion commonly called oil
9.2.4 Flashback Prevention. There are several steps
canning.
the operator can take to greatly reduce (if not eliminate)
the potential for flashback. (2) A V heat starts at a point and covers a wedge-
shaped area achieved by weaving back and forth in a pro-
(1) Always operate the equipment according to this
gressively wider pattern. V heats are used most often on
guide and the manufacturers instructions.
structural members, including pipe.
(2) Make certain all equipment is properly maintained. (3) Line heats progress in a linear pattern with rela-
(3) Always purge the hoses before lighting the torch. tively little width compared to length. Line heats are
used mainly on plate work and are used extensively in
(4) Do not open both valves at the same time to light shipyards to form complex shapes, as well as to correct
the torch. distortion.
19
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Figure 15Basic Heating Patterns
(4) A block heat weaves back and forth along parallel 11. Procedures for General Applications
paths to cover a square or rectangular area. Block heats
are commonly used in conjunction with V heats on struc- 11.1 Mechanically Restrained Structures. For correct-
tural members. The heating torch(es) should be manipu- ing distortion, heat and external restraint can be used to
lated to guard against general and surface overheating. restore the material to an acceptable shape. Use jacks,
When thick plates are heated; e.g., thick flange plates of chainfalls, and strongbacks to pull the bent structure back
welded plate girders, it may be necessary to occasionally into alignment (see Figure 16). Heat can then be system-
interrupt heating for periods of less than a minute to atically applied to push or pull the restrained member, so
allow the heat to sink into the material and avoid surface it will remain in an acceptable shape after it cools and the
overheating. If, for instance, the flange is being heated, restraints are removed. Restraint should be maintained
the web may have to be protected to keep direct heat until the material has cooled to ambient temperature.
from affecting the web orientation. Likewise, when
working on the web, temporary posts or stiffeners may To correct more severe bends in a structure, heat can be
have to be installed to keep the flanges from rotating. applied to assist in mechanical straightening. Apply heat
Spot heats should be right on top of and, if necessary, to the severely bent area to reduce its strength, and then
surrounding the distortion. Usually with V heats on a use a mechanical means to straighten the member at the
girder that has been damaged by external forces, try to heated location (see Figure 17). Restraint should be
replicate the damage in reverse; e.g., start away from the maintained until the material has cooled to ambient tem-
point of impact, near a diaphragm or brace, and work perature. Use safeguards when heating material which may
toward the point of impact. fail under load due to lower strength at high temperatures.
20
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Figure 16Externally Restrained Plate
Figure 17Externally Restrained Beam
When using an auxiliary force in the procedure, such as a application of heat, and no additional force may be added
jack, come-along, shoring, etc., design the auxiliary until the heating is complete. One caution here is that the
force system so that, as the heat cycle is accomplished, movement of the member may be in a direction that
the force is reduced in magnitude. Sometimes it is appro- increases the load on the device itself. Such overloads
priate to keep the slack out of the auxiliary system. Many are to be avoided.
codes limit the amount of auxiliary force that can be
used. A common limitation to lateral auxiliary forces is 11.2 Freestanding Unrestrained Members. Freestand-
that the force induces a stress of no more than 20 000 psi ing and unrestrained members can be straightened or
[137 900 kPa]. This force should be applied before the shaped by use of heat applied in specific patterns to
21
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
produce predictable movement. The basic pattern usually The required upset is calculated as follows:
employed on members to produce a desired movement is
Upset = DW/L (6)
the V heat. Figure 18 shows the basic V pattern as
applied to bend a flat bar within its own plane. Start a where:
small circular motion at the apex of the triangle until the
Upset = amount of shrinkage required to produce
desired temperature is reached. Proceed from the apex at
desired movement at end of member
a speed that continues to bring the material under the
D = desired movement at end of memberin
flame to the desired temperature. Advance in a side to
[mm]
side pattern in the marked area. Each transverse track
should touch but not overlap the edge of the previous W = width of member, in (mm)
track so that all of the wedge is heated to the proper tem- L = Distance from V heat to end of beamin
perature with no unheated spaces. Do not go back over [mm]
any of the heated area while it is still hot. For thicker The V heat causes a graduated amount of upset across
plates this operation should be done from both sides of the face of the beam, resulting in significant movement.
the plate at the same time. This upset causes an individual strain calculated by:
The starting point (apex) should be one-fourth to one- Strain = Upset/H (7)
third of the bar width from the side that is not to be short-
where:
ened (see Figure 18). The width of the V is a function of
the temperature and bend. First determine how much Upset = value calculated by Equation (4)
shrinkage is required on the wide side of the V to pro- H = width of V heat at edge of barin [mm]
duce the necessary movement. Figure 19 defines the Strain = in/in (mm/mm), assumed to be confined
measurements for a single bend. perfectly in one plane.
Figure 18V Shape Heat Pattern

for Straightening or Shaping a Flat Bar
22
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
ÝßÔÝËÔßÌ×ÑÒ ÑÚ Ê É×ÜÌØ
Ë Ü
ã
É Ô
ÉÜ º®±³ Û¯«¿¬·±² øê÷

Ëã
Ô
Ë º®±³ Û¯«¿¬·±² øé÷

Øã
Ð´¿-¬·½ Í¬®¿·² ¿¬ Ó¿¨·³«³
Figure 19Dimensions for Calculating Upset

Figure 20 shows calculated values of strain for ASTM The spot heats are applied by heating a small circular
A 36 steel and other metals. Variations in the amount of area with a diameter of approximately two times the
movement may be experienced if the heating is not prop- material thickness and letting it cool (see Figure 22). The
erly executed or if the member contained residual restraint of the surrounding material will cause upset on
stresses from rolling fabrication, welding, or cold work- heating and shrinkage on cooling. The shrinkage will be
ing operations. Rolled or fabricated sections may be radial, contracting equally from the point of heat applica-
formed by heating with patterns shown in Figure 21. tion in the plane of the material. Thinner plate requires
smaller spot heats. Many small spot heats will produce
11.3 Shaping of Plate. Out-of-plane shaping of plate
the best results.
may be done with line heating. Heat applied along the
surface of a plate results in contraction along the heated 11.5 Plate Tightening. Plate material welded to a frame
line, due to the restraint from the surrounding cooler may appear loose, having an irregular surface (see Figure
metal. The temperature gradient through the thickness of 23). A series of spot heats distributed on the surface of
the plate causes distortion, bending it about the axis of the plate will cause it to tighten up between the stiffeners
the line. The plate thickness and effective width of the and frames.
line heat will determine the amount of shaping.
11.4 Flattening Plates. Plates, frames, and bulkheads
which are not flat can usually be straightened to an 12. Procedures for Specific Applications
acceptable degree of flatness. Dents or depressions can
be diminished by applying spot heats. A series of spot 12.1 Bending of Flat Bar, V Heat. Given a 3/4 in thick
heats should be applied to the convex side of the dent. by 6 in wide [19 mm thick by 150 mm wide] ASTM
23
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Figure 20Behavior of ASTM A 36 Steel Perfectly Confined

in One Axis as a Function of Temperature
A 36 steel flat bar of any length as shown in Figures 18 shrinkage of about 0.15 in [3.8 mm]. For a smooth transi-
and 19, with a bend starting at 20 in [500 mm]L tion, the heats should be spaced evenly along the beam
from the end and a desired movement at the end of 1/2 in (see Figure 24). For correcting a noticeable kink, the
[13 mm]D, the required upset will be: heats should be applied close to each other in that imme-
Upset = DW/L = 0.15 in [3.8 mm] (8) diate area.
The total width of the V heat(s) (H) will be: The areas to be heated should be marked off with paint
sticks or other marking devices along the side to be short-
H = Upset/Strain = 16.3 in [414 mm] (9)
ened. Heating from both sides simultaneously is recom-
where: mended to prevent undesirable movement toward the
heated side due to the temperature gradient through the
H = total width of V heat(s)
plate. Heat the areas to the desired temperature (1200°F
Upset = as calculated above0.15 in [3.8 mm]
[650°C]) one or two at a time and let cool. Forced air
Strain = in/in [mm/mm] from graph ASTM A 36 steel
cooling after the material has cooled to 600°F [315°C]
for 1200°F [650°C] heat
will speed up the process. Carefully note the amount of
= 0.0092 in/in [0.234 mm/mm] (see Figure 20)
movement resulting from initial heats. Apply additional
The heat should be applied in V shapes no wider than heats as required to obtain desired total movement.
60°. The depth of the V should be the limiting factor for
the width of the V. In this case, the V extends 2/3 of the This same general procedure can be followed for chan-
width, or a total of 4 in [102 mm] in from the side to be nels (see Figures 2527), beams (see Figures 28 and 29),
shortened, allowing for 4 in [102 mm] wide V heats. angles (see Figures 30 and 31), T sections (see Figures
Four 4 in [102 mm] wide heats will result in a total 32 and 33), bending of plate out of plane (see Figures 34
24
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Figure 21Heat Patterns in Rolled Shapes

Figure 22Spot Heat Repair of Dent in Plate
25
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Figure 23Spot Heat Repair (Tightening) on Irregular Plate
Figure 24Application of V Shape Heat Pattern and Direction of Movement
and 35), decreasing diameter (Figure 36), and bending of (2) Start at apex of V on both flanges.
pipe or round stock (see Figure 37).
(3) Follow both patterns at same speed, and heat
toward center of web.
12.2 Bending of Channel, V Heat
12.2.3 Bend Toward Open Side (see Figure 27)
12.2.1 Bend Toward Flange (see Figure 25)
(1) Use of two torches heating simultaneously is
(1) Start heat from inside of web, moving in a pro- recommended.
gressively wider pattern toward flange.
(2) Start at apex of V on both flanges.
(2) Heat outside of flange in a rectangular pattern.
12.3 Bending of Beams
12.2.2 Bend Toward Web (see Figure 26) 12.3.1 Bend Toward Open Side (see Figure 28)
(1) Use of two torches heating simultaneously is (1) Use of two torches heating simultaneously is
recommended. recommended.
26
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Figure 25Bending of Channel Figure 27Bending of Channel

Toward Flange Toward Open Side
(2) Start at apex of V on both flanges. Continue heat-

ing the outer flange V patterns.
12.3.2 Bend Toward Flange (see Figure 29)
(1) Heat web in V pattern until the flange is reached.
(2) Apply heat on outside surface of flange in block
pattern, progressing outwards from center of flange.
12.4 Bending of Angle
12.4.1 Bend Toward a Face of Leg (see Figure 30)
(1) Heat V pattern starting at apex, progressing

toward corner of angle, then heat leg face in block heat
pattern.
NOTE: Movement toward V flange side will be notice-

able; restraint is recommended to prevent this.
12.4.2 Bend Toward Edge of Leg (see Figure 31)
(1) Heat V pattern starting at apex and progressing

toward edge of leg.
12.5 Bending of T Sections
12.5.1 Bend Toward Web (see Figure 32)

Figure 26Bending of Channel
Toward Web (1) Heat web in V pattern.
27
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Figure 28Bending of Beam Toward Open Side
Figure 29Bending of Beam Figure 30Bending of Angle

Toward Flange Toward Face of Leg
28
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Figure 33Bending of
Figure 31Bending of Angle T Section Toward Flange
Toward Edge of Leg
Figure 32Bending of T Section

Toward Web Figure 34Bending of Plate
29
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
(1) Apply line heat longitudinally on lines equally

spaced around pipe.
(2) Where possible on thicker wall pipe or larger
diameter pipe, heat each line from inside and outside.
12.7.2 Straightening of Pipe or Round Stock
(1) If possible, place in a lathe or on rollers to facili-
tate rotating the member with the apex of distortion up.
(2) Method No. 1
(a) Apply the circular pattern at the high point of
the distortion (see Figure 37).
(3) Method No. 2 (see Figure 38)
(a) Use two V heats, one on each side of pipe or

round stock.
(4) Method No. 3 (see Figure 39)
(a) Use of line heats.
CAUTION: Use caution when heating material which

may fail under load due to lowered strength at high
temperatures.
13. Line Heating and Flame Bending

in Shipyards
13.1 Background. Hull forms in ships are comprised of
Figure 35Bending of Plate
many combinations of simple and compound curves. As
(More Movement) iron and steel replaced wood as the major hull material,
heat has been used in shipyards to form these curves. In
the early days metal parts were heated in furnaces and
then shaped on platens; essentially a blacksmith opera-
(2) Continue with two line heats on the inside of tion. The personnel were very experienced craftsmen.
flange plate, perpendicular to the web, at apex of V heat. More scientific methods of heat curving and straighten-
ing were attempted in the 1930s. One of the pioneers was
12.5.2 Bend Toward Flange (see Figure 33) Joseph Holt. His son, Richard E. Holt, continued this
work. They have become so well identified with heat
(1) Heat V pattern starting with apex; progress to
curving in shipyards that in the National Shipbuilding
flange plate.
Research Programs (NSRP) Practical Guide for Flame
(2) Apply block heat to flange plate outer surface. Bending of Pipe, one of the flame bending methods is
called the Holt Method.
12.6 Bending of Plate (see Figures 34 and 35)
In the United States, the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
(1) The plate will bend toward the heated side.
nology and the Batelle Institute began research programs
(2) Apply heat along line with one torch, oscillating in the 1970s. The first published Japanese studies came
slightly (oscillation can be as wide as material thick- out in the 1960s. About 1980, the Maritime Administra-
ness). Proceed across the plate at a constant speed to tion (MARAD) sponsored a technology transfer program
bring plate to a desired temperature. with the Japanese shipbuilder, Ishikawajima-Harima
Heavy Industries Co. (IHI). The most significant process
12.7 Pipe
to evolve from that program is the line heating of steel
12.7.1 Decreasing Diameter of Heavy Wall Pipe hull plating. This and similar methods are now being
(see Figure 36) used to heat curve structural shapes and pipe.
30
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Figure 36Decreasing Diameter of Heavy Wall Pipe
Figure 37Straightening of Pipe or Round
Figure 38Straightening Pipe or Round Stock

V Shape Heating with Serpentine Path
31
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
plate in a press or roll, and then complete the forming

with line heating.
Structural shapes can be curved or straightened in
presses or rolls; however, the final curvature is often
obtained by heating. In these cases, the heating patterns
are similar to those described elsewhere in this docu-
ment: V heats, spot heats, crossing and intermittent line
heats, or circular patterns.
The same concept of thermal upsetting of material is
used in flame bending pipe. The Holt Method and the
line heating method cause a hinge to be formed by simul-
taneously heating both sides of a pipe in a V shape with
both torches meeting at the top of the pipe (the location
of the desired shrinkage or the inside of the curve). The
Holt Method utilizes a serpentine torch path in the V,
whereas the line heating method utilizes a series of
straight parallel lines starting at the apex and working out
into the V. When a small amount of movement is needed
in a length of pipe, the spot method is used. This is a
series of discontinuous spot heats along the length of the
pipe on what will be the inside of the curve.
13.3 Planning and Methods. Whether curving plates to
meet desired hull forms, curving structural shapes, curv-
ing pipe, or straightening members with undesirable dis-
tortion, work should be carefully planned. The desired
movement and the location, size, and pattern of the heats
also should be determined. The amount and direction of
movement should be predicted through past experience,
calculations, and test pieces. If proper planning is not
done, unanticipated movement may occur, and this may
Figure 39Straightening Pipe or be irrecoverable.
Round StockV Shape Heating
The mechanism of flame curving/straightening is quite
with Line Heating Pattern
complicated; however, experimental results indicate that
when heating and cooling are carefully controlled, there
are no abnormal effects on the steels hardness, brittle-
ness, or strength. Heating and cooling take place in a
13.2 Basic Concepts. When a steel plate is heated with a very short time period, and there is little time for changes
torch along a line, thermal stresses will occur in a very in molecular (crystalline) structure to take place. Flame
narrow width along that line. The adjacent unheated bending of pipe is more complex due to the greater vari-
material will constrain the heated surface, and a slight ety of materials found in piping systems. There is a vari-
bulge will occur on the torch side of the plate. As the ety of time and temperature to plastic movement, and
differing transformation temperatures as you move from
heated line cools, the bulge side of the plate contracts
one material to another. If the pipe material does not
more than the other side, causing some angular distortion
have good buckling stability or has extremely high ther-
and a small amount of shrinkage. When supplementary
mal conductivity, e.g., copper, or if it is brittle or has
cooling is used, water, air, or both, the bending (angular
other properties degraded by temperature elevations,
distortion) becomes more evident. Supplementary cool-
flame bending is not recommended.
ing methods are often used, but they are not essential to
produce bending. The controlled heating and controlled Methods to control heat input during flame curving/
cooling regulate the thermal strains in the material, and straightening are proper torch adjustment, torch tip size,
one can achieve either a specified curvature or the torch travel speed, torch tip standoff distance (torch tip to
removal of undesirable distortion. For plates thicker than work piece height), type of fuel gas used, and the skill
1/2 in [12.7 mm], it may be necessary to preform the level of the torch operator(s).
32
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
In all methods of heating for plate, shapes, and pipe the standards when using heat for shaping metals. Operators
layout of the heats is very important. Shipyards use tem- should be trained in the tolerances and acceptance stan-
plates with sight lines, frame lines scribed on the plate, dards for each project. They may be different from job to
and center lines to check and measure curvature on hull job. The operators should be trained in proper measuring
plating. Calibration pieces are used before working on methods, both for heat temperatures and for alignment.
the flame bending of the actual piece of pipe. Trial runs
are excellent ways to select fuel gases and torch tip sizes. 13.6 Conclusions. Line heating and flame bending to
Inspections of the material should be made before, dur- curve, align, or straighten members of a ships structure
ing and after line heating or flame bending. Cleanliness or piping systems has changed shipbuilding technology.
of the material is important. Never start this process if The process lends itself to the joining of large blocks and
the plate, shape or pipe is covered with dirt, oil, grease, subassemblies. It contributes to accuracy control. It
or other foreign matter. Check for possible interferences reduces costs.
or material and equipment in the area that could be dam-
aged by direct or deflected heat (field bending). In pro-
cess observations of possible buckling or overheating of 14. Safety and Health
surfaces should be made. Any undesirable movement
should be observed and measured. After the heating pro- When planning a heating operation to bend or straighten
cess has been completed a thorough visual check of the a steel member, the safety and health of personnel shall
material should be made, and if necessary, nondestruc- have the highest priority. Throughout this document
tive testing may be used to check for surface cracks. there have been safety warnings and cautions related to
the operation of the heating torch. These, of course,
Although other thermal sources can be used for heating, should be followed. A job hazard analysis (JHA) should
when line heating or bending (straightening), the oxyfuel be prepared for the operation. Fires, fumes, and explo-
gas system is by far the most widely used. Some of the sions are possible hazards that must be addressed. Proper
equipment that will be used is described in Clause 7. ventilation must be provided. Fire control measures must
be taken. All hazards identified in the JHA should be
13.4 Recommended Practices. Surface temperature is eliminated, mitigated, or isolated. Any electrical or
carefully controlled to preserve material quality. When mechanical systems in the area must be protected from
line heating plate and using water cooling, the surface heat or direct flame or removed from the area. Good
temperatures usually have lower limits than when using housekeeping is essential. All flammable materials must
forced air cooling. A single hose stream following in tan- be removed from the area or otherwise controlled.
dem with the torch, a water mist formed by blowing
compressed air through the water stream, forced air The JHA should address the proper personal protective
cooling or a combination air and water can be used for equipment required for the operation. Burns are a major
supplementary cooling. It is always best to hold the tem- hazard whenever heat is utilized in an operation, and
perature to the lowest effective temperature needed to burns need to be addressed in the JHA.
curve the material.
All equipment shall be in good working order.
Shortening will always be a part of the process due to the
shrinkage upon cooling. Determine if this will be detri- All personnel shall be trained in the proper use of the
mental, and if it is, compensate for it. Do not attempt to equipment and in the methods being used to bend or
get all the desired movement with one heat. Determine straighten the material. Simulation mock-ups can be used
the acceptable tolerances for movement and final posi- for training and understanding of methods and proce-
tion. Determine the material specification before starting dures. If these operations are not performed on a regular
the heating process. Select the heat process and the base basis, retraining may be necessary.
metal surface temperature, the flame setting, and heat When shaping a member in the vertical position, in par-
patterns and their progression. Select the fuel gas and ticular, adding or removing sweep, there must be a tem-
rate of flow, torch type, tip size, and torch travel speed. porary support system in place to prevent the member from
The cooling methods, inspection requirements, and torch falling over. It must be capable of allowing movement
operator qualifications should also be selected before but also preventing the beam or girder from falling over.
starting the heat.
When heating a surface that might be walked on, promi-
13.5 Code Compliance. Shipbuilding codes and struc- nently display signs or markings that indicate that hot
tural codes do not always agree, especially with the use work is being performed. Shoe soles are not always com-
of water cooling. Always use the applicable codes and patible with elevated temperatures.
33
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
34
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
ß²²»¨ ß ø×²º±®³¿¬·ª»÷
×²º±®³¿¬·ª» Î»º»®»²½»-
This annex is not part of AWS C4.4/C4.4M:2007, Recommended Practices for Heat Shaping and
Al-Erhayen, O., and Ussing, S., Straightenability of Brockenbrough, R. L., Fabrication Aids for Continu-
Weldable Low-Carbon High-Strength Steels ously HeatCurved GirdersFabrication Aids for
Quenched and Tempered), Quality and Reliability in Girders Curved with V-HeatsU.S. Steel, 1972,
Welding, Vol. 3, September 1984, pp. 612. American Institute of Steel Construction Inc. (AISC).
Apps, R. L., et al., Flame Straightening, The Effect of Brockenbrough, R. L., Criteria for Heat Curving Steel
Heat Cycles in Structural Steels and The Monitoring Beams and Girders, Oct 1970 and Experimental
of the Temperature in the Process, London: IIW, Stresses and Strains from Heating Curvings, July
September 1982, 10 pgs. London: IIW. 1970, Journal of the Structural Division, Proceedings
of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
AWS C4.2/C4.2M, Operators for Oxyfuel Gas Cutting
CGA E-1, Standard connections for regulator outlets,
Manual Operation, Miami: American Welding Society.
torches and fitted hose for welding and cutting equip-
AWS C4.3/C4.3M, Recommended Practices for Safe ment, Chantilly, VA: Compressed Gas Association.
Oxyfuel Gas Heating Torch Operation, Miami: Amer- Dennin, G., Effect of Flame-Straightening on the Defor-
ican Welding Society. mation Behavior and The Corrosion Resistance of
Boiler Plate of Unalloyed and Alloyed Steels, Schweis-
AWS D1.1/D1.1M, Structural Welding CodeSteel,
sen und Schneiden, November 1976, Vol. 28, No. 11,
Miami: American Welding Society. pp. 421425.
AWS D1.2/D1.2M, Structural Welding CodeAlumi- Dietrich, S. and Hentschel, K., Effect of Flame Straight-
num, Miami: American Welding Society. ening on the Hardness and Structure of St 45/60 C
Steel, Schweiss technik (Berlin), July 1982 Vol. 22,
AWS D1.5M/D1.5, Bridge Welding Code, Miami:
No. 7, pp. 289293.
American Welding Society.
Flame Bending of Pipe for Alignment Control, U.S.
AWS OWS, Oxyfuel Gas Welding, Cutting, and Heating Department of Transportation, Maritime Administra-
Safely, Miami: American Welding Society. tion, National Shipbuilding Research Program, NSRP
No. 0297, March 1990.
AWS SP, Safe Practices, Miami: American Welding
Society. Guidelines for Evaluation and Repair of Damaged Steel
Bridge Members, National Cooperative Highway
AWS Welding Handbook, Volume One, 9th Edition, Research Program Report, Washington, DC:
Miami: American Welding Society. National Research Council, June 1984.
Beck, R., Weirich, G. Praktiker, Build-up Welding and Hashimoto, T., Line Heating Method-A New Technique
Flame Straightening, Economical Maintenance in Taking the Place of Smith Work, 60th Anniversary
Mining Operations, February 1982, Vol. 34, No. 2, Series, 1961, The Society of Naval Architecture of
pp. 3436. Japan, Volume 5, pp. 5371.
35
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Hashimoto, T., Line Heating MethodA New Tech- Pattee, H. E., Evans, R. M., and Monroe, R. E., Experi-
nique Taking the Place of Smith Work, 1961, The mental Flame and Mechanical Straightening and Its
Society of Naval Architects of Japan, Volume 5. Effects on Base Metal Properties, July 1969, Colum-
bus, OH: Battelle Memorial Institute.
Hay, R. A. and Holtyn, C. H., Effect of Thermal Fabrica-
tion Practices on Aluminum, Naval Engineers Jour- Pattee, H. E., Evans, R. M., and Monroe, R.E., Flame
nal, October 1980, Vol. 92, No. 5, pp. 3748. Straightening and Its Effect on Base Metal Properties,
Report SSC198, Ship Structure Committee, Wash-
Holt, J., Contraction As A Friend In Need, Weld Engi- ington, DC: U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters, August
neering Magazine, Oct. 1955 and Dec. 1955. 1969, Pamphlet, p. 31.
Holt, R. E., 1965, Flame Straightening, Welding Engi- Pattee, H. E., Evans, R. M., and Monroe, R. E., Flame
neer Magazine, Sept. 1965. Straightening and Its Effect on Base Metal Properties,
Summary Report, Columbus, OH: Battelle, August
Holt, R. E., 1971, Primary Concepts for Flame Bending,
1969, p. 41.
Welding Journal, June 1971.
Peiter, A., Gebhardt, R., and Seel, D., Deformations and
Holt, R. E., 1977, How to Control and Correct Warping,
Internal Stresses in Flame Straightening of Steel
Welding Design and Fabrication.
Plate, Bander-Bleche-Rohre, February 1983, Vol. 24,
Investigation of Distortion Removal in Welded Struc- No. 2, pp. 3943.
tures, Department of Naval Architecture and Marine
Pfeiffer, R., Flame Straightening in Engineering Con-
Engineering, Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Insti-
structionExamples from Practice, Schweissen und
tute of Technology.
Schneiden, February 1985, Vol. 37, No. 2. pp. E24
ISO 3821, Gas welding equipment Rubber hoses for E26.
welding, cutting, and allied processes, Geneva: Inter-
Pluszczk, H., Flame Straightening of Thin Sheet Metal in
national Standards Organization.
the Production of Passenger Railroad Cars, October
Kvidahl, L. G. U., Shipyard Experience in Welding 1972 Przgl. Spawalnictwa, Vol. 24, No. 10, pp. 259
ASTM A 710, ATB Metal, Vol. 23, No. 4, Chapter 4 262.
1-4, 30.
Practical Guide for Flame Bending of Pipe, U.S. Depart-
Lastechniek, L., Read in the Specialized Literature ment of Transportation, Maritime Administration,
VIII, Cape 1, March 1983, Vol. 49, No. 3, pp. 5761. National Shipbuilding Research Program, NSRP NO.
0336, August 1991.
Line Heating, Nov. 1982, Maritime Administration of
the U.S. Department of Transportation. RMA IP-7, Specifications for Rubber Welding Hose,
Washington, DC: Rubber Manufacturers Association.
Manual of Steel Construction, 13th Edition, American
Institute of Steel Construction Inc. (AISC). Rosochowicz, K., The Problems of Straightening
Welded Ships Constructions of Work-Hardening Al-
Masubuchi, K. and Walsh, R. A., Report on Investigation Mg Alloys, Schweisstechnik (Vienna) July 1984, Vol.
of Distortion Removal in Welded Structures, Final 38, No. 7, pp. 144146.
Report, Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, September 1969, p. 24. Rothman, R. L., Flame Straightening Quenched and
Tempered Steels in Ship ConstructionFinal Report,
Mc Gowan, C. R., Notes from various AWS/AISC presen- Columbus, OH: Battelle, Report No. SSC-247, 1974,
tations on heat shaping, 2000present. p. 22.
NFPA-51, Standard for the Design and Installation of Rothman, R. L. and Monroe, R. E., Effect of Tempera-
Oxygen-Fuel Gas Systems for Welding, Cutting, and ture and Strain Upon Ship SteelsFinal Technical
Allied Processes, Quincy, MA: National Fire Protec- Report, Columbus, OH: Battelle, Report No. SSC-
tion Association. 235, March 1973, p. 42.
Pattee, H. E., Evans, R. M., and Monroe, R. E., Effect of Rothman, R. L., and Monroe, R. E., Flame Straightening
Flame and Mechanical Straightening on Material Restrained Weldments of Quenched and Tempered
Properties of Weldments, Summary Report, Report Steel, 55th AWS Meeting, Houston, TX, May 1974, 3
No. SSC-207, Columbus, OH: Battelle 1970, p. 50. pgs.
36
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Stewart, J. P., Flame Straightening Technology for Weld- Walsh, R. A., Duffy, D. K., and Masubuchi, K., Investi-
ers, pamphlet, Quebec: LaSalle, 102 pgs. gation of Distortion Removal in Welded Structures,
Technical Report, November 1970, p. 51.
Thiele, W. R., Structure of High-Strength Fine-Grained Walsh, R. A., Duffy, D. K., and Masubuchi, K., Investi-
Structural Steels following Flame Straightening Oper- gation of Distortion Removal in Welded Structures,
ations, Schweissen und Schneiden, December 1984, Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engi-
Vol. 36, No. 12, pp. 579583. neering, Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, March 1971.
Vackar, B. K. and Dolida, R. J., Effect of Flame Straight- Weirich, G., Material Behavior at Flame Straightening
ening Heat on Austenitic Stainless Steel, Welding of Fine Grain Carbon Steel and Austenitic Chromium
Journal, August 1981, pp. 2527. Nickel Steel, 1982, 7 pgs.
37
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
38
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ß²²»¨ Þ ø×²º±®³¿¬·ª»÷
Ú«»´ Ù¿- É·¬¸¼®¿©¿´ Î¿¬»-
Ì¿¾´» Þòï Ì¿¾´» Þòî

ß½»¬§´»²» É·¬¸¼®¿©¿´ Ó»¬¸§´¿½»¬§´»²»óÐ®±°¿¼·»²»
Í¬¿¾·´·¦»¼ øÓÐÍ÷ É·¬¸¼®¿©¿´
This acetylene chart is for reference only. Contact your local
gas supplier or equipment manufacturer for data on each indi- This MPS chart is for reference only. Contact your local gas
vidual need. Refer to the manufacturers literature for recom- supplier or equipment manufacturer for data on each individual
mended flows (cfh or L/min) for appropriate heating tips or need. Refer to the manufacturers literature for recommended
heads. flows (cfh or L/min) for appropriate heating tips or heads.
Minimum Number of Minimum Number
350 Cubic Feet of 115 lb [52.16 kg]
[9.9 Cubic Meters] Flow Rate Required Cylinders Required a
Flow Rate Required a Cylinders Required b
100 cfh [47 L/min] 2
50 cfh [24 L/min] 1 200 cfh [94 L/min] 3
100 cfh [47 L/min] 2 300 cfh [142 L/min] 4
150 cfh [71 L/min] 3 400 cfh [189 L/min] 6
200 cfh [94 L/min] 4 500 cfh [236 L/min] 7
300 cfh [142 L/min] 6
a Based on maximum withdrawal rate of 75 cfh [35 L/min] for 115 lb
a If flow rates larger than 300 cfh [142 L/min] of acetylene are required, [52.16 kg] cylinders, one-half full at 70°F [21°C].
consider using another fuel gas.
b Hourly flow rate should not exceed 1/7 of cylinder capacity at 70°F
[21°C]. CAUTION: Attempts to exceed the maximum withdrawal rate will

result in starvation of the fuel gas to the equipment which will
EXAMPLE: 1/7 [350 cu ft] cylinder [9910 L] = 50 cfh [24 L/min]
cause excessive overheating, backfires, and sustained backfires.
max. at 70°F.
1/7 [9910 L] = 1415.7 L/hr, 1415.7/60 = 24 L/min
Notes:
1. Withdrawal rate will decrease with lower temperatures or when
CAUTION: Attempts to exceed the 1/7 limitation may result in cylinders are less than one-half full.
starvation of acetylene to the equipment, which will cause exces- 2. Withdrawal rate will increase with higher temperatures or when
sive overheating, backfires, and flashbacks. Acetone can be with- cylinders are more than one-half full.
drawn from the cylinder into the fuel regulator or hose causing 3. Intermittent withdrawal may decrease the number of cylinders
damage to the equipment. required.
4. It is recommended that a minimum of 3/8 in [10 mm] inside diameter
Notes: (I.D.) hoses be used with all heating applications.
1. Withdrawal rate will decrease with lower temperatures. 5. High volume regulators and torches are required for largest heating
2. It is recommended that a minimum of 3/8 in [10 mm] inside diame- tips and heads.
ter (I.D.) hose be used with most heating applications. 6. Use only approved manifolds when using more than one cylinder.
3. High volume regulators and torches are required for the largest heating Contact your local gas supplier for proper equipment and instructions
tips and heads. (see also Clause 8).
4. Use only approved manifolds.
5. For instructions on use of manifolds for multiple cylinders and piping
systems, see Clause 8.
39
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Ì¿¾´» Þòí Ì¿¾´» Þòì

Ð®±°§´»²» É·¬¸¼®¿©¿´ Ð®±°¿²» É·¬¸¼®¿©¿´
This propylene chart is for reference only. Contact your local This propane chart is for reference only. Contact your local gas
gas supplier or equipment manufacturer for data on each indi- supplier or equipment manufacturer for data on each individual
vidual need. Refer to the manufacturers literature for recom- need. Refer to the manufacturers literature for recommended
mended flows (cfh or L/min) for appropriate heating tips or flows (cfh or L/min) for appropriate heating tips or heads.
heads.
Minimum Number
Minimum Number of 100 lb [45.36 kg]
of 105 lb [47.63 kg] Flow Rate Required Cylinders Required a
Flow Rate Required Cylinders Required a
100 cfh [47 L/min] 2
100 cfh [47 L/min] 1 200 cfh [94 L/min] 3
200 cfh [94 L/min] 2 300 cfh [142 L/min] 4
300 cfh [142 L/min] 3 400 cfh [189 L/min] 6
400 cfh [189 L/min] 4 500 cfh [236 L/min] 7
500 cfh [236 L/min] 5
a Based on maximum hourly continuous withdrawal rate of 75 cfh
a Based on maximum continuous withdrawal rate of 106 cfh [50 L/min] [35.25 L/min] for 100 lb [45.36 kg] cylinder, one-half full at 70°F
for 105 lb [47.63 kg] cylinders, one-half full at 70°F [21°C]. [21°C].
CAUTION: Attempts to exceed the maximum withdrawal rate will CAUTION: Attempts to exceed the maximum withdrawal rate will
result in starvation of the fuel gas to the equipment which will result in starvation of the fuel gas to the equipment which will
cause excessive overheating, backfires, and sustained backfires. cause excessive overheating, backfires, and sustained backfires.
Notes: Notes:
1. Withdrawal rate will decrease with lower temperatures or when 1. Withdrawal rate will decrease with lower temperatures or when
cylinders are less than one-half full. cylinders are less than one-half full.
2. Withdrawal rates will increase with higher temperatures or when 2. Withdrawal rate will increase with higher temperatures or when
cylinders are more than one-half full. cylinders are more than one-half full.
3. Intermittent withdrawal may decrease the number of cylinders 3. Intermittent withdrawal may decrease the number of cylinders
required. required.
4. It is recommended that a minimum of 3/8 in [10 mm] inside diameter 4. It is recommended that a minimum of 3/8 in [10 mm] inside diameter
(I.D.) hoses be used for most heating applications. (I.D.) hoses be used for most heating applications.
5. High volume regulators and torches are required for largest heating 5. High volume regulators and torches are required for largest heating
tips and heads. tips and heads.
6. Use only approved manifolds when using more than one cylinder. 6. Use only approved manifolds when using more than one cylinder.
Contact your local gas supplier for proper equipment and instructions Contact your local gas supplier for proper equipment and instructions
(see also Clause 8). (see also Clause 8).
40
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
ß²²»¨ Ý ø×²º±®³¿¬·ª»÷
Ù«·¼»´·²»- º±® ¬¸» Ð®»°¿®¿¬·±² ±º Ì»½¸²·½¿´ ×²¯«·®·»-
C1. Introduction along with the edition of the standard that contains the
provision(s) the inquirer is addressing.
The American Welding Society (AWS) Board of Directors
has adopted a policy whereby all official interpretations C2.2 Purpose of the Inquiry. The purpose of the
of AWS standards are handled in a formal manner. inquiry shall be stated in this portion of the inquiry. The
Under this policy, all interpretations are made by the purpose can be to obtain an interpretation of a standards
committee that is responsible for the standard. Official requirement or to request the revision of a particular pro-
communication concerning an interpretation is directed vision in the standard.
through the AWS staff member who works with that
C2.3 Content of the Inquiry. The inquiry should be
committee. The policy requires that all requests for an
concise, yet complete, to enable the committee to under-
interpretation be submitted in writing. Such requests will
stand the point of the inquiry. Sketches should be used
be handled as expeditiously as possible, but due to the
whenever appropriate, and all paragraphs, figures, and
complexity of the work and the procedures that must be
tables (or annex) that bear on the inquiry shall be cited. If
followed, some interpretations may require considerable
the point of the inquiry is to obtain a revision of the stan-
time.
dard, the inquiry shall provide technical justification for
that revision.
C2. Procedure C2.4 Proposed Reply. The inquirer should, as a

proposed reply, state an interpretation of the provision
All inquiries shall be directed to: that is the point of the inquiry or provide the wording for
Managing Director a proposed revision, if this is what the inquirer seeks.
Technical Services Division
American Welding Society
550 N.W. LeJeune Road C3. Interpretation of Provisions of
Miami, FL 33126 the Standard
All inquiries shall contain the name, address, and affilia-
Interpretations of provisions of the standard are made by
tion of the inquirer, and they shall provide enough infor-
the relevant AWS technical committee. The secretary of
mation for the committee to understand the point of
the committee refers all inquiries to the chair of the par-
concern in the inquiry. When the point is not clearly
ticular subcommittee that has jurisdiction over the por-
defined, the inquiry will be returned for clarification. For
tion of the standard addressed by the inquiry. The
efficient handling, all inquiries should be typewritten and
subcommittee reviews the inquiry and the proposed reply
in the format specified below.
to determine what the response to the inquiry should
C2.1 Scope. Each inquiry shall address one single provi- be. Following the subcommittees development of the
sion of the standard unless the point of the inquiry response, the inquiry and the response are presented to
involves two or more interrelated provisions. The provi- the entire committee for review and approval. Upon
sion(s) shall be identified in the scope of the inquiry approval by the committee, the interpretation is an official
41
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
interpretation of the Society, and the secretary transmits obtained only through a written request. Headquarters
the response to the inquirer and to the Welding Journal staff cannot provide consulting services. However, the
for publication. staff can refer a caller to any of those consultants whose
names are on file at AWS Headquarters.
C4. Publication of Interpretations

All official interpretations will appear in the Welding
C6. AWS Technical Committees
Journal and will be posted on the AWS web site. The activities of AWS technical committees regarding
interpretations are limited strictly to the interpretation of
provisions of standards prepared by the committees or to
C5. Telephone Inquiries consideration of revisions to existing provisions on the
basis of new data or technology. Neither AWS staff nor
Telephone inquiries to AWS Headquarters concerning the committees are in a position to offer interpretive or
AWS standards should be limited to questions of a gen- consulting services on (1) specific engineering problems,
eral nature or to matters directly related to the use of the (2) requirements of standards applied to fabrications
standard. The AWS Board Policy Manual requires that outside the scope of the document, or (3) points not
all AWS staff members respond to a telephone request specifically covered by the standard. In such cases, the
for an official interpretation of any AWS standard with inquirer should seek assistance from a competent engi-
the information that such an interpretation can be neer experienced in the particular field of interest.
42
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Ô·-¬ ±º ßÉÍ Ü±½«³»²¬- ±² Ñ¨§º«»´ Ù¿- É»´¼·²¹ ¿²¼ Ý«¬¬·²¹
Designation Title
C4.1-WC Criteria for Describing Oxygen Cut Surfaces
C4.2/C4.2M Recommended Practices for Safe Oxyfuel Gas Cutting Torch Operation
C4.3/C4.3M Recommended Practices for Safe Oxyfuel Gas Heating Torch Operation
C4.5M Uniform Designation Systems for Oxyfuel Nozzles
C4.6M (ISO 9013:2002 IDT) Thermal Cutting Classification of Thermal Cuts Geometric Product Specification
and Quality Tolerances
43
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
44
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§
Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§


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Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§

Supersedes AWS C4.4/C4.4M:2004

Under the Direction of the

550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126

Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§

International Standard Book Number: 978-0-87171-079-6

Í¬¿¬»³»²¬ ±² ¬¸» Ë-» ±º ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§ Í¬¿²¼¿®¼-

AWS C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting

Advisors to the AWS C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting

This page is intentionally blank.

Ú·¹«®» Ð¿¹» Ò±ò

Î»½±³³»²¼»¼ Ð®¿½¬·½»- º±® Ø»¿¬ Í¸¿°·²¹ ¿²¼

1. Scope recommended practice is limited to fundamentals and sim-

AWS F4.1, Recommended Safe Practices for Prepara-

Ú®±³ Û¯«¿¬·±² øî÷æ Ô ã Ô Åø I ¬÷ Š øÍñÛ÷Ã

Figure 1Shortening of Bar from Application of Heat

Figure 2Variation in Yield Strength and Modulus of Elasticity

ÎÛÍ×ÜËßÔ ÌÛÒÍ×ÔÛ ÍÌÎÛÍÍ øº÷

Figure 3Imperceptible Welding Distortion of a Thick Steel Plate

where: tained. However, various stress levels, depending on

not been exceeded, there will be no permanent set (defor- 5. Distortion

Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§

Figure 4Welding Distortion of a Thin Steel Plate

6. Fundamentals and Precautions development of strain aging, embrittlement, and fracture

7. Equipment and Supplies (2) Dial indicators and surveying equipment

(5) Heating torches 7.2.4 Marking Equipment

Never use oxygen in pneumatic tools, to clean equip-

ÎÛÓÑÊßÞÔÛ ÓÛÌßÔ ÝßÐ ÎÛÓÑÊßÞÔÛ ÞÎßÍÍ ÑÎ

ÍßÚÛÌÇ ÚËÍÛ ÐÔËÙÍ

Ø×ÙØóÐÎÛÍÍËÎÛ ÑÈÇÙÛÒ ßÝÛÌÇÔÛÒÛ Ô×ÏËÛÚ×ÛÜ ÚËÛÔ

Absolute pressure is equal to gauge pressure plus atmo-

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ÍÌßÌ×ÑÒ ÎÛÙËÔßÌÑÎ ÝÇÔ×ÒÜÛÎ ÎÛÙËÔßÌÑÎ

Figure 7Pressure Regulators

Hoses and fittings should be checked for leaks by closing

Figure 8Hoses and Fittings

Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§

Figure 9Manual Heating Torch

Figure 10Multi-Flame Heating Heads

7.10.2 Chemical Cleaning. Chemical cleaning

Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§

Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§

Ý±°§®·¹¸¬ ß³»®·½¿² É»´¼·²¹ Í±½·»¬§

9.1.4 Before using any heating equipment, a final

NOTE: If properly operated and maintained, flashback

9.2.1 Flashback Arrestors. Flashback arrestors pre-

Flashback arrestors generally contain a sintered stainless

Figure 15Basic Heating Patterns

Figure 16Externally Restrained Plate

Figure 17Externally Restrained Beam

Figure 18V Shape Heat Pattern

ÉÜ º®±³ Û¯«¿¬·±² øê÷

Ë º®±³ Û¯«¿¬·±² øé÷

Figure 19Dimensions for Calculating Upset

Figure 20Behavior of ASTM A 36 Steel Perfectly Confined

Figure 21Heat Patterns in Rolled Shapes

Figure 22Spot Heat Repair of Dent in Plate

Figure 23Spot Heat Repair (Tightening) on Irregular Plate

Figure 25Bending of Channel Figure 27Bending of Channel

(2) Start at apex of V on both flanges. Continue heat-

12.3.2 Bend Toward Flange (see Figure 29)

Figure 1Shortening of Bar from Application of Heat

Figure 2Variation in Yield Strength and Modulus of Elasticity

Figure 3Imperceptible Welding Distortion of a Thick Steel Plate

Figure 4Welding Distortion of a Thin Steel Plate

Figure 7Pressure Regulators

Figure 8Hoses and Fittings

Figure 9Manual Heating Torch

Figure 10Multi-Flame Heating Heads

Figure 15Basic Heating Patterns

Figure 16Externally Restrained Plate

Figure 17Externally Restrained Beam

Figure 18V Shape Heat Pattern

Figure 19Dimensions for Calculating Upset

Figure 20Behavior of ASTM A 36 Steel Perfectly Confined

Figure 21Heat Patterns in Rolled Shapes

Figure 22Spot Heat Repair of Dent in Plate

Figure 23Spot Heat Repair (Tightening) on Irregular Plate

Figure 25Bending of Channel Figure 27Bending of Channel

Figure 28Bending of Beam Toward Open Side

Figure 29Bending of Beam Figure 30Bending of Angle

Figure 32Bending of T Section

Figure 36Decreasing Diameter of Heavy Wall Pipe

Figure 37Straightening of Pipe or Round

Figure 38Straightening Pipe or Round Stock