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主題一、特殊相對論:Lorentz Transformation
1
f obs = f
γ (1 + vc cos θ 0 ) source
1 + (v c)
Special Case: f obs = f source as θ 0 = π .
1 − (v c )
1 π
Transverse Doppler Effect f obs = f source as θ0 = .
γ 2
(2)
λ
⇒ v=c ΔN
2L
Example 1. Derive the time dilation from the Lorentz transformation.
Known Referring to the figure below (Fig.1‐2, page 4),
⎛ vx′ ⎞ ⎛ ′ vx′ ⎞
T = t f − ti = γ ⎜ t ′f + 2 ⎟ − γ
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
( )
⎜ ti + 2 ⎟ = γ t ′f − ti′ = γ T p .
That is, we get the expression of time dilation.
Question: According to the Lorentz transformation, how to derive the effect of
length contraction, L = L p γ ?
Example 2. Verify the time dilation by muons travelling through the atmosphere,
say, 4.8 x 103m above the sea‐level ground. Notice that the lifetime
of the muons at rest is 2.2 μs. and the speed v of muons is 0.99 c
toward the ground.
(
= γ ( t f − ti ) − γ 2 x f − xi
c
v
)
= γ ( t f − ti ) − γ 2 v ( t f − ti )
v
c
⎛ v ⎞ 2
1
= γ ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ T = T
⎝ c ⎠ γ
That is, T = γ T p .
http://www1.phys.vt.edu/~takeuchi/relativity/notes/section12.html
09/15 自主性習作與實力提升
Example 1. Analyze the length contraction in the spacetime diagram.
Known Referring to the figure below (Tipler5e: Fig.1‐28),
both ends of a meter stick are located at x1 and x2, respectively, in the
reference frame of the observer O at time zero ( t1 = t2 = 0 ) so that
L = x2 − x1 .
But the corresponding positions x1′ and x2′ in the reference frame of
the observer O’ are traced back by the worldliness of each point to
earlier moments in time as measured by O:
⎛ vx ⎞ ⎛ vx1 ⎞
t2′ = γ ⎜ t2 − 22 ⎟ < t1′ = γ ⎜ t1 − 2 ⎟ < 0 .
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
Thus, the effect of length contraction is as the following,
L = γ ( x2′ + vt2′ ) − γ ( x1′ + vt1′ ) = γ ( x2′ − x1′ ) + γ v ( t2′ − t1′ )
⎛ vx vx ⎞
= γ ( x2′ − x1′ ) − γ v ⎜ 22 − 22 ⎟
⎝ c c ⎠
⎛ v ⎞ 2
= γ ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟ ( x2′ − x1′ ) = L p γ
⎝ c ⎠
Example 2. Illustration of the Relativity of Length, from Textbook of Krane
Known Referring to the figure below (or, Krane3e: Fig.2‐10), viewed by O in S,
∵ L + u ⋅ Δt1 = c ⋅ Δt1 and L − u ⋅ Δt2 = c ⋅ Δt2 ,
L L 2L 1
∴ Δttot = Δt1 + Δt2 = + = ⋅ .
c−u c+u c 1− u / c
2 2
2 Lp
′ =
While, the time interval measured by O’ in S’ is Δttot .
c
1 2 Lp
Thus, Δttot = γ Δttot
′ = implies that L = L p γ .
1 − u2 c2 c
Question: For the shape of a moving square (Tiple5e, Example 1‐10), θ =?
⇒
Question:
Resolve this paradox in use of the spacetime diagram:
Note L p = L + ( L p β ) ⇒ β = 3 2 ⇒ ct = L β = 10 3 m ≈ 5.8 m
2 2 2
Tipler’s Mod. Phyys.: Prob.1 1‐46 Two
o spaceships, each 1 100m longg when measured aat
rest, travvel toward each other with sspeed of vv = 0.85c relative to o Earth. (a) At t =
( 0
on Earth h, the front ends of ps are toggether as they just begin to pass each
o the ship
other. At what ti
A me on Earth are th heir ends ttogether?? (b) Sketcch accurattely scaled d
diagramms in the frrame of on ne of the sships showwing the p passing of the otherr ship.
An
nswer: (b
b)
8 轉學考
NTHU 98
8 轉學考
NTHU 98
主題二、特殊相對論:Relativistic Dynamics
mu
09/20 2.1 Relativistic Momentum p = γ mu =
1 − (u 2 c 2 )
dp d
Rel. Form of Newton’s 2nd Law F= = (γ m u )
dt dt
⇒
F d
= (γ u ) =
m dt
d ⎡
dt ⎢⎣
u 1− 2 u
c
2 −1 2 ⎤
⎥⎦ ( )
2 −1 2
( )
+ u ⎡ − 12 1 − u2 ( )( ) (− 2cu ) dudt ⎤⎥⎦
2 −3 2
= dt 1 − 2
du u
c ⎢⎣ c 2
(
= 1 − u2
c )
2 −3 2 du
dt
du F
( )
2 32
⇒ a= = 1 − u2 as F u.
dt m c
mc 2 1
2.2 Rel. Kinetic Energy K = − mc 2 → mu 2
1 − (u 2 c 2 ) u c 2
x(u ) dp t ( u ) d (γ u ) u
Hint: W = ∫x (0) dt
dx = m
t (0) ∫ dt
udt = m udu
2 2 32
0 [1−( u c )] ∫
Total Energy E ≡ K + mc 2 = γ mc 2
E 2 = K 2 + 2 Kmc 2 + ( mc 2 ) 2
( mc 2 ) 2 ( mc 2 ) 2
= −2 + ( mc 2 ) 2
1 − (u c )
2 2
1 − (u c )
2 2
⎡ ( mc 2 ) 2 ⎤
+2 ⎢ − mc ⎥ mc 2 + ( mc 2 ) 2
2
⎢ 1 − (u 2 c 2 ) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
u2 c2
= ( mc 2 ) 2 + ( mc 2 ) 2
1 − (u c )
2 2
= (γ mu ) 2 c 2 + ( mc 2 ) 2
⇒ E= p 2 c 2 + ( mc 2 ) 2 = K + mc 2 = γ mc 2
09/22 2.3 Conservation of Mass-Energy E = ∑ γ i mi c 2 = constant
i
Newtonian Mechanics: The mechanical energy is not conserved
and kinetic energy K is transferred to an
internal form.
Relativity Theory: Both relativistic mass‐energy and momentum
are always conserved.
⎧ E before = E1 + E 2 = ( 1 mv 2 + mc 2 ) + ( 1 mv 2 + mc 2 )
2 2
⎪ 2
⎪ mc mc 2
⎨ = +
⎪ 1 −v c
2 2
1 − (−v)2 c 2
⎪E
⎩ after = γ V = 0 Mc = Mc = E before = 2 (γ v m ) c
2 2 2
2m
⇒ M = γ v ( 2m ) = ≥ 2m
1− v c2 2
2 ⎛ mc 2 ⎞ 2K
Notice that ΔM ≡ M − 2 m = 2 ⎜ − mc ⎟ = 2 .
2
c ⎜ 1 − v2 c2 ⎟ c
⎝ ⎠
−2 v
PS. In S’ (of the m1‐rest reference frame), v2′ = ; thus,
1 + v2 c2
′
E before = mc 2 + γ v2′ mc 2
mc 2
= mc +2
= γ v2 ( 2 m ) c 2
2
1 − ⎡⎣ −2 v (1 + v 2 c 2 ) ⎤⎦ c2
= γ − v [γ v ( 2 m ) ] c 2 = γ V ′ Mc 2 = Eafter
′ .
2.4 4-Momentum P and Lorentz Invariance
⎛ γ 0 0 i βγ ⎞
⎜ 0 1 0 0 ⎟⎟
Let A ≡ ⎜ such that
⎜ 0 0 1 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ −i βγ 0 0 γ ⎠
⎛ p′x ⎞ ⎛ γ 0 0 i βγ ⎞ ⎛ px ⎞
⎜ p′ ⎟ ⎜ 0 1 0 0 ⎟⎟ ⎜ p ⎟
P′ = ⎜ y ⎟ = ⎜ ⎜ y ⎟ = A P .
⎜ p′z ⎟ ⎜ 0 0 1 0 ⎟ ⎜ pz ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ i E′ c ⎠ ⎝ −i βγ 0 0 γ ⎠ ⎝i E c⎠
( ux − v ) + ( u y2 + uz2 ) γ 2
2
(1 − vu c2 )
2
x
(1 − vu x c 2 )
2
1
⇒ =
u′2 ( − ) + ( u y2 + uz2 ) γ 2
2
u v
1− 2 (1 − vux c ) −
2 2 x
c c2
⇒
1
=
(1 − vu x c2 )
u′ 2
u x2 + u y2 + uz2 v 2
1− 2 1− − 2
c c 2γ 2 c
=
(1 − vu x c2 )
=γ
(1 − vu x c2 )
⎛ v2 ⎞ u2 c2 1 − u2 c2
⎜1 − c2 ⎟ − γ 2
⎝ ⎠
mc 2 ⎡ mc 2 mvu x ⎤
So, E ′ = γ ′mc 2 = =γ ⎢ − ⎥
1 − u′2 c 2 ⎢⎣ 1 − u c
2 2
1 − u 2 c 2 ⎥⎦
⇒ E ′ = γ ( E − vp x )
Similarly,
mu′x ⎡ mu mv ⎤
p′x = γ ′mu′x = =γ ⎢ x
− ⎥
1 − u′2 c 2 ⎢⎣ 1 − u c
2 2
1 − u 2 c 2 ⎥⎦
⇒ p′x = γ ( p x − vE c 2 )
⎜ pz ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝i E c⎠
is a 4‐scalar, that is an invariant quantity under the Lorentz
transformation. Recall that, based on Einstein’s postulate of
the Principle of Relativity, p 2 − E 2 c 2 = −( mc ) 2 should has
the same form in all inertial reference frames, which is (called)
Lorentz invariant.
Two different points of view E 2 c 2 − p 2 = ( mc ) 2 :
Consider the previous example, in S (the center‐mass system),
(1) summation of individuals
⎧ mc 2
⎪ E1, before = E2, before = γ mc =
2
⎪ 1 − v2 c2
⎨
⎪ 2 m2v2
⎪ p1, before = p2, before = (γ mv ) = 1 − v 2 c 2
2 2
i=1
(2) the whole system
⎧ mc 2 mc 2
⎪⎪ E before = + = 2γ mc 2
⎨ 1 − v2 c2 1 − (−v )2 c2
⎪
⎪⎩ pbefore = pbefore = γ mv + γ m ( − v ) = 0
⇒ E before c 2 − pbefore = ( 2γ m c ) .
2 2
c 2 − pafter = [ Mc ] = [γ v ( 2 m ) c ] .
2 2 2 2
so does Eafter
′2
In S’, likewise, E before
′ 2 = ( mc + γ v2′ mc ) 2 − (γ v2′ mv2′ ) 2
c 2 − pbefore
′ 2 = (γ V ′ Mc ) 2 − (γ V ′ MV ′) 2 ; both reaches
′ 2 c 2 − pafter
and Eafter
the same result: E c − p = [γ v ( 2 m ) c ] .
2 2 2 2
Serway’’s Gen. Ph hys.: Prob b.9‐53 An alien sp
A paceship traveling at 0.600c ttoward the
Earth launches a landing traveling in the saame direction with a speed of 0.800 0c
relative to the mo other ship. As obseerved on th he Earth, tthe spaceship is 0.2 200 ly fromm
the Eartth when the landeer is launched. (a) What sp peed do tthe Earth observerrs
measuree for the approach hing landeer? (b) Ass observeed by the aliens, what
w is the
distancee to the Earth
E at th
he time of lander launch? (c) How lo
ong does it take the
lander to reach th he Earth aas observed by the e aliens on n the motther ship?? (d) If the
5
lander hhas a masss of 4.00 × 10 kg, w what is its kinetic en nergy as observed in n the Earth
referencce frame?
Answer: (a) 0.94 46 C, (b) 00.160 ly, (c) 0.114 y
( yr, (d) 7.50 x 1022 J
−
7 轉學考 ( μ decayy
NTHU 97 )
−
NTU 98 轉學考 ( β decay of a neutron: )
he mean liffetime τ of a free n
PS. Th o neutron is about 885.7±0.8 s; i.e., nearlly 15 min.
Giancoli’s Gen. Phys.: Example 36‐11 The energy required or released in nuclear
reactions and decays comes from a change in mass between the initial and final
particles. In one type of radioactive decay, an atom of 92U232 (m = 232.03714 u)
decays to an atom of 90Th228 (m = 228.02873 u) plus an atom of 2He4 (m = 4.00260 u),
where the masses given are in atomic mass units (1 u = 1.6605 x 10–27 kg). Calculate
the energy released in this decay.
Walker‐Halliday‐Resnick’s Gen. Phys.: Sample Prob. 42‐06 The energy required
or released in nuclear reactions and decays comes from a change in mass between
the initial and final particles. In one type of radioactive decay, an atom of uranium
238
U (m = 238.05079 u) decays to an atom of thorium 232Th (m = 234.04363 u) plus an
atom of helium 4He (m = 4.00260 u). Calculate the energy released in this decay.
Nucleaar Fusion:
Tipler’s Mod. Ph hysics: Exaample 2‐4 4 Suppose that a
a particle with masss m and
energy E is moving toward
d the origgin of a system S su uch that itts velocityy u makes
an anglee α with the y axiis. By using the Loorentz transformation for en nergy and
momenttum, deteermine thee energy EE ′ of the particle meeasured byy an obserrver in S ′,
Light beam moving in a straight line through a compartment that is
undergoing uniform acceleration, while, in the reference frame of
the compartment, the light travels in a parabolic path, as would a
ball were it projected horizontally. According to the principle of
equivalence, a beam of light should also be deflected downward or
fall in a gravitational field; i.e., an effect of gravitational lens.
∗ ∗ 2. A Einstein’s Three Tests ( see the Essay distributed on 9/29 )
(1) Perihelion Shift
(2) Deflection of Light
(3) Gravitational Redshift
∗ ∗ 2. B Applications: Gravitational Wave, Black Hole, Cosmology,
etc.