Segismundo, Isabelle D.

(2014-55553)
CHAPTER TWO I RESEARCH METHODS IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY
SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH METHODS

 Objectivity-unbiased approach to observation and interpretations of behavior

 Research Methodology-system of guidelines and procedures designed to assist the researcher in obtaining a
more accurate and unbiased analysis of the problem
 Statistical Analysis-procedures for testing the repeated objectives observations that a researcher has collected
 Goals:
- Describe, Explain and Predict
- Additional goal: attempt to control or alter behavior to obtain desired outcomes
 Steps:
- Formulation of the problem or issue
o Specify the problem or issue to be studies
o May be due to:
 Interests in a particular area
 Influenced by previous research
 Consulted with an issue
 Study problems to better understand them or solve them
- Generation of hypotheses
o Involves taking in variables-elements measured in research investigations
o Generating a hypotheses-statements about the supposed relationships between or among
variables
o Hypotheses will later be tested through collection and analysis of research data
o Testing of hypotheses -> creation of theory/model-the organization of beliefs into a
representation of the factors that affect behavior (model-representations of the complexity of
factors that affect behavior or that affect work behavior)
o Advantages of a theory:
 Convenient ways to organize our thinking and our understanding of complex behavioral
processes
 Starting point for understanding and influencing behavior
 Used as guides to improve work world
o Models are the product of research (creation, testing and refinement)
- Selecting the research design
o Choose a research design that will guide the research
o Design depends on the setting and control the researcher has over the setting
o Different settings may require different research designs
o A constrain may be the degree of control the researcher has over the setting and the
participants
- Collection of Data
o Collection of data is governed by the research design used
o Sampling-the selection of a representative group from a larger population for study
 Process of selection is important and must follow strict guidelines so that the sample is
indeed representative of the larger population
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 Random Sampling-selection of participants from a population so that each individual has
an equal probability of being chosen
 Stratified Sampling-selection of participants based on categories that represent
important distinguishing characteristics of a population
 Random selection ensures that no/minimal bias in the choice of participants
- Analyses of Research Data
o Subjected to analysis for interpretation
o Involves statistical analyses(quantitative)
- Interpretation of Research Results
o Draws out conclusions about the meaning of the findings and their relevance to actual work
behavior and their possible limitations

MAJOR RESEARCH DESIGNS

 Experimental Method
- A research design characterized by a high degree of control over the research setting to allow for the
determination of cause and effect relationships among variables
- Designed to give a high degree of control over the research setting
- Variables:
o Independent Variable-the variable that is manipulated by the researcher
o Dependent Variable/outcome variable-the variable that is acted on by the independent variable
o All other variables are held in constant
o Extraneous Variable-Variables other than the independent variable that may influence the
dependent variable
- Groups:
o Control Group- a comparison group that receives no treatment
o Treatment Group/Experimental Group- group that is subjected to the change in the
independent variable
o Comparison between the two groups allows the researcher to determine the magnitude of the
effect produced by the manipulation of the independent variable
- Random Assignment-a method of assigning subjects to groups by chance to control for the effects of
extraneous variables
- Advantage: allows to determine cause and effect relationship
- Drawback: superficial(concern whether these results will apply to real life)
 Quasi-experiments
- Follows the experimental design but lacks the random assignment and/or manipulation of independent
variable
- Cause and effect relationships cannot be determined
- Common in I/O Psychology(difficult to control extraneous variables and unit of organization is in groups,
not individuals)
- Try to measure as many possible extraneous variables to statistically control for effects
 Correlational Method
- Research design that examines the relationships among or between variables as they naturally occur
- No manipulation of variables by the researcher
- Measures two of more variables and then examines their statistical relationships to one another
- Distinction between independent and dependent variable is not as important
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- Advantages:
o Easy to use in actual work settings
o May be conducted with archival data(data that an organization already has)
- Disadvantages:
o Cannot determine cause and effect relationships
- Caution must be exercised when interpreting the results of correlational research
 Complex Correlational Designs
- Involves complex statistical analyses that allow for the combining predictor variables, statistically
controlling for possible extraneous variables, and methods that allow for inferring the likelihood of
cause and effect
- Multiple Regression Design-examines the relationship between a particular outcome variable and
multiple predictors
o Allows researchers to determine how a number of variables correlate with a certain outcome
o Allows the researchers to control possible extraneous variables and examine the effect of one
variable on another, controlling for the effects of extraneous variables
- Some designs can be used to infer causality
o Mediation Model- relationship between two variables is hypothesized to be explained by or
mediated by a third variable(mediator variable)
 Meta-Analysis
- A technique that allows the results of a number of studies to be combined and analyzed together to
draw a summary conclusion
- Effect size-an estimate of the magnitude of a relationship of effect found in a research investigation
o Correlation coefficient
- Uses:
o Summarize the relationship between variables examined in each of a set of studies and
determining other factors that are associated with increase/decrease in magnitude of
relationships between variables of interest
o Compare and combine data from all of the examined studies, taking into account the effect sizes
and the number of participants in each of the studies
 Case Study Method
- A research investigation involving a one-time assessment of behavior
- A descriptive investigation
- Do not allow us to draw any firm conclusions
- Unable to test hypotheses or determine cause and effect relationships
- Provides rich, descriptive information about certain work behaviors and outcomes
- Such results might inspire the development of hypotheses that will later be tested

MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES

Operationalized-clearly defining a research variable so it can be measured

 Observational Techniques
- Through direct, systematic observation
- Researchers recording certain behaviors that they have defined as the operationalized variables
- Obtrusive Observation- researcher is visible to the persons being observed
o Dis: participants may behave differently because they know that they are being observed
 Segismundo, Isabelle D.(2014-55553)
o Must always consider how their presence will affect participants’ behavior and results
- Unobtrusive Observation- participants are unaware of the researchers’ presence and do not know that
their behavior is being studies
o Adv: recorded behavior is typical
o Dis: ethical concerns about protecting the privacy of participants
 Self-Report Techniques
- Measurement methods relying on research participants’ reports of their own behavior or attitudes
- Allows researcher to collect massive amounts of data relatively inexpensively
- Developing self-report tools and interpreting results are not easy
- Surveys
o A common self-report measure in which participants are asked to report on their attitudes,
beliefs and/or behaviors
o Typically in pencil and paper measures(but can also involve interviews)
o Dis: possibility of distortion or bias of responses
 Key Issues
- Reliability
o stability of a measure over time or the consistency of the measure
o Refers to the agreement between two or more assessments made of the same event or
behavior
o Stable, consistent and free of random error
- Validity
o Accuracy of inferences or projections we draw from measurements
o Whether a set of measurements allows accurate inferences or projections about something else

MEASURING WORK OUTCOMES

 Tremendous number of potential independent variables and dependent variables

 Dependent variables usually represent work outcomes

INTERPRETING AND USING RESEARCH RESULTS

 Researcher’s task: make sense of the results

 Important to consider limitations of the study
 Internal Validity
- How confident we are that the change in a dependent variable is caused by the independent variable
- The extent to which extraneous variables are removed
 External Validity
- Whether the results obtained will generalize to other work settings
- Important for research conducted under tightly controlled circumstances(solution to conduct
experimental research in work settings)

ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH AND PRACTICE IN I/O PSYCHOLOGY

 Must adhere to ethical principles and standards

 Guiding principles:
- Striving to benefit the persons with whom the psychologist is working and taking care to do no harm
- Being honest and accurate in the science, teaching and practice of psychology
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- Respecting the rights of people to privacy and confidentiality
 Informed Consent- a research participant is fully informed of the nature of the experiment and has the right to
not participate
 Participants should be fully debriefed after the end of the research to ensure no harm is done
 Must also protect their privacy(collect data anonymously or keep data confidential)
 Should not misrepresent their areas of expertise and be honest, forthright and fair in dealing with clients and
client organizations