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Pattern Recognition Letters 25 (2004) 301–309

www.elsevier.com/locate/patrec

An iterative method of palette-based image steganography


Mei-Yi Wu a, Yu-Kun Ho a, Jia-Hong Lee b,*

a
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
b
Department of Information Management, Kun Shan University of Technology, 949 Da Wan Rd., Yun Kung City,
Tainan Hsien 710, Taiwan, ROC
Received 13 June 2003; received in revised form 30 September 2003

Abstract

This article presents a novel iterative method of palette-based image steganography that minimizes the RMS error
between an original image and its stego-image. The proposed method is based on a palette modification scheme, which
can iteratively embed one message bit into each pixel in a palette-based image. In each iteration, both the cost of
removing an entry color in a palette and the benefit of generating a new one to replace it are calculated. If the maximal
benefit exceeds the minimal cost, a entry color is replaced. Experimental results show that the proposed method
remarkably reduces the distortion of the carrier images (stego-images) to other palette-based methods.
 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Steganography; Data hiding; Palette-based image; Stego-image; Security

1. Introduction Depending on the form of type of information


hidden in digital images, data hiding schemes
The hiding of data is frequently called stega- can be roughly divided into two major catego-
nography. Data are embedded into digital media to ries (Fridrich, 1999a,b)––non-robust, undetectable
identify, annotate, protect copyright, and deliver data hiding, and robust image watermarking. In
secret data. These embedded data travel along the first application, a digital image contains a
with the host media. The hiding of data is a highly secret message. For example, when the least sig-
multidisciplinary field that combines image and nificant bit of each pixel is replaced by an en-
signal processing with cryptography, communica- crypted bit-stream, the changes to a typical image
tion theory, coding theory, signal compression, will be imperceptible and the encrypted message
and the theory of visual perception. will be masked by some innocent looking image.
The main applications of such a scheme are to
transmit secret data (Chen et al., 1998; Sandford
et al., 1996). In the second application, a short
* message (a watermark) is embedded in the image
Corresponding author. Tel.: +886-6-2785123/2064/32726;
fax: +886-6-2785657/32726. in a robust manner. Many robust techniques
E-mail addresses: barbara@mail.cju.edu.tw (M.-Y. Wu), including statistical methods (Bender et al., 1996),
jhlee@mail.ksut.edu.tw (J.-H. Lee). signal transformation (Hsu and Wu, 1996), the

0167-8655/$ - see front matter  2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.patrec.2003.10.013
302 M.-Y. Wu et al. / Pattern Recognition Letters 25 (2004) 301–309

spread spectrum method (Marvel et al., 1999), Steganographers tend not to like to use palette-
Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) (Cox et al., based images, because the limitation on the colors
1997), Discrete Fourier Transformation (DFT) available in a finite palette causes difficulties in
(Solachidis and Pitas, 2001), a wavelets-based hiding data. Two approaches to embedding mes-
technique (Inoue et al., 1998), Fourier–Mellin sages in palette-based images have been described;
transformation (Bas et al., 1998), fractal-based they include embedding messages into the palette
methods (Solachidis and Boland, 1996), and a and embedding messages into image data. The
content-based method (Bas et al., 2002) can be main advantage of the first approach is that is easy
efficiently applied to watermark digital images. to implement. Freeware Gifshuffle (Kwan, 2003)
The stego-images generated by these methods can shuffles the color entries and uses different com-
survive common image processing operations, binations of color entries to hide messages. The
such as lossy compression, filtering, the adding of stego-image remains visibly intact, only the orders
noise, geometrical transformation, and others. For of the colors in the palette are changed. However,
a comprehensive description of watermarking its capacity is limited by the size of palette, and a
methods, please refer to (Cox et al., 2002). long message cannot be thus embedded. The sec-
The Internet provides a huge channel for the ond approach has high capacity but is generally
mass communication of digital multimedia includ- difficult to use without distorting of the stego-
ing text and images. One of the most fascinating images.
method of hiding data embeds information in dig- A convention scheme for hiding data in palette-
ital images (Johnson and Jajodia, 1998a,b). Digital based images is called the EZ Stego method
image steganography is one such method whose (Machado, 1997), in which the colors in the palette
primary purpose is to embed and deliver secret are first sorted by luminance, which is a linear
messages in digital images without raising any sus- combination of three colors R, G, B in the palette,
picion. The secret messages may be compressed and such as is given by R + G + B. In the reordered
encrypted before the embedding is begun. Many palette, most neighboring palette entries are close
image steganographic techniques have been pre- to each other in the color space. The method em-
sented. A number of steganographic methods are beds the messages in a binary form into the LSB of
based on replacing the least-significant-bits (LSBs) indices (pixels) pointing to the palette colors.
of the cover images (Fridrich, 1999a,b; Sandford However, this method does not easily generate
et al., 1996). Some methods that are based on high quality stego-images, mainly because the
human visual perception capability have been pro- colors with similar luminance values may be rela-
posed to achieve higher embedding capacity (Lee tively far from each other (for example, colors
and Chen, 2000; Wu and Tsai, 2003). Other meth- ½9; 28; 202 and ½202; 9; 28 have the same lumi-
ods modify small details in images to reduce the nance but represent two extremely different col-
visibility of the watermark, such as for example, the ors).
text marking method (Bender et al., 1996), texture Fridrich (1999a,b) presented a new method for
block coding (Bender et al., 1996), and the fractal- hiding message bits into the parity bit of close
based method (Solachidis and Boland, 1996). colors. The value of parity bit of the color R, G, B
The choice of image format plays an important is determined as (R + G + B) mod 2. A message bit
role on the design of secure steganographic sys- is embedded into each pixel of an image, by
tems. Uncompressed image formats, including searching for the closest color entry in the palette
BMP, provide a very large space in which to until a color entry with the desired parity bit is
embed messages, but their obvious redundant data identified. The parity bits of the palette entries that
makes them very suspicious to steganalysts. correspond to real images are more or less ran-
Therefore, the commonly used JPEG and GIF domly distributed, guaranteeing that the original
images on Internet web sites have become more colors are not modified too much within the stego-
popular for steganographic applications (Johnson image. However, the output stego-images gener-
and Jajodia, 1998a,b). ated by FridrichÕs method include false contouring
M.-Y. Wu et al. / Pattern Recognition Letters 25 (2004) 301–309 303

and noise, especially when data is embedded in the proposed method yields considerably better
hand-drawn images (such as cartoon pictures): results.
such images use only a few colors and so, the color The rest of the paper is organized as follows.
difference between an entry and other entries is The next section, briefly reviews the EZ Stego
increased during embedding. Fridrich and Du method and FridrichÕs method for hiding data.
(2000) also proposed a modified approach, a non- Section 3 details the new approach to minimize the
adaptive method and an adaptive method to im- RMS error between the original image and the
prove the security of palette steganography. stego-image. Section 4 presents the experimental
Some steganalytic methods for detecting mes- results with a modification to improve the security
sages hidden in images, such as under visual attacks of the proposed method. The final section sum-
and statistical attacks, have also been explored marizes this work.
in (Westfeld and Pfitzmann, 2000). Fridrich et al.
(2002) recently proposed a steganalytical method
to detect even small changes to bitmap images that 2. Review of work on hiding data in palette-based
were originally JPEGs. Johnson et al. (2000) noted images
that some steganographic methods applied to pal-
ette images, that preprocess the palette before 2.1. EZ stego method
embedding, are very vulnerable to attacks. For
example, S-Tools (Brown, 1996) generates clusters EZ stego method is similar to the commonly
of similar palette colors that can be swapped to used LSB method for 24 bit color images (or 8 bit
embed message bits. The characteristics of some grayscale images). After the palette colors are
other steganographic software have also been elu- sorted by luminance, this method embeds the
cidated (Johnson and Jajodia, 1998a,b). Provos message in a binary form into the LSB of indices
and Honeyman (2001) presented a framework to pointing to the palette colors. The detail steps are
retrieve two million JPEG images from the eBay as follows.
auction site and automatically determine whether
they may contain secret messages. Step 1: Reorder the color in the palette according
This investigation presents an iterative method to the luminance of each palette entry.
for minimizing the RMS error between the original Step 2: Find the index of the pixelÕs RGB color in
image and the stego-image. The method will iter- the reordered palette.
atively modify both the content of the palette and Step 3: Replace the LSB of the index with one bit
the image data in the original palette-base image. of the embedding binary message.
Then, FridrichÕs method will be used to embed Step 4: Find the new RGB color in the reordered
messages into the modified image and generate a palette referred to by the index.
stego-image with less distortion in comparison Step 5: Find the index of the new RGB color in
with the result of applying the FridrichÕs method the original palette.
only. The core behind the method is to replace the Step 6: Replace the pixel with the index of the new
less important colors in the image with the neigh- RGB color.
boring colors of the frequently used (more impor-
tant) colors to generate more space for secrete data The receiver can simply recover the message by
and have the image less distorted. Accordingly, the collecting the LSBs of all indices in the image file.
root-mean-square (RMS) error can be greatly re-
duced during the embedding process performed by 2.2. Fridrich’s steganographic method
applying FridrichÕs or EZ Stego method. Finally,
the original images are compared with their stego- Fridrich presented a steganographic method for
images produced by EZ Stego, FridrichÕs method hiding message bits into the parity bit of close
and the proposed method, in terms of using an colors. First, the distance between two colors in a
RMS distance. Experimental results indicate that palette is calculated as follows.
304 M.-Y. Wu et al. / Pattern Recognition Letters 25 (2004) 301–309

Definition 1. Let i, j be two color entries in palette in the image with the index of close color. Then, a
P with Ci ¼ ðri ; gi ; bi Þ and Cj ¼ ðrj ; gj ; bj Þ, the color new color is created to occupy the empty position,
distance between Ci and Cj in Euclidean norm is greatly reduce the RMS error in the embedding.
represented as When the iteration algorithm is finished, FridrichÕs
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi method is employed to embed and recover the
2 2 2
dði; jÞ ¼ ðri  rj Þ þ ðgi  gj Þ þ ðbi  bj Þ ð1Þ data.
Assume that the embedded message is en-
Let f be a palette-based image of size n  n; a crypted by a traditional encryption algorithm
total of n  n message bits can be embedded (such as 56-bit key DES) and the output random
using FridrichÕs method. For each pixel with a pattern has approximately equal numbers of ‘‘0’’
color palette index i in f , one data bit d (‘‘0’’ or and ‘‘1’’s. The following definitions are presented
‘‘1’’) in an embedded bit stream will be ‘‘coded’’ before the method is detailed.
according to the following principle. If ðri þ gi þ
bi þ dÞ mod 2 ¼ 1, a search for other entries is Definition 2. Let f be a palette-based image with a
performed to determine the closest color entry palette size of L (with entries 0 to L  1); the
with a different parity, such that ðri þ gi þ bi þ occurrence frequency for each entry in f is N ðiÞ,
dÞ mod 2 ¼ 0. Otherwise, nothing is done. where i ¼ 0 to L  1.

The message is recovered simply achieved by Definition 3. In a palette P , Cx is the closest color
checking the color parity of the corresponding to Cy , if entry x satisfies the following equation,
palette indices. For each pixel in a received image
dðx; yÞ ¼ Minfdðn; yÞ : n ¼ 0; 1; . . . ; L  1
(stego-image) with palette index i, if ðri þ gi þ
bi Þ mod 2 ¼ 0, an embedded message bit ‘‘0’’ is and n 6¼ yg where L is the size of P ð2Þ
decoded. Otherwise, message bit ‘‘1’’ is decoded. x is said to be the first entry referenced by entry y
This method never replaces a pixel color with a in P and is denoted as
completely different color, as EZ Stego could
x ¼ Rfirst ðyÞ
occasionally do, because it orders of the palette by
luminance, sometimes generating discontinuities
between neighboring colors. Definition 4. In a palette P , Cx is the closest color
to Cy that has different parity (given that the parity
bit of the color Cx ðrx ; gx ; bx Þ is rx þ gx þ bx mod 2),
3. The proposed method if entry x satisfies the following equation,
dðx; yÞ ¼ Minfdðn; yÞ : n ¼ 0; 1; . . . ; L  1
The new approach can be regarded as adding
and ðry þ rn þ gy þ gn þ by þ bn Þmod 2 ¼ 1g ð3Þ
preprocessing to FridrichÕs method. The same way
can be applied to other palette-based embedding x is said to be the first entry referenced by entry y
methods like EZ Stego. The RMS error is mini- with different parity in P and is represented as
mized by iteratively updating a color in a palette x ¼ Rfirst
DP ðyÞ
before embedding process is applied. It can also be
regarded as a replacement operation to remove a
specified entry from the palette and replace it with Definition 5. In a palette P , if Cx is the first closest
a new color. color to Cy that has different parity, then the sec-
Within each iteration, the cost of removing an ond closest color Cz to color Cy is defined as fol-
entry color and the benefit of creating a new color lows:
are calculated. If the obtained benefit exceeds the
dðz; yÞ ¼ Minfdðn; yÞ : n ¼ 0; 1; . . . ; L  1 n 6¼ x
cost associated with removal, remove the selected
entry, and leave it empty by taking a replacement and ðry þ rn þ gy þ gn þ by þ bn Þ mod 2 ¼ 1g
for the corresponding image data that referred to it ð4Þ
M.-Y. Wu et al. / Pattern Recognition Letters 25 (2004) 301–309 305

z is said to be the second entry referenced by entry 3.2. Benefit of creating a new entry
y with different parity in P , and is denoted as
For each entry i in the palette with index color
z ¼ Rsecond
DP ðyÞ
Ci ðri ; gi ; bi Þ, a new entry j is created to make a
referenced pair, which will reduce the embedding
3.1. Cost of removing an entry error to a distance of one using the following
equation.
According to the above definitions, the removal
rj ¼ ri
cost can be estimated using three items (FridrichÕs
embedding error, the error of updating one color gj ¼ gi
 ð9Þ
entry from the palette, and the referenced error 1 if bi ¼ 0
caused by some entries which their referenced en- bj ¼
bi  1 otherwise
try is removed from the palette) for each entry i in
a palette. Assume that the embedded message is Therefore, the benefit of reducing the RMS dis-
encrypted and consists of equal numbers of ‘‘0’’s tance by creating a new entry for entry i is
and ‘‘1’’s; about half of the pixels with color entry 1
i are replaced with another color entry in the BenefitðiÞ ¼ N ðiÞ  ½dði; Rfirst
DP ðiÞÞ  1 ð10Þ
2
embedding process. The first item denoted as
where dði; Rfirst
DP ðiÞÞ is the embedding error gener-
COSTFridrich ðiÞ, is the embedding error used in
ated by FridrichÕs method.
FridrichÕs method.
The proposed method is implemented by using
1 the following algorithm.
COSTFridrich ðiÞ ¼ N ðiÞ  dði; Rfirst
DP ðiÞÞ ð5Þ
2
Algorithm. An Iterative Method of Palette-Based
where N ðiÞ is the total number of entries i dis- Image Steganography
tributed in the original image f . Input: a palette-based image f , the occurrence
The second item, COSTself ðiÞ, is the cost derived frequency N ðiÞ of each color entry in f
from the replacement error, of updating the color and an entry set S ¼ u
entry i to the closest color using entry k and the Output: a palette-based image g
embedding error of the updated entry k. Step 1: While Benefitmax  COSTmin > 0
COSTself ðiÞ ¼ N ðiÞ  dði; Rfirst ðiÞÞ Perform an entry replacement (from Step 2
to Step 5)
1
þ N ðiÞ  dðk; Rfirst DP ðkÞÞ ð6Þ Step 2: For each palette entry i, if i 62 S then calcu-
2 late DCOSTðiÞ and BenefitðiÞ
where k ¼ Rfirst ðiÞ. Find the minimal cost (denoted as
The third item, COSTref ðiÞ is the reference error COSTmin ¼ DCOSTðpÞ)
derived using other entries in the palette that select Find the maximal benefit (denoted as
entry i as their closest color during embedding Benefitmax ¼ BenefitðqÞ);
process. Step 3: Replace the palette color Cp ðrp ; gp ; bp Þ and
1 X then copy this modified palette to image g,
COSTref ðiÞ ¼ fN ðkÞ  ½dðk; Rsecond
DP ðkÞÞ where
2
k¼0 L1 /* palette color with index p is updated to
Rfirst ðkÞ¼i
DP
index q */
 dðk; Rfirst
DP ðkÞÞg ð7Þ
rp ¼ rq
Finally, the total error cost is given by gp ¼ gq

DCOSTðiÞ ¼ COSTself ðiÞ þ COSTref ðiÞ 1 if bq ¼ 0
bp ¼
 COSTFridrich ðiÞ ð8Þ bq  1 otherwise
306 M.-Y. Wu et al. / Pattern Recognition Letters 25 (2004) 301–309

Step 4: Sequentially scan the image data of f ði; jÞ Within each iteration, it takes OðL2 Þ time to
and output a new image gði; jÞ according compute minimal cost, OðLÞ time to compute
to the following conditions. minimal cost and Oðm  nÞ to scan the image data
/* f ði; jÞ, gði; jÞ denote the corresponding of size m  n. This algorithm will stop at most a
palette indices on pixel location (i; j), half of L iterations since we add two color entries
respectively */ into S in Step 5 and they will not be selected as
Case f ði; jÞ ¼ p: gði; jÞ ¼ Rfirst ðpÞ candidates in Step 2 to compute the minimal cost
Case f ði; jÞ ¼ q: if cnt < N ðqÞ=2 then or maximal benefit. Therefore, this algorithm re-
gði; jÞ ¼ p; quires total OðL3 þ L  m  nÞ time.
cnt ¼ cnt + 1;
end if
Otherwise: 4. Experimental results and discussions
gði; jÞ ¼ f ði; jÞ
Step 5: Add p, q into set S and update the occur- 4.1. Experimental results
rence frequencies of each color entry in the
modified image for next iteration Two different images (Fruit and Swimmer) with
256 and 128 color palette entries are employed to
N ðRfirst ðpÞÞ ¼ N ðRfirst ðpÞÞ þ N ðpÞ
evaluate the performance of different stegano-
N ðpÞ ¼ N ðqÞ=2 graphic methods. Figs. 1(a) and 2(a) show these
N ðqÞ ¼ N ðqÞ  N ðqÞ images of size 256 · 256. The embedded message is
simulated using a random bit stream with length
Step 6: Stop 256 · 256 bits. Figs. 1(b) and 2(b) are the stego-

Fig. 1. An example to illustrate the steganographic methods. (a) Original image ‘‘Fruit’’ of size 256 · 256; (b) stego-image obtained
using EZ Stego method; (c) stego-image obtained using FridrichÕs method; (d) stego-image obtained using the proposed method with
88 iterations.
M.-Y. Wu et al. / Pattern Recognition Letters 25 (2004) 301–309 307

Fig. 2. An example to illustrate the steganography methods. (a) Original image ‘‘Swimmer’’ of size 256 · 256; (b) stego-image obtained
using EZ Stego method; (c) stego-image obtained using FridrichÕs method; (d) stego-image obtained using the proposed method with
116 iterations.

images output using EZ Stego method. Figs. 1(c) Table 1


and 2(c) show the stego-images obtained using RMS errors between the original image and the stego-image
obtained using different steganographic methods
FridrichÕs method. Figs. 1(d) and 2(d) show the
stego-images obtained using the proposed method. Fruit Swimmer
Table 1 presents the corresponding RMS errors EZ Stego 21.97 36.88
between the original images and the stego-images. FridrichÕs method 7.78 20.41
The proposed method 2.22 0.38
Fig. 3(a) and (b) show the graphs of the benefit The modified method with 2.33 0.94
and cost functions associated with the images in a ¼ 0:1
Figs. 1(a) and 2(a), respectively. Fig. 4(a) and (b) The modified method with 3.00 3.14
plot graphs of the corresponding RMS errors with a ¼ 0:3
various iterations. The experiment is performed on
a personal computer with an Intel 300 MHz CPU
and 128 Mbytes RAM and it requires about 20 s between palette entries is larger in artificial images
for performing the proposed algorithm. than in the real images. Therefore, FridrichÕs
The obvious distortion in Figs. 1(b) and 2(b) method may generate noise in the stego-images of
illustrates that the EZ Stego method may generate unreal images.
poor stego-images. The RMS errors in Table 1,
21.97 and 36.88, also indicate the bad quality of 4.2. Improving security
the results. FridrichÕs method outperforms EZ
Stego, but causes some false contouring (see the Reducing suspicion of the newly created palette
apple in Fig. 1(c)). Additionally, FridrichÕs method is important to steganography security. The pro-
may yield poor results when applied to artificial posed method generates a very close color entry
images (such as cartoons) since the color distance pair with a distance of one after each iteration
308 M.-Y. Wu et al. / Pattern Recognition Letters 25 (2004) 301–309

18000 900000
16000 (a) 800000 (b)
Benefit Benefit
14000 700000
12000 Cost 600000
Cost
10000 500000
8000 400000
6000 300000
4000 200000
2000 100000
0 0
1 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 100 111 122 1 12 23 34 45 56 67 78 89 100 111 122

Fig. 3. The graphs of the evaluated benefit and cost functions: (a) for the image in Fig. 1(a); (b) for the image in Fig. 2(a).

10 25

8 20

6 15
RMS
RMS

4 10

2 5

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 88 0 1 2 5 10 20 30 50 80 100 116
iteration number iteration number

Fig. 4. The RMS errors with different iterations by employing the proposed method: (a) for the image in Fig. 1(a); (b) for the image in
Fig. 2(a), respectively.

performing. Executing too many iterations may The modified method with a ¼ 0:1 and a ¼ 0:3 is
raise suspicion about the palette when someone applied to the image in Fig. 1(a), the iterative
computes the nearest distances of palette colors in procedure stops at 88 and 82 iterations with RMS
the palette. Therefore, Eq. (9) could be modified to values of 2.33 and 3.00 respectively. A similar
generate new color pairs with non-fixed distances. experiment applied to image in Fig. 2(a) is also
For an entry i in the palette, with an index color performed, the results are also better than those
Ci ðri ; gi ; bi Þ; and Cj is the first referenced color with obtained by FredrichÕs method, see Table 1.
a different parity from that of Ci , where j ¼ Fridrich and Du (2000) improved the security
Rfirst
DP ðiÞ. A new color entry color Cz can be created of the original scheme (Fridrich, 1999a,b) by
as the new closest color to Ci with a different carefully selecting the pixels that carry secret
parity, and Cz is information. They introduced the concept of
optimal parity assignment and developed two
rz ¼ ri þ ba  ðrj  ri Þc adaptive steganographic approaches that avoided
gz ¼ gi þ ba  ðgj  gi Þc ð11Þ the embedding of message bits into areas of the
carrier image of uniform color. The proposed
bz ¼ bi þ ba  ðbj  bi Þc þ b
iterative method can be regarded as preprocess for
where a is a real number less than 1.0 and b is an improving the quality of the carrier image in which
adaptable integer with value of zero or one to the message will be embedded. It can also be ap-
satisfy the parity rule. The benefit function of Eq. plied to palette-based steganographic methods
(10) is also modified as, other than just FredrichÕs method. The security of
the proposed scheme can also be further improved
1 using concepts similar to those described in
BenefitðiÞ ¼ N ðiÞ  ½ð1  aÞ  dði; jÞ ð12Þ
2 (Fridrich and Du, 2000).
M.-Y. Wu et al. / Pattern Recognition Letters 25 (2004) 301–309 309

5. Conclusion Hiding Workshop, Noordwijkerhout, The Netherlands,


October 2002, pp. 310–323.
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