HYBRID POWER SYSTEM FOR DC LOADS

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

SUDARSHAN.A (95910105049)
BHARATH ROGER.J (95910105007)
BALAKUMAR.K (95910105005)

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

KAMARAJ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY, VIRUDHUNAGAR

ANNA UNIVERSITY:: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2014

ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025

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 ANNA UNIVERSITY:CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “HYBRID POWER SYSTEM FOR DC

LOADS” is the bonafide work of “SUDARSHAN.A , BHARATH ROJER.J ,

BALAKUMAR.K” who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.S.KALYANI S.RAJESH BABU

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Department of EEE, Department Of EEE,

KCET,Virudhunagar-626 001. KCET,Virudhunagar-626001.

SUBMITTED FOR VIVA VOICE HELD ON _________________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The success of any project depends on the people associate with it. We
indebted to everyone who has made valuable contribution towards the success
of our project. We would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the
enthusiasm of all the personalities.

We are highly grateful thanks to Dr.ANAND ACHARY M.Tech.Ph.D.,

principal of kamaraj college of engineering and technology for their great
support in doing this project.

We also thank our Head Of the Department of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering Dr.S.KALYANI,M.E.,Ph.D., professor, for her valuable
comments and suggestions.

We wish to render our greatefulness to our project guide Mr.S.RAJESH

BABU,M.E., Assistant professor/EEE, for this support and encouragement that
drove us to successfully complete this project.

We also take this opportunity to express our indebtedness to other staff

members and all our friends, who have directly and indirectly helped us in
carrying out this project successfully.

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 Abstract
Renewable energy systems are likely to become wide spread in the future

due to environmental demands. Due to the differences in output voltage among

the sources, depending on both the type of source and their actual operating

point, the sources are connected to the DC power system via power electronic

converters. The intention behind the presented work is not to replace the

existing AC power system, but to include local DC power systems.

This proposal describes the design of a standard for household direct current

(DC) electric system as a supplement to the existing alternating current (AC)

system. Many appliances require DC power, and run more efficiently on DC

power than on AC power. Integrating an AC to DC power supply into the home

would allow homeowners to benefit from the economy of scale by using a

larger, more efficient AC to DC power supply than the many AC to DC power

supplies currently integrated into home electronics and appliances. The project

would proceed in three phases. In the first phase, our team would conduct

background research into the current state of the field of research, the uses of

household electric power, and the electrical properties relevant to the topic. In

the second phase of research, the team would prototype power supply designs,

wiring standards, and plug and receptacle designs. The final phase of the project

is to draft a standard for household DC power and submit it to industry groups

for review.

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 Table of Contents
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO
NO
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 03

ABSTRACT 04

INDEX PAGE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Objectives 08

1.2 Need For Hybrid Power System 10

1.3 Specification Of Hybrid Power System 12

2. EXISTING POWER SYSTEM

2.1 AC Power: The Current System 14

2.2 DC Power system 15

2.3 AC vs DC power 16

2.4 Unreliability of AC systems in future 18

2.5 Hybrid power system: A plan in action 19

3. Disadvantage of AC system

3.1 Advantage of DC over AC 21

4. HYBRID POWER SYSTEM

4.1 HPS Block diagram 23

4.2 Components description 24

5. SIMULATION RESULTS 37

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 6. CONCLUSION 39
7. APPENDICES 43
8. REFERENCES 48

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Voltage rating of the loads 24

1.2 Comparing a BLDC motor to a brushed DC Motor 27

1.3 Comparing a BLDC motor to a Induction motor 38

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 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO TITILE PAGE NO

1. Global growth of DC systems 16

2. Block Diagram 23

3. Stator of BLDC motor 25

4. Rotor of BLDC motor 26

5. Torque-Speed characteristics 26

6. Schematic of LED 31

7. HPS Socket 33

8. Schematic of SMPS 34

9. Voltage drop in copper 38

10. Voltage drop in aluminum 39

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Chapter 1

Page 8
Introduction
Renewable energy systems are likely to become wide spread in the
future, due to environmental demands, for example, regarding pollution. This
proposal describes the design of a standard for household direct current (DC)
electric system as a supplement to the existing alternating current (AC) system.
Many appliances in the modern world require DC power, and many others can
run more efficiently on DC power than on AC power. Integrating an AC to DC
power supply into the home would allow homeowners to benefit from the
economy of scale by using a larger, more efficient AC to DC power supply than
the many AC to DC power supplies currently integrated into home electronics
and appliances.

It should be clear that the intention is not to replace the existing AC

power system, but to include local DC systems . These AC and DC systems are
connected at some points in the network. The benefit of such an approach
arises from the fact that renewable energy sources are weak compared to
present fossil fuel, hydro power and nuclear power plants, resulting in a need
of power conditioning before being fed to the transmission lines. With a DC
distributed system, conditioning can be applied at a central level of the AC
distribution system, close to the DC system connection points. Also, several
consumer loads operate on DC (rectified AC). Therefore, DC distribution
could be used to omit the need for transformers and rectifiers in every single
load.

The hybrid power system has various kinds of energy storage added,
which means that it can support nearby customers during AC power system
failure or emergency situations. Also, sensitive equipment likely to be installed
in future intelligent buildings also needs energy backup, i.e. uninterruptable
power supply (UPS) properties. This is already in use, for example, in
telecommunication sub-stations where backup batteries are usually installed.
Another example is given in where a battery powered DC system is
supplying the AC system circuit breaker control system. Of course, reliable
operation of such systems is necessary.

A larger part of the power transmission network is likely to use high

voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission technology in the future . Also, the
recently introduced medium voltage DC (MVDC) technology is likely to be
used in hybrid power systems . This implies that future electric power systems
constitute a mixture between AC and DC technology.This work addresses
control and stability issues of hybrid power systems together with their
connections to surrounding AC power systems,sources and loads.

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1.1 Objectives

The main objective of this work is to design a standard for household

direct current (DC) power, to coexist with the current alternating current (AC)
system.Initially, the project would involve research into devices that use DC
power, as well as tradeoffs between different supply voltages. The main
objective of hybrid power system (HPS) is split into several sub-objectives. The
first issue to treat is selection of a suitable system voltage, at least at the
consumer level. Stability and dynamic properties of DC voltage control are of
great concern. Requirements on hardware and software should be stated so that
the system could grow, i.e. reduction of converters installed in an existing
system, without system degradation. Voltage control in the case of weak
sources should also be investigated, since several of the renewable energy
sources possess low inertia. Connection of several DC systems should be
investigated..A small model should be designed to verify voltage control and
load sharing.

.
1.2 Need for Hybrid Power System
The current power distribution system in this country uses AC to deliver
electricity from generation stations to end users. Although AC power was
appropriate when the power grid was designed decades ago, the advent of
electronics has made DC a more important power source. Playing a major part
in the equation is the worldwide interest in energy savings, recycling and the
appearance of new products that can operate on DC. As example, the
elimination of cathode ray tube displays (CRT) in televisions and computer
monitors has eliminated the need for AC in these devices, which was much
more efficient than DC for CRT operation. New LED lighting must have DC to
function, either converting AC to DC at the light fixture itself or from a DC
power circuit. And the presence of an electric vehicle with a charging system in
the home greatly furthers the attractiveness of having DC power available, even
permitting the car batteries to be used as back-up power to critical circuits in the
home without costly inverter technology.Electronics manufacturers have
adapted the AC power supply to DC by shipping their products with AC-DC
power supplies. While this solution works, it requires users to have multiple
bulky, inefficient power supplies. Because many appliances use the same DC
voltage, these power supplies are often redundant.

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Justification: Developments in Home Appliances
In the last twenty years, there has been a proliferation of electronic
devices. From cell phones to computers to videogame systems, most of these
electronics use DC power exclusively. As shown in Figure 1, this class of
appliance made up 16% of home electricity usage in 2007. The solution to
power these devices is often an AC-DC power supply commonly referred to as
a wall-wart.
These supplies are bulky, but they are also inefficient, releasing wasted
energy as heat. The most efficient power supplies are the most expensive to
produce, making them impractical for individual devices (Hambley 2000).
However, if only one supply is needed for an entire building or house, the added
expense of an efficient power supply is justified. The net result is that a
centralized DC power supply is more efficient than individual supplies.Other
motivations for a standard DC power system come from future technology.
Already, we are seeing the advent of plug-in electric cars (Chevrolet 2011).
Charging these cars requires a large amount of DC power, and electric car
owners will need to install some kind of DC charging circuit in their home.
Standardizing home DC power would also mean standardizing electric vehicle
chargers, which would help foster adoption of the electric vehicles, a key goal
of the Obama administration (Obama 2011). Lighting is also a major contributor
to home electricity use, totaling about 19% of electricity consumption by US
homes. Light-Emitting Diode (LED) lighting is a new technology that will soon
be used as a replacement for incandescent and fluorescent bulbs. LEDs are
efficient, bright, and long-lasting, but they can only use DC power. Although
LED bulbs with built-in DC power supplies are a stopgap solution, they suffer
from the same inefficiencies and costs described above for other electronic
devices. Wiring DC power into a house’s electrical system would allow simpler,
cheaper, and more efficient LED bulbs and lamps. Power generation and
storage are also simplified by a DC system. Home solar generation has become
popular with the support of federal tax credits and concerns about global
warming. Photovoltaic cells inside of solar panels generate DC power, which
current systems (inefficiently) convert to AC for use in the rest of the house. A
DC power system throughout the house would allow solar power to be used for
any DC device without the wasteful conversion to AC and back again. A DC
system is also much easier to keep going during a power outage. Since batteries
store power in DC form, homeowners could install a battery backup for their
DC power. Although this would not help for AC appliances, it would keep vital
electronics—computers, phones, and radios—working during a power outage.
However, even if DC were made available in residential/commercial
environments, there are still devices/appliances (air conditioners, refrigerators,
freezers, well pumps), which are much more efficiently
built/operated/maintained in an AC configuration. Given that these are
sometimes the predominate loads of a home/office, it may be difficult to avoid

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not building both AC and DC distribution circuits in the structure, at a greater
cost than building only one or the other.Therefore we need to design a standard
for household direct current (DC) power, to coexist with the current alternating
current (AC) system, that is a Hybrid power system .It should be clear that the
intention is not to replace the existing AC power system, but to include local
DC systems. Therefore, DC distribution could be used to omit the need for
transformers and rectifiers in every single load.

1.3 Specification of a Hybrid power system

This section contains the main requirements put on a future Hybrid
power system .
• The power system should adapt to operate with present
sources and loads, in terms of voltage and frequency. It should also
provide a high degree of load and source power controllability.
• The system should be expandable
• The degree of personal safety will be better than the
existing power system.

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Chapter 2

Page 13
Existing power systems

2.1 AC Power: The Current System

Alternating current is the dominant method of power distribution in most
of the world. In an alternating current system, the voltage and current oscillate
between a positive and negative at a given frequency, usually in the 50 to 60
hertz range . This system has several advantages, notably the ease of stepping
up to high voltage for efficient long distance transmission and back down to low
voltage for consumption. Historically, AC power was also important for driving
motors. Many household appliances, from fans and air conditioners to
refrigerators and washing machines use AC motors. AC also has a critical safety
advantage—because it drops to zero volts about 100 times per second, AC
voltage will not “arc” through the air when a plug is removed or inserted.
Arcing is a fire hazard, and this safety advantage is an important selling point of
AC power in favor of DC.

However, as electrical needs have changed and technology has evolved,

the AC system has become more of a hindrance to electrical design. All
electronics—computers, modern televisions, etc.—require DC power for
operation. In addition, new fluorescent and LED lighting technology have
replaced incandescent bulbs. Fluorescent lighting uses DC power with a special
power supply called an electronic ballast, and LEDs only work with DC power.
Although AC electric motors are still ubiquitous, many of them are now
controlled using Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs).These adjustable speed drives
improve the efficiency of appliances by adjusting the motor speed. In order to
make an AC motor adjustable, the ASD must create an AC power signal of a
different frequency. In order to do this, the ASD takes in DC power and puts out
the appropriate AC signal. The trend of course is that many appliances now
operate more efficiently or require DC power. In spite of this, the only power
available is AC. This means these appliances must convert power before using
it. This process is inefficient and redundant many appliances are performing the
same conversion instead of sharing resources. In addition, most of these AC to
DC converters use a switch mode power supply, which changes voltage by
rapidly turning on and off. This rapid on-off cycle causes spikes in the power
consumption of the device. These spikes are bad for power suppliers because
they generate power at a steady rate, and the generators sometimes cannot
handle the sudden spikes in demand. The problem is exacerbated because every
appliance connected to the system is synchronized by the AC signal, so they all
spike together. The spikes add up and multiply the problem. So today’s

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appliances are not well-suited to the AC supply.

2.2 DC Power system

There are few systems utilizing DC to transmit or distribute electrical

power by means of DC today. Most power is transmitted and distributed by
means of AC. The AC grid frequency is thereby the most essential control
parameter and after that generation and distribution of reactive power to keep
the voltage within specified limits. The stability of an AC power system is
strongly dependent on its electro-magnetic characteristics and to a minor extent
on power electronics because power systems expanded over wide areas during
half a century when DC based high-voltage transmission was non-competitive.
During the latter half of the last century, HVDC transmission became cost
effective, especially as a way to connect asynchronous grids.

For the last decades, the feasibility of low-voltage self-commutated

inverters connected to a common DC bus has increased, resulting in LVDC
distribution systems feeding industrial adjustable-speed drives. Converters
similar to the ones utilized in VSC based HVDC and in industrial drives are
also used on-board electrical railway vehicles equipped with a common
lowvoltage,LV, or medium-voltage, MV, DC bus. The main aspect of those,
socalled,traction drives is that the converters connected to the propulsion drives
are normally handling the same power levels but split into parallel drives due to
redundancy and/or rating reasons. There is usually also an auxiliary power
converter connected to the common DC bus. HVDC has been used to connect
regions with different frequencies, or when regions have the same frequency but
they are not synchronized or for shipping bulk power over long distances.
Therefore, the use of HVDC was limited to isolated, special purposes, where
AC fell short, for one reason or another. But to put in this in perspective, though
the amount of power being handled today by HVDC systems is an order of
magnitude more than it was forty years ago, standing at about 60-70 GW, (see
chart) this is still less than 2% of the installed global generation capacity.

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 Fig1: Global growth of DC systems

More usage of DC systems may be attributed to DC’s inherent properties that

make it more convenient and efficient for transmitting power from offshore
wind farms or remotely located renewable energy resources on land compared
to AC systems. Even wider use could be possible if certain enablers come into
realization. These include: less expensive and more efficient converters, higher
voltage DC cables, advancements in DC circuit breakers and advances in
monitoring and control systems for multi-terminal DC systems.

2.3 AC vs DC power

Advances in technology and the increase of devices that can generate or

operate on DC power are again raising the debate over AC vs. DC power.
Eliminating conversions from DC to AC and vice versa can greatly improve the
efficiency of both the grid and the devices that can operate in a DC mode. Solar
photovoltaic panels, batteries and fuel cells generate/store DC power, and
residential, commercial, and industrial facilities are projected to increase DC
electrical loads that do not require first converting to AC.

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 In developed regions of the world where the AC power grid is well
established, it may not be feasible to change over large portions of the existing
grid to DC. However, certain aspects of the grid, such as distribution primaries
and secondaries may be candidates for a DC revolution. World regions where
electric infrastructure is developing may have a greater opportunity to take
advantage of the economic benefits of being able to adopt the latest innovations
in DC energy production, transportation, and end-use technologies.

In the developed world, large amounts of energy delivered as AC is now

consumed as DC. In computers, consumer electronics and many small
appliances as well as LED lighting the actual power consumed is DC. That
means there is a conversion loss that adds to the energy usage. Similarly there is
energy loss in converting from the DC produced by the photovoltaic systems on
the roof to AC and then in many cases back to DC. Add electric vehicles and
local storage, and the conversion losses rapidly mount.

Traditional AC power will continue to be the primary mechanism for the

majority of transmission and distribution networks. This is largely due to fact
that it is far easier to convert AC from one voltage level to another, which is
required for moving bulk power across the grid efficiently and reducing losses.
AC power is also easier to control/interrupt in switching and fault situations
than DC, making the capital investment to build AC infrastructure far less than
DC infrastructure. DC transmission systems have been in place for many years,
but the experience that has been developed with the technology has relegated
DC transmission to limited and highly specific instances.
Where DC holds a tremendous amount of promise is in the
home/office/building environment where local generation (wind or
photovoltaic) is available. The conversion of photovoltaic (DC) power to AC,
only to have that AC power converted back to DC for many home electrical
devices, is an incredible waste of energy. Eliminating this waste, by some
estimates, could improve photovoltaic system performance by as much as 25%.
Additionally, wind turbines are both more reliable and less costly in DC
configurations, due to the greatly reduced complexity of the mechanical
transmissions that are required for turbine AC generation. However, there are
still some technical and economic obstacles that need to be overcome.
1. Utility interface – in order to connect the DC-capable home to the utility
distribution system, a new type of device is needed. This new device, called an
energy router, would be able to take the DC from local generation and convert it
into AC, and convert the AC distribution voltage to DC for home supply. Such

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devices are currently in R&D, and need further development to determine the
practicality and lifecycle costs.
2. The majority of building codes around the world do not cover DC
distribution in homes, offices, and commercial buildings. Wiring practices,
distribution panel ratings, plug/socket conventions, grounding practices, circuit
breaker devices, all will need revamping to accommodate a DC option.

2.4 Unreliability of AC systems in future

Fast-forwarding to today, some 120 years later, a new battle of the
currents is arising as digital technologies and appliances such as computers,
mobile devices, and radios use DC instead of AC. Conversion from AC to DC
requires copious use of small transformers familiar to modern consumers who
must constantly recharge a variety of devices. For example, from fuel to
lighting, end-to-end system efficiency when electrons are generated from coal-
fired plants to provide lighting for incandescent light bulbs, the efficiency is a
mere 1.6%, resulting in losses that amount to 98.4%. As further illustration,
fossil fuel-based electric power generation, which account for 70% of all
electricity production in North America, average an overall end-end system
efficiency of about 22%. To improve efficiency, and other increasingly
important performance objectives such as power quality, better overall system
operation, and more precise control call for increased use of DC technologies to
minimize the number of conversions.

New loads and generation sources, such as solar and wind, will often be
connected to the distribution grid that has been traditionally designed to uni-
directionally distribute the output of the bulk electric system. Accommodating
these new loads and generation sources will require both bridging the gap
between the transmission and distribution grids and crossing the chasm between
federal regulation of the transmission grid and individual state regulation of
distribution networks. The importance of meeting these challenges is
heightened because the economic feasibility of many of the new technologies is
dependent on their serving both the transmission and distribution grids
simultaneously.Indications of pathways to that future are here now, as
technologies and societal needs have made it not only possible but necessary to
take a fresh look at judiciously incorporating both AC and DC technologies at
appropriate scales of deployment

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2.5 Hybrid power system: A plan in action
Several researchers have been working to determine how best to
implement a DC power system. Most of this research also focuses on the DC
network coexisting with our current AC system. Even if the entire electrical
infrastructure were to convert to DC, there would still be a transition period in
which the two coexist. Fortunately, researchers have come up with promising
ideas for how to create a DC system that is compatible with the existing AC
system. One facet of this is determining how to design wiring to carry DC
power. Researchers have determined that DC power can be carried on the same
wires we use now for AC power (Borioli et al 2004, Techakittiroj et al 2008). In
fact, using the system they describe, the existing wires can carry nearly twice as
much DC power as AC power. Being able to use existing wiring would make it
much easier to retrofit existing buildings for DC power, but it also means that
new construction would be cheaper because the wiring is already being mass-
produced. Other researchers have solved the arcing problem with DC plugs
(Fairley 2011). AC power plugs have two or three pins of the same length.
When you pull out the plug, arcs are prevented by the periodic “zeroing” of the
voltage. Because DC power always has a positive voltage, arcs can form
between the plug and the socket. This research group designed a plug with one
pin shorter than the rest. Because this pin is shortest, it disconnects first. Once
the short pin is disconnected, the appliance shuts itself off to prevent arcs. By
the time the rest of the pins are disconnected, the appliance is completely shut
down. Another research team has conducted some interesting experiments with
existing appliances (Techakittiroj&Wongpaibool 2009). Without modifying the
appliances, the researchers plugged them into a DC power supply. Surprisingly,
all of the appliances they tested still worked, including a television, notebook
computer, ASD motor drive, and fluorescent lights. In fact, the lights were even
more efficient when powered by a DC source. The researchers also highlighted
the fact that the interference from switch-mode power supplies is less of an
issue for DC systems. In AC systems, the power spikes are all synchronized by
the periodicity of the AC signal. Since DC systems have nothing to synchronize
them, different appliances will spike at different times, causing the spikes to
average and cancel each other out, rather than add as they do in AC systems.
This research proves that not only can most appliances run off DC power, many
of them can do so without any modification, paving the way for household DC
power.

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Chapter 3

Page 20
3.1 Advantage of DC over AC :

Alternating Current Direct Current

Safe to transfer over Voltage of DC cannot
Amount of energy that
longer city distances and travel very far until it
can be carried
can provide more power. begins to lose energy.

Cause of the direction of Rotating magnet along Steady magnetism along

flow of electrons the wire. the wire.

The frequency of
alternating current is The frequency of direct
Frequency
50Hz or 60Hz depending current is zero.
upon the country.

It reverses its direction

It flows in one direction
Direction while flowing in a
in the circuit.
circuit.

It is the current of
It is the current of
Current magnitude varying with
constant magnitude.
time

Electrons keep switching Electrons move steadily

Flow of Electrons directions - forward and in one direction or
backward. 'forward'.

A.C Generator and

Obtained from Cell or Battery.
mains.

Passive Parameters Impedance. Resistance only

Power Factor Lies between 0 & 1. it is always 1.

Sinusoidal, Trapezoidal,
Types Pure and pulsating.
Triangular, Square.

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Chapter 4

Page 22
Hybrid Power System:
The chapter begins with an overview of the investigated system and its
block diagram. Then the description of the block diagram is given along with
the description of each components used in the model.

4.1 HPS Block diagram

Fig2: Block Diagram

In our HPS model we designed our system for household loads and
applications.In our model we are converting 220V AC to 48V DC using
SMPS.Then we are standardizing the voltage into three voltage levels using
suitable converters that are designed for high efficiency.They are 48V,24V and
12V.The loads we are using are given below :

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 Table 1.1: Voltage rating of the loads
Voltage Level Load
12V Mobile and laptop charger
24V BLDC motor
48V Power LED array

We use BLDC motors because it has higher efficiency than conventional

AC motors. We replace fluroscent lamp with power LEDs .By using these loads
we are also minimizing the number of converters and thereby reducing the cost
and increasing the efficiency.We are also integrating solar power directly in our
system.This eliminates the need of inverters and thereby eliminating the losses
in conversion.Also these provides an uninterruptable and Eco-friendly energy
supply.

4.2 Components description

BLDC Motor:
INTRODUCTION
Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor types
rapidly gaining popularity. BLDC motors are used in industries such as
Appliances, Automotive, Aerospace, Consumer, Medical, Industrial
Automation Equipment and Instrumentation. As the name implies, BLDC
motors do not use brushes for commutation; instead, they are electronically
commutated. BLDC motors have many advantages over brushed DC motors
and induction motors. A few of these are:
• Better speed versus torque characteristics
• High dynamic response
• High efficiency
• Long operating life
• Noiseless operation
• Higher speed ranges
In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher,
making it useful in applications where space and weight are critical factors.

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Stator of BLDC motor:

Fig3:Stator of BLDC motor

The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with

windings placed in the slots that are axially cut along the inner periphery (as
shown in Figure ). Traditionally, the stator resembles that of an induction
motor; however, the windings are distributed in a different manner. Most BLDC
motors have three stator windings connected in star fashion. Each of these
windings areconstructed with numerous coils interconnected to form a winding.
One or more coils are placed in the slots and they are interconnected to make a
winding. Each of these windings are distributed over the stator periphery to
form an even numbers of poles.

Rotor
The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from two to eight
pole pairs with alternate North (N) and South (S) poles. Based on the required
magnetic field density in the rotor, the proper magnetic material is chosen to
makethe rotor. Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to makepermanent
magnets. As the technology advances, rare earth alloy magnets are gaining

Page 25
popularity. The ferrite magnets are less expensive but they have the
disadvantage of low flux density for a given volume. In contrast, the alloy
material has high magnetic density per volume and enables the rotor to
compress further for the same torque. Also, these alloy magnets improve the
size-to-weight ratio and give higher torque for the same size motor using ferrite
magnets.

Fig4: Rotor of BLDC motor

Torque-Speed characteristics:

Fig5: Torque-Speed characteristics

Page 26
COMPARING BLDC MOTORS TO OTHER MOTOR TYPES

Compared to brushed DC motors and inductionmotors, BLDC motors

have many advantages and few disadvantages. Brushless motors require less
maintenance, so they have a longer life compared with brushed DC motors.
BLDC motors produce more output power per frame size than brushed DC
motors and induction motors. Because the rotor is made of permanent magnets,
the rotor inertia is less, compared with other types of motors. This improves
acceleration and deceleration characteristics, shortening operating cycles. Their
linear speed/torque characteristics produce predictable speed regulation. With
brushless motors, brush inspection is eliminated, making them ideal for limited
access areas and applications where servicing is difficult. BLDC motors operate
much more quietly than brushed DC motors, reducing Electromagnetic
Interference (EMI). Low-voltage models are ideal for battery operation, portable
equipment or medical applications.

Table 1.2: comparison between a BLDC motor and a brushed DC Motor

FEATURE BLDC MOTOR BRUSHED MOTOR
Commutation Electronic commutation based Brushed commutation
on hall position sensors
Maintenance Less required due to absence Periodic maintenance is
of brushes needed
Life Longer Shorter

Speed/Torque Flat Moderately flat

Characteristics
Efficiency High-No voltage drop across Moderate
brushes
Output power High-Reduced size due to Moderate-The heat produced
superior thermal characteristics by the armature is dissipated
in the air gap
Rotor inertia Low, because it has permanent High rotor inertia which
magnets on the rotor limits the dynamic
characteristics
Speed range Higher-No mechanical Lower-mechanical limitations
limitation imposed by brushes by the brushes
Electric noise Low Arcs in the brushes will
generation generate noise causing EMI
in the equipment nearby.

Page 27
 FEATURE BLDC MOTOR AC INDUCTION
MOTOR
Speed/Torque Flat-Enables operation at Non linear-Lower
Characteristics speeds with rated load torque at lower speeds
Output power High-since it has Moderate-Since both
permanent magnets on the stator and rotor have
rotor windings the output to
size is lower than
BLDC
Rotor inertia Low-Better dynamic High-Poor dynamic
characteristics characteristics
Starting Current Rated-No special starter Approximately up to
current required seven times of rated
starter current should be
carefully selected
Control Requirements A controller is always No Controller is
required to keep the motor required
running
Slip No slip is experienced The rotor runs at lower
between stator and rotor frequency than stator by
frequencies slip frequency and slip
increases with load on
the motor
Table 1.3: comparison between a BLDC motor and Induction Motor

TYPICAL BLDC MOTOR APPLICATIONS

BLDC motors find applications in every segment of the market.
Automotive, appliance, industrial controls, automation, aviation and so on, have
applications for BLDC motors. Out of these, we can categorize the type of
BLDC motor control into three major types:
• Constant load
• Varying loads
• Positioning applications
Applications With Constant Loads
These are the types of applications where a variable speed is more
important than keeping the accuracy of the speed at a set speed. In addition, the
acceleration and deceleration rates are not dynamically changing. In these types
of applications, the load is directly coupled to the motor shaft. For example,
fans, pumps and blowers come under these types of applications. These
applications demand low-cost controllers, mostly operating in open-loop.

Page 28
Applications With Varying Loads
These are the types of applications where the load on the motor varies
over a speed range. These applications may demand a high-speed control
accuracy and good dynamic responses. In home appliances, washers, dryers and
compressors are good examples. In automotive, fuel pump control, electronic
steering control, engine control and electric vehicle control are good examples
of these. In aerospace, there are a number of applications, like centrifuge
pumps, robotic arm controls, gyroscope controls and so on. These applications
may use speed feedback devices and may run in semi-closed loop or in total
closed loop. These applications use advanced control algorithms, thus
complicating the controller. Also, this increases the price of the complete
system.

Positioning Applications
Most of the industrial and automation types of application come under
this category. The applications in this category have some kind of power
transmission, which could be mechanical gears or timer belts, or a simplebelt
driven system. In these applications, the dynamic response of speed and torque
are important. Also, these applications may have frequent reversal of rotation
direction. A typical cycle will have an accelerating phase, a constant speed
phase and a deceleration and positioning phase. The load on the motor may vary
during all of these phases, causing the controller to be complex. These systems
mostly operate in closed loop. There could be three control loops functioning
simultaneously: Torque Control Loop, Speed Control Loop and Position
Control Loop. Optical encoder or synchronous resolvers are used for measuring
the actual speed of the motor. In some cases, the same sensors are used to get
relative position information. Otherwise, separate position sensors may be used
to get absolute positions. Computer Numeric Controlled (CNC) machines are a
good example of this. Process controls, machinery controls and conveyer
controls have plenty of applications in this category.

SUMMARY

In conclusion, BLDC motors have advantages over brushed DC motors

and induction motors. They have better speed versus torque characteristics, high
dynamic response, high efficiency, long operating life, noiseless operation,
higher speed ranges, rugged construction and so on. Also, torque delivered to
the motor size is higher, making it useful in applications where space and
weight are critical factors. With these advantages, BLDC motors find wide
spread applications in automotive, appliance, aerospace, consumer, medical,
instrumentation and automation industries.

Page 29
LED

A Light emitting diode (LED) is essentially a pn junction diode. When

carriers are injected across a forward-biased junction, it emits incoherent light.
Most of the commercial LEDs are realized using a highly doped n and a p
Junction.

LED Materials:

An important class of commercial LEDs that cover the visible spectrum

are the III-V. ternary alloys based on alloying GaAs and GaP which are denoted
by GaAs1-yPy. InGaAlP is an example of a quarternary (four element) III-V
alloy with a direct band gap. The LEDs realized using two differently doped
semiconductors that are the same material is called a homojunction. When they
are realized using different bandgap materials they are called a
heterostructuredevice(see Appendix 7). A heterostructure LED is brighter than a
homoJunction LED.

LED Structure:

The LED structure plays a crucial role in emitting light from the LED
surface. The LEDs are structured to ensure most of the recombination takes
place on the surface by the following two ways.
• By increasing the doping concentration of the substrate, so that additional free
minority charge carriers electrons move to the top, recombine and emit light at
the surface.
• By increasing the diffusion length L = √ Dτ, where D is the diffusion
coefficient and τ is the carrier life time. But when increased beyond a critical
length there is a chance of re-absorption of the photons into the device.
The LED has to be structured so that the photons generated from the device are
emitted without being reabsorbed. One solution is to make the p layer on the top
thin, enough to create a depletion layer. Following picture shows the layered
structure. There are different ways to structure the dome for efficient emitting.

Page 30
 Fig6: Schematic of LED

LED efficiency:
A very important metric of an LED is the external quantum efficiency
ηext. It quantifies the efficeincy of the conversion of electrical energy into
emitted optical energy. It is defined as the light output divided by the electrical
input power. It is also defined as the product of Internal radiative efficiency and
Extraction efficiency.
ηext = Pout(optical) / IV
For indirect bandgap semiconductors ηext is generally less than 1%, where as
for a direct band gap material it could be substantial.
ηint = rate of radiation recombination/ Total recombination
The internal efficiency is a function of the quality of the material and the
structure and composition of the layer.

Applications: LED have a lot of applications. Following are few examples.

• Devices, medical applications, clothing, toys
• Remote Controls (TVs, VCRs)
• Lighting
• Indicators and signs
• Optoisolators and optoouplers

Page 31
• Swimming pool lighting

Advantages of using LEDs

• LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs; this is useful in
battery powered or energy-saving devices.
• LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters that
traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial
costs.
• The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent
and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and
direct it in a usable manner.
• When used in applications where dimming is required, LEDs do not change
their color tint as the current passing through them is lowered, unlike
incandescent lamps, which turn yellow.
• LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off
cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled
frequently, or High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps that require a long time
before restarting.
• LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external
shock. Fluorescent and incandescent bulbs are easily broken if dropped on the
ground.
• LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. A Philips LUXEON k2 LED hasa
life time of about 50,000 hours, whereas Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at
about 30,000 hours, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000–2,000 hours.
• LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of
incandescent bulbs.
• LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full
brightness in microseconds; Philips Lumileds technical datasheet DS23 for the
Luxeon Star states "less than 100ns." LEDs used in communications devices
can have even faster response times.
• LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed circuit boards.
• LEDs do not contain mercury, unlike compact fluorescent lamps.

Page 32
Socket Design:

Fig7: HPS Socket

We designed our socket satisfying our voltage levels. Therefore we can connect
DC loads directly to the supply using our socket.

SMPS:

A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power

supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a
switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently. Like other power
supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a source, like mains power, to a load,
such as a personal computer, while

Page 33
converting voltage and current characteristics. Unlike a linear power supply, the
pass transistor of a switching-mode supply continually switches between low-
dissipation, full-on and full-off states, and spends very little time in the high
dissipation transitions, which minimizes wasted energy. Ideally, a switched-
mode power supply dissipates no power. Voltage regulation is achieved by
varying the ratio of on-to-off time. In contrast, a linear power supply regulates
the output voltage by continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. This
higher power conversion efficiency is an important advantage of a switched-
mode power supply. Switched-mode power supplies may also be substantially
smaller and lighter than a linear supply due to the smaller transformer size and
weight.
Switching regulators are used as replacements for linear regulators when
higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight are required.

Fig 8: Schematic of SMPS

The main advantage of the switching power supply is greater efficiency

because the switching transistor dissipates little power when acting as a switch.
Other advantages include smaller size and lighter weight from the elimination
of heavy line-frequency transformers, and lower heat generation due to higher
efficiency.

At low frequencies (such as the line frequency of 50 or 60 Hz), designers

can usually ignore the skin effect. For these frequencies, the skin effect is only
significant when the conductors are large, more than 0.3 inches (7.6 mm) in
diameter.

Page 34
 Switching power supplies must pay more attention to the skin effect
because it is a source of power loss. At 500 kHz, the skin depth in copper is
about 0.003 inches (0.076 mm) – a dimension smaller than the typical wires
used in a power supply. The effective resistance of conductors increases,
because current concentrates near the surface of the conductor and the inner
portion carries less current than at low frequencies.
The skin effect is exacerbated by the harmonics present in the high
speed PWM switching waveforms. The appropriate skin depth is not just the
depth at the fundamental, but also the skin depths at the harmonics.
In addition to the skin effect, there is also a proximity effect, which is
another source of power loss.
Simple off-line switched mode power supplies incorporate a simple full-
wave rectifier connected to a large energy storing capacitor. Such SMPSs draw
current from the AC line in short pulses when the mains instantaneous voltage
exceeds the voltage across this capacitor. During the remaining portion of the
AC cycle the capacitor provides energy to the power supply.
As a result, the input current of such basic switched mode power supplies
has high harmonic content and relatively low power factor. This creates extra
load on utility lines, increases heating of building wiring, the
utility transformers, and standard AC electric motors, and may cause stability
problems in some applications such as in emergency generator systems or
aircraft generators. Harmonics can be removed by filtering, but the filters are
expensive. Unlike displacement power factor created by linear inductive or
capacitive loads, this distortion cannot be corrected by addition of a single
linear component. Additional circuits are required to counteract the effect of the
brief current pulses. Putting a current regulated boost chopper stage after the
off-line rectifier (to charge the storage capacitor) can correct the power factor,
but increases the complexity and cost.

Page 35
Chapter 5

Page 36
Simulation Results:
In this chapter the simulation result for wire loss in a DC transmission for
copper and aluminum material is discussed. This simulation is done with the
help of MATLAB and AWG standard .

Wire Gauge :
American wire gauge (AWG), also known as the Brown & Sharpe wire
gauge, is a standardized wire gauge system used since 1857 predominantly in
North America for the diameters of round, solid,
[1]
nonferrous, electrically conducting wire. The cross-sectional area of each
gauge is an important factor for determining its current-carrying capacity.
The steel industry does not use AWG and prefers a number of other wire
gauges. These include Washburn & Moen (or W&M) Wire Gauge, US
Steel Wire Gauge, and Music Wire Gauge (see Piano wire).
Increasing gauge numbers give decreasing wire diameters, which is
similar to many other non-metric gauging systems. This gauge system
originated in the number of drawing operations used to produce a given gauge
of wire. Very fine wire (for example, 30 gauge) required more passes through
the drawing dies than did 0 gauge wire. Manufacturers of wire formerly had
proprietary wire gauge systems; the development of standardized wire gauges
rationalized selection of wire for a particular purpose.
The AWG tables are for a single, solid, round conductor. The AWG of a
stranded wire is determined by the total cross-sectional area of the conductor,
which determines its current-carrying capacity and electrical resistance. Because
there are also small gaps between the strands, a stranded wire will always have
a slightly larger overall diameter than a solid wire with the same AWG.
AWG is also commonly used to specify body piercing jewelry
sizes (especially smaller sizes), even when the material is not
metallic.[2] However, metallic hypodermic needles and blunt needles are usually
specified in terms of Needle gauge.

Page 37
Voltage-drop For Copper Conductor :

Fig9: Voltage drop in copper

Page 38
Voltage-drop for Aluminum Conductor:
Fig10: Voltage drop in aluminum

Page 39
Chapter 6

Page 40
Conclusion:
The summary of our project is discussed in this chapter. Finally we
discussed the advantage of our HPS system over the existing power system.
Stability and dynamic properties of DC voltage control are of great
concern. Requirements on hardware and software is also stated so that the
system could grow, i.e. reduction or addition of converters installed in an
existing system, without system degradation. Voltage control in the case of
weak sources is also investigated, since several of the renewable energy sources
possess low inertia. Connection of several DC systems is been investigated..A
small model is designed to verify voltage control and load sharing.
The project is then proceeded in three phases. In the first phase, we
conducted background research into the current state of the field of research, the
uses of household electric power, and the electrical properties relevant to the
topic. In the second phase of research, we prototyped power supply designs,
wiring standards, and plug and receptacle designs. In the final phase of the
project we draft a standard for household DC power. The converters are
specified with focus on interaction between the AC and DC sides. A solar
powered DC system is also adopted by our team to investigate voltage control
and load sharing in the case of renewable energy sources. A small model is
designed to verify voltage control and load sharing.

Page 41
Appendices

Page 42
Copper Wire Standard:

Page 43
Aluminum Wire Standard:

Page 44
Voltage Drop Calculation:

In situations where the circuit conductors span large distances, the voltage drop
is calculated. If the voltage drop is too great, the circuit conductor must be
increased to maintain the current between the points. The calculations for a
single-phase circuit and a three-phase circuit differ slightly.
Single-phase voltage drop calculation:

Three-phase voltage drop calculation:

OR 3øVD = (SQRT(3)*L*R*I)/1000
VD = Voltage drop (conductor temp of 75°C) in volts
VD% = Percentage of voltage drop (VD ÷ source voltage x 100). It is this value
that is commonly called "voltage drop" and is cited in the NEC 215.2(A)(4) and
throughout the NEC.
L = One-way length of the circuit's feeder (in feet)
R = Resistance factor in ohm/kft
I = Load current (in amperes)
Source voltage = The voltage of the branch circuit at the source of power.
Typically the source voltage is either 120, 208, 240, 277, or 480 V.

Page 45
MATLAB Code For Voltage Drop Calculation:

clc;
clear all;
copperResistance = [0.1608 0.2028 0.2557 0.3224 0.4066 0.5127 0.6465 0.8152
1.028 1.296 1.634 2.061 2.599 3.277];
aluminiumResistance = [0.264 0.331 0.420 0.528 0.67 0.84 1.06 1.34 1.69 2.13
2.68 3.38 4.27 5.38 ];

distance = [0.1 0.5 1];

VdropCu = copperResistance(1,:) * 10;

VdropAl = aluminiumResistance(1,:) * 10;

VdropPercentCu(1,:) = ((VdropCu/ 12) * 100);

VdropPercentCu(2,:) = ((VdropCu/ 24) * 100);

VdropPercentAl(1,:) = ((VdropAl/ 12) * 100);

VdropPercentAl(2,:) = ((VdropAl/ 24) * 100);

VdropPercentCu(VdropPercentCu>100) = 100;
VdropPercentAl(VdropPercentAl>100) = 100;

wiregauge = 1:14;

%plot(VdropPercentCu,wiregauge);
figure;
plot(copperResistance,VdropPercentCu,'b-o');
figure;
plot(aluminiumResistance,VdropPercentAl,'r-*');

Page 46
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[9] X. Feng, Z. Ye, K. Xing, F.C. Lee and D. Borojevic, ”Individual Load
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