Class Notes.4open

Introduction to Journalism
Class Notes
Table of Contents
1:1 The Functions of the News Media in Society............................................................................................. 3
1:2 The First Amendment ................................................................................................................................. 4
1:3 What the First Amendment Really Means.................................................................................................. 5
1:4a Material Not Protected by the First Amendment ...................................................................................... 6
1:5a The Public’s Perception of the First Amendment................................................................................... 13
1:6a Ethics and Responsibility........................................................................................................................ 15
1:7a Major Events in American Journalism History....................................................................................... 17
1:8a The Scholastic Media.............................................................................................................................. 27
1:8b The Scholastic Media.............................................................................................................................. 28
1:8c The Scholastic Media.............................................................................................................................. 29
2:1a News Values ........................................................................................................................................... 30
2:2a News Elements........................................................................................................................................ 34
2:3 5 Ws and H ............................................................................................................................................... 37
2.4 The Inverted Pyramid ............................................................................................................................... 38
2.5 Copyediting Symbols................................................................................................................................ 39
2.6 Summary Leads ........................................................................................................................................ 40
2.7a Grammatical Beginnings for Summary Leads........................................................................................ 41
3:1 How News is Gathered ............................................................................................................................. 46
3:2 Beats.......................................................................................................................................................... 47
3:3 Types of Interviews .................................................................................................................................. 48
3:4a Preparing for the Interview ..................................................................................................................... 50
3:5a Conducting the Interview........................................................................................................................ 52
3:6a Writing the Interview .............................................................................................................................. 54
3:7a Quotes and Transitions............................................................................................................................ 56
4:1a Types of Features .................................................................................................................................... 59
4:2 Structure of the Feature Story................................................................................................................... 61
4:3 Where to Look for Feature Stories ........................................................................................................... 62
4:4 Feature Leads............................................................................................................................................ 63
4:5 The Body of the Feature Story.................................................................................................................. 64
4:6 The End of the Story................................................................................................................................. 65
4:7a Alternative Copy/Sidebars ...................................................................................................................... 66
5:1a Types of Sports Stories ........................................................................................................................... 68
6:1a Types of Opinion Pieces ......................................................................................................................... 70
6:2a Types of Editorials .................................................................................................................................. 72
6:3 How an Editorial is Written ...................................................................................................................... 74
6:4 Formula for a Persuasive Editorial ........................................................................................................... 75
6:5a Column Writing ...................................................................................................................................... 76
6:6a Political Cartoons.................................................................................................................................... 78
6:7a Review Writing ....................................................................................................................................... 81
7:1a Types of Headlines.................................................................................................................................. 86
7:2 Top 10 List of ‘Dos’ in Headline Writing ................................................................................................ 88
7:3 Top 10 List of ‘Don’t Dos’ in Headline Writing ...................................................................................... 89
7:4 Headline Count System ............................................................................................................................ 90
8:1a Type Classifications................................................................................................................................ 91
Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint 1
as part of the Expert Systems for Teachers™ Series
8:2a Type Tips ................................................................................................................................................ 93
9:1 Photographic Composition ....................................................................................................................... 97
9:2 Photo Ethics .............................................................................................................................................. 98
9:3a Caption Writing....................................................................................................................................... 99
10:1a Advertising Appeals............................................................................................................................ 101
10:2 Ads that Sell.......................................................................................................................................... 105
10:3 Sample Ad Layout ................................................................................................................................ 106
10:4 Sample Ad Contract.............................................................................................................................. 107
10:5a 10 Steps to Selling an Ad.................................................................................................................... 108
11:1a Newspaper Design Tips ...................................................................................................................... 113
12:1a Yearbook Planning.............................................................................................................................. 115
12:2a Yearbook Design................................................................................................................................. 117
12:3a Simple Steps for Designing a Yearbook Spread................................................................................. 120
13:1a Writing for Broadcast.......................................................................................................................... 122
13:2 Technical Information for Broadcast.................................................................................................... 128
13:3 Selected Video Terminology Terms ..................................................................................................... 129
13:4 Camera Angles...................................................................................................................................... 130
13:5 Camera Distances ................................................................................................................................. 131
13:6 Camera Movement................................................................................................................................ 132
14:1 Newspaper Editorial Policy .................................................................................................................. 133
14:2a Staff Positions ..................................................................................................................................... 134
14:3a Production Steps ................................................................................................................................. 136
2 Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint

1:1 The Functions of the News Media in Society
Figure 1
• The political watchdog function.

Journalists are charged with
monitoring the activities of the
government.
• The entertainment function. Not everything in life is serious.

We want comic relief. We want comic strips. We want sound
advice from Dear Abby. We want our MTV.
• The social function. Newspapers and broadcast news provide

Americans with topics to talk about over the back fence, at
the office water cooler, over coffee at Starbuck’s.
Figure 2
• The economic function. Advertising carried in

the media helps to stimulate the economy and
provide consumers with information about
available products and services.
• The record-keeping function. Through the records kept by the

news media, we know who is born, gets married, gets
divorced, dies, who won the game, etc.

1:2 The First Amendment
Congress shall make no law respecting the

establishment of religion, or prohibiting the
free exercise thereof; or abridging the
freedom of speech, or of the press; or the
right of the people peaceably to assemble,
and to petition the government for a redress
Figure 3 of grievances.
• 45 words guarantee five basic freedoms
o Religion
no religion can be forced on Americans.
no American can be prohibited from worshiping.
o Speech
Americans are free to express their opinions, based
upon their own value systems (based on the
freedom of religion, above)
o Press
Americans are free to print the truth, and Congress
cannot require any kind of licensing for journalists;
all Americans have this freedom.
o Assembly
Americans have the freedom to gather in public
places for meetings, for worship, as spectators.
o Petition
Americans have the right to petition the
government for change and have the right to
petition at the ballot box.

1:3 What the First Amendment Really Means
• Viewpoint neutral
o All ideas are protected.
o The way in which ideas are expressed may be subject to
some controls.
There is a difference in expressing an opinion and
in acting on that opinion.
Figure 4 Figure 5
OK Not OK
• Only the government is prevented from imposing

restrictions on freedom of expression.
o One exception: Public schools (government agents) can
prevent expression that would lead to a material and
substantial disruption of the school day and can limit
expression for legitimate, pedagogical reasons.
• Private businesses can restrict expression on their property,
Web sites.
• Individuals can restrict expression in their homes and on
their property.

1:4a Material Not Protected by the First Amendment
• Material that is obscene as to minors
o Must meet all three of the following requirements to be

considered obscene as to minors:
The average person, applying contemporary

community standards, would find that the
publication, taken as a whole, appeals
to a minor’s prurient interest in sex;
The publication depicts or describes,

in a patently offensive way, sexual
conduct such as ultimate sexual acts
(normal or perverted), masturbation and
Figure 6
lewd exhibition of the genitals; and
The work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary,

artistic, political or scientific value.
o According to this definition, indecent or vulgar
language is not obscene. Words are not obscene in and
of themselves.

1:4b Material Not Protected by the First Amendment
• Libelous material: Libelous statements are provably false

and unprivileged statements of fact that cause injury to an
individual’s or business’s reputation in the community.
o Public officials and public figures have less protection

than private citizens.
A public official is a person who holds an elected

or appointed office and exercises a significant
amount of government authority: Mayor,
Governor, President, etc.
Figure 7
A public figure is a
person who either has
sought the public’s
attention or is well
known because of
personal achievements
or actions.

1:4c Material Not Protected by the First Amendment
School employees will be considered public officials or

public figures in relationship to articles in the school
media which concern their school-related activities.
Figure 8
When an allegedly
libelous statement
concerns an individual
who is not a public
official or public figure,
it must be proven that
the false statement was
published willfully or
negligently; i.e., the
journalist who wrote or
published the statement
has failed to exercise
reasonably prudent care.
If the allegedly libelous statement concerns an individual

who is a public official or public figure, it must be
proven that the statement was made with actual malice.

1:4d Material Not Protected by the First Amendment
• Journalists, including student journalists, are allowed to

express opinions. Specifically, they may criticize policy or
the performance of teachers, administrators, school officials
and other school employees.
o Material that will cause a “material and substantial

disruption” of school activities
o Disruption is defined as:
Student rioting
Unlawful seizure of
property
Destruction of property
Substantial student
participation in a boycott
Figure 9
For student media to be

considered disruptive, specific
facts must exist upon which one
could reasonably forecast that there would be an
immediate, substantial disruption to the normal school
activity as a result of the material’s distribution.

1:4e Material Not Protected by the First Amendment
o Mere fear or apprehension about a disturbance is not

enough; school administrators must be able to show
substantial facts that would reasonably support a forecast
of likely disruption.
Administrators must pay attention to the context of the

distribution as well as the content of the material.
• Consideration must be given to
o past experience in the school with similar

material,
o past experience in dealing with the students at

the school,
o current events which influence student

attitudes; and
o whether or not there have been previous

instances of actual or threatened disruption
that occurred simultaneously with the
distribution of the student publication.

1:4f Material Not Protected by the First Amendment
• Speech that could lead to imminent lawless action.
o Yelling “FIRE!” in a crowded movie theater.
Figure 10
• Invasion of privacy
o Private citizens have more protections than public
figures, public officials (as in libel cases).
o Types of invasion of privacy:
Appropriation of someone’s face or likeness
without express permission
Unreasonable publicity given to one’s personal life
Intrusion upon someone’s seclusion
Publicity which unfavorably places someone in
false light before the public
--Information from www.findlaw.com
1:4g Material Not Protected by the First Amendment
Fighting words
o While Americans have the right to express their
opinions, the Supreme Court has ruled that “fighting
words,” those words which by their very utterance
inflict injury or tend to incite an
immediate breach of the peace, are
not protected.
Figure 11
• Copyright infringement
o Occurs when copyrighted material is used without the
permission of the creator or copyright holder.
o A copyright lasts for the lifetime of the creator plus 70
years.
o After the copyright expires, the material enters the
public domain, meaning that it is available for use.
o All intellectual property should be credited to the
creator.
--Material gathered from Student Press Law Center,
www.splc.org, and First Amendment Center, www.fac.org

1:5a The Public’s Perception of the First Amendment
The First Amendment is under constant scrutiny. The First

Amendment Center at Vanderbilt University annually conducts a
“reality check”, a survey to determine just how Americans
perceive their First Amendment freedoms.
Selected results of the 2003 survey:

• Freedom of the press is the least popular freedom. About
46% of the respondents said the press has too much
freedom.
• 65% of the respondents liked the idea of embedding U.S.
journalists in individual combat units as was done during
the 2003 war in Iraq.
• 68% said that the news media did an excellent or good job
in covering the war.
• Despite the positive perception of coverage of the war,
about 67% said that the government should be able to prior
review journalists’ news reports.
• 48% said that they believed they had too little information
on the war on terrorism.
• Respondents were split on whether they thought the press
had too much freedom to publish or if there was too much
government censorship. 43% said there was too much
freedom; 38% said there was too much censorship.
• 33% said individuals should not be allowed to protest
against an American war during the period of active combat.

1:5b The Public’s Perception of the First Amendment
• 33% said that public school officials should be allowed to

prohibit high school students from expressing their opinions
about war on school property.
• Despite a Supreme Court ruling granting students the right
to wear armbands or other symbolic opposition to war or
combat, about 50% said that schools should be able to ban
these items.
• Remembering a statement by Natalie Maines, lead singer for
the Dixie Chicks, prior to a London concert, that she was
embarrassed that the President of the United States was
from Texas, 39% of those surveyed said they would be less
likely to buy a CD from a musician who has made
controversial political remarks in public that differ from
their own views.
• 55% of those surveyed opposed a constitutional amendment
to ban flag burning, a 4% increase from 2002.
--The First Amendment Center, www.fac.org

1:6a Ethics and Responsibility
Ethics:
• Defined as: the motivation to act based on ideas of right
and wrong.
• Journalists govern themselves through Codes of Ethics,
including:
o The Code of Ethics of the Society of Professional
Journalists
Based on four principles:
• Seek truth and report it
• Minimize harm
• Act independently
• Be accountable
o The Statement of Principles of the American Society of
Newspaper Editors
Includes such issues as:
• Responsibility
• Freedom of the Press
o ASNE says this belongs to the
PEOPLE, and must be defended
against attacks by any entity, including
government
• Independence.
o ASNE believes journalists must avoid
even the appearance of a conflict of
interest.

1:6b Ethics and Responsibility
• Truth and Accuracy. Journalists depend upon

good faith with the reader.
• Impartiality. This does not prevent the
newspaper reporter from having an opinion,
but there must be a clear distinction for the
reader about what is presented as fact and
what is presented as an opinion.
• Fair Play. Journalists must respect the rights
of all who are involved in a news story, no
matter who they are or what they have done.
• ASNE ends its statement of principles this
way:
o These principles are intended to
preserve, protect and strengthen the
bond of trust and respect between
American journalists and the American
people, a bond that is essential to
sustain the grant of freedom entrusted
to both by the nation’s founders.
o Other major news organizations and individual media
outlets have their own codes of ethics which are similar
in concept.
--Society of Professional Journalists, www.spj.org

--American Society of Newspaper Editors, www.asne.org

1:7a Major Events in American Journalism History
First newspaper in Colonial America:
Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and

Domestick
• Published Sept. 25, 1690
• Boston
• Publisher was Benjamin Harris
• Shut down immediately by the
government for reporting that British
military forces had aligned themselves
with “miserable” savages.
Figure 12
• Only one issue was published.

1:7b Major Events in American Journalism History
• The trial of John Peter Zenger

o Editor of The New York Weekly Journal.
o Arrested in 1734 and charged with seditious libel for
criticizing Governor William Cosby.
o Found not guilty because criticisms were true.
o His trial established truth as a defense for libel.
• First political cartoon, 1754
o Benjamin Franklin published “Join or Die,” a cartoon
depicting a snake cut into sections, each part
representing a colony.
The cartoon urged the Colonies to join together as
a single nation during the French and Indian War.
• Focus of newspapers was changing.
o Before American Revolution, purpose had been to
inform with news items about events in the home
country.
o As the Revolution approached, focus shifted to more
political reporting and local reporting.
• Party Press
o There were over 100 newspapers by 1790.
o Newspapers began to align with political parties of the
day.
Federalists
Republicans
Freedom of the press was widely accepted.
• Attacks on president became common.

1:7c Major Events in American Journalism History
• Newspapers and the Industrial Revolution

o By 1833 there were three times as many newspapers in
the U.S. as there were in France or England.
Technological advances produced better printing
presses.
Free public education meant a higher literacy rate.
Population was growing and heading west.
Several cities had competing newspapers.
Publishers began lowering cost of papers to
increase circulation.
• Penny Press
o In 1833, Dr. H.D. Shepard lowered the price of the New
York Morning Post to 2 cents per copy, then 1 cent.
Paper folded after 2 ½ weeks.
o In September, 1833, Benjamin Day lowered the price of
the New York Sun to 1 cent.
o Other newspapers followed suit.
• Civil War Coverage
o Invention of telegraph made faster communication
possible.
o Reporters were able to send news directly from the
battlefield.
o Matthew Brady and his photographers took pictures
from the battlefields.
o Wire services, including the Associated Press, were
established.

1:7d Major Events in American Journalism History
o AP established policy on a new way to write stories:

• They would be written briefly.
• They would be tailored for a national
audience.
• There would be no partisanship.
• Yellow Journalism
o Characterized by heavy sensationalism, faked
photographs, screaming headlines, yellow cartoons.
o Rivalry between major newspapers, especially in New
York City.
William Randolph Hearst, publisher of New York
Journal
Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of New York World
Figure 13 Figure 14
William Randolph Hearst Joseph Pulitzer
Photo in the Public Domain Photo in the Public Domain

1:7e Major Events in American Journalism History
Some historians believe the rivalry between Hearst

and Pulitzer caused or contributed to the Spanish
American War in 1898.
Figure 15 Figure 16
Cartoon is in the Public Domain
• The Yellow Kid (from Hogan’s Alley series)

o Cartoon originated in Pulitzer’s New York World.
o Originally drawn by Richard Outcault.
o Featured a bald child wearing a yellow nightgown, who
made pithy, but ungrammatical, observations about the
day’s events.
o Hearst hired Outcault and The Yellow Kid away from
the World.
o Pulitzer hired another cartoonist to draw a Yellow Kid
cartoon, so there were two competing versions of the
cartoon published at the same time.

1:7f Major Events in American Journalism History
Figure 17. The Yellow Kid is in the Public Domain.

1:7g Major Events in American Journalism History
Turning it around
• Some publishers were unhappy about the direction
American journalism was going on during the Yellow
Journalism period.
Figure 18
• Some subscribers stopped taking the sensational papers.

• The New York Times emerged as a leading newspaper.
o Two slogans:
“Does not soil the breakfast cloth”
“All the news that’s fit to print”
• Pulitzer’s philosophy about news coverage had changed by
1901 and he began to emphasize quality reporting and the
paper’s responsibility to the public.
o Before his death in 1911, he established the Pulitzer
School of Journalism at Columbia University.

1:7h Major Events in American Journalism History
o In his will, he established eight prizes to be awarded in

his name.
• Hearst also left a legacy which honors excellence in
journalism.
o Hearst Foundation supports several charities and awards
money to journalism programs in colleges.
Modern Technology Changes

the Face of Journalism
• Emergence of radio and

television brought major
competition to
newspapers.
• Many newspapers could
no longer compete for
advertising, and either
merged with others or
folded.
Figure 19

1:7i Major Events in American Journalism History
• Broadcast media were able to provide visual coverage

of the news.
o Later technology allowed for immediate
coverage through breaking news.
o Now news is on the air 24 hours a day.
• Newspapers began to streamline their design.

o Stories were packaged.
o Bigger pictures
o Color added
o Infographics
o USA Today became the first mass market national daily
newspaper, taking advantage of advances in technology
to print full-color pages at regional plants around the
nation.
Figure 20
• Newspapers could
provide more in-depth
coverage than the
broadcast media.

1:7j Major Events in American Journalism History
• New Media (Internet, e-mail, chat rooms, other electronic

transmission of information) has caused another shift as
both print and broadcast media now provide updated
coverage on the Web.
Figure 21

1:8a The Scholastic Media
Student journalists are following in the footsteps of their

professional counterparts.
• Students are producing:
o Newspapers
o Yearbooks
o Literary Magazines
o Broadcast news
o Documentaries
o News Web sites or online editions of the student
newspaper
• Students are tackling more sophisticated and controversial
topics than high schools of a few years ago would allow.
o Gay/lesbian issues
o Teen pregnancy
o STDs
o Homelessness
1:8b The Scholastic Media
o AIDS
o School budgets
o Eating disorders
o Investigation of wrongdoing by school officials
o Lawsuits against the school district
• Students are gaining practical experience in writing, editing,

layout, design, visual media.
• Focus on controversial topics causes some concern from
administrators and the public (See 2003 First Amendment
Survey results.)
• Three major U.S. Supreme Court cases have shaped the
student media.
o Tinker v. Des Moines, 1969
Established that students have First Amendment
rights while at school.
Students can express opinions at school so long as
they do not materially and substantially disrupt the
normal activities of the school day.
o Bethel v. Fraser, 1986
Established that while students have the freedom to
express themselves, the school has the right to
determine how they express their opinions.
The school has the right to limit vulgarity within its
boundaries and to ensure a positive learning
atmosphere for all students.

1:8c The Scholastic Media
o Hazelwood v. Kulhmeier, 1988

Did not reverse Tinker, but limited the amount of
freedom the student press, or any activity which
allows expression, may have.
Established that administrators have the right to
censor the press for legitimate, pedagogical
reasons, but did not establish what those reasons
might be
Emphasized that school administrators must be
viewpoint neutral, and cannot censor a student’s
expression because it differs from their own.
o The Student Press Law Center is set up to assist student
journalists in high school and college with all legal
issues concerning the production of student media.
Censorship
Prior review
Prevention of libel, copyright infractions, invasion
of privacy issues
o Several organizations exist to support student
journalists and their advisers:
Journalism Education Association, www.jea.org
Statewide organizations
Columbia Scholastic Press Association
National Scholastic Press Association,
www.studentpress.org
o Web sites are set up to help student journalists.
o www.highschooljournalism.org
o www.jteacher.com
2:1a News Values
What makes news different from other forms of writing?
• It is accurate. Reporters pay close attention

to detail when gathering facts and details.
Figure 22
• It is concise. News is written as concisely and tightly as

possible.
• It is in Active Voice.
o The best stories contain a single dominant theme and
use the subject-verb-direct object structure.
o The noun is concrete, referring to
specifics.
o Verbs are vivid, showing exact
action.
Figure 23

2:1b News Values
Figure 24
• It is clear. The reporter must understand the
event first, and then write about it in a clear,
precise, logical simple language. If the
reporter is confused about the event, the
writing will be confusing also.
• It is relevant. The reporter

selects the most important
quotes, illustrations,
anecdotes and facts.
Figure 25

2:1c News Values
Figure 26
• Opinion is attributed. All

information that cannot be proven
is attributed to the source of the
material.
• Sources are identified. Reporters should identify sources

by name, title or other description. Anonymous sources are
not acceptable, except in rare instances where privacy issues
are at stake.
Figure 27
• It is fair and balanced. All sides

of the story are given their say
and are treated without
favoritism.
• It is objective. It is written in
third person and without editorial comment by the reporter.

2:1d News Values
• It is true. The reporter must find

the truth among the facts,
statements and denials. Reporters
must seek to tell the latest version
of the truth. As more facts come to
light, the truth will change.
Figure 28

2:2a News Elements
What Makes News News?

Figure 29
There are facts that are newsworthy, and
there are facts that are not newsworthy.
There are facts which might be newsworthy
in one location, but not in another. There
are facts which might be newsworthy today,
but not tomorrow. What makes a fact
newsworthy is how it is perceived by your
readership, the people in your community
who are affected—or not—by the facts.
Among the common news elements are the
following:
Figure 30
• Proximity: This has to do with

location. If the event is happening
close by, it will impact your
readers more than if it is
happening across town, or across
the world, all other considerations
being equal. A dance at your
school, for instance, is more
newsworthy than a dance at
another school.

2:2b News Values
• Prominence: This has to do with how well known the
people involved in your story are. If the person or persons
are well known to your readers, the story will impact your
readers more than a similar story involving people they do
not know.
• Timeliness: If something is happening NOW, it has more

impact than something that happened yesterday or last
week. Often, the most recent development is the feature of
the story.
Figure 31
• Consequence: If the impact

of an event on your readers is
major, they want to know all
about it. For instance, they
might not care that a
particular street is being shut
down for repairs, until it is
brought to their attention that
this will reroute the major
portion of the traffic into their residential areas. This will
affect them in a significant way, and they will want to know
about it.

2:2c News Elements
Figure 32
• Human interest: If a
situation makes you
angry, sad, happy or
overjoyed, it contains
the news element of
human interest. If there
is conflict or drama or
the situation is out of
the ordinary, the
situation also has
human interest. Any
time human emotions come into play, this news element is
present. Some stories are newsworthy on this basis alone.
Most news stories have a

combination of two or more of these
news elements.
Figure 33

2:3 5 Ws and H
WHO?
• Who is involved?
• Who does this affect?
• Who said so?
WHAT?
• What happened?
• What is the consequence?
• What are people saying
about it?
WHEN?
• When did it happen?
• When will it take place?
• When will we know more
about it?
WHERE?
• Where did it happen?
Figure 34
WHY?
• Why did it happen?
HOW?
How did it happen?

2.4 The Inverted Pyramid
Figure 35

2.5 Copyediting Symbols
Figure 36 Copyediting Symbols

2.6 Summary Leads
• Must stress what is NEWSWORTHY (relevance,
usefulness, interest to the reader) by explaining IMPACT
(so what?)
• Don't back into the lead (avoid use of “there is,” “there
was,” “there will be.”)
• Don't bury the news—feature the most important
development.
• Subject-verb-direct object for most sentence constructions
(but note grammatical variations as well)
• One clear sentence, not too long, not too short. Make two
short sentences if necessary.
• Avoid minor or lesser important details in the lead sentence
(specific time, addresses, names if not well-known). Use
them in later paragraphs. However, include interesting,
colorful or unusual details.
• If the WHO of the news story is a celebrity or prominent
person in the community, you will probably use the name in
the lead sentence. Otherwise save the name for the second
paragraph, describing the person or organization that the
story is about.
• Often uses WHEN to indicate timeliness
• Often indicates WHERE news occurred in relative not
overly specific terms
• Avoid Questions Leads.
• Avoid Leads that are Direct Quotations.
• Be sure to update the lead on second-day or subsequent
stories.
2.7a Grammatical Beginnings for Summary Leads
• Temporal Clause
o Begins with a word that deals with time, such as as,
after, when, while, before, since or as soon as.
Example:
• When Patrick Briggs went to see musicals, he
used to watch the male lead and think, "I can
do that." "Then I thought, `I can do that better
than he can,' " said Briggs, assistant principal
of Watkins Middle School in the Cypress
Fairbanks Independent School District.
(Houston Chronicle This Week, Nov. 28,
2003)
• Prepositional Phrase
o Begins with a preposition and features an aspect of the
story that the reporter feels merits special attention.
Example:
• By withdrawing from the campaign finance
system, Howard Dean and Senator John Kerry
are sharply altering the nominating battles in
Iowa and New Hampshire. (New York Times,
Nov. 29, 2003) -- Explains how they are
affecting the campaign.
• In Hawaii, a sturdy American tradition has
rejuvenated a fading Hawaiian one, all within
the steamy, friendly confines of the imu. (New
York Times, Nov. 29, 2003) – Refers to
where.
2:7b Varying Summary Leads
• As a teenager zipping along the well-trimmed

links at the River Oaks Country Club on his
motor scooter in the 1940s, Preston Moore Jr.
never knew he would inspire a Houston car
dealer to invent the motorized golf cart.
(Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003) -- Refers
to when.
• Conditional Clause
o Begins with if, unless or provided, and expresses
speculative interest or condition.
Example:
• Unless they've dropped some clear hints,
choosing a gift for the die-hard video gamers
in the family could be overwhelming this
holiday season. An estimated 250 new games
are expected in this pivotal season for game
companies -- it accounts for about half of the
industry's $10 billion annual sales. (Houston
Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)
• Infinitive Phrase
o Begins with “to” plus a verb and features purpose or
dramatic action or creates a minor note of suspense.

2:7c Varying Summary Leads
Example:
• To control a bizarre gathering of eagles, pigs
and foxes on the California channel islands,
federal wildlife officials may have to kill a
protected species in order to save an
endangered one. (Associated Press, Nov. 29,
2003)
• Causal Clause
o Begins with because or since and shows a causal
relationship between facts.
Example:
• Since Memorial City Mall wanted to provide
entertainment other than movie theaters,
designers put in a skating rink. (Houston
Chronicle This Week, Nov. 28, 2003)
• Participial Phrase
o Begins with a present or past participle and features
action. Often answers the questions “why” or “how”
Examples:
• Using the Internet, many holiday shoppers will
take part in the shipping process, pointing and
clicking to create their own shipping labels, or,
if they're ordering online, supplying
information that makes it easier for packages
to be sent worldwide. (Present Participle)
(Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)

2:7d Varying Summary Leads
• Led by a former Rosenberg city official, the

new Katy Area Economic Development
Council is focused on enticing businesses to
locate in the Katy school district to strengthen
the tax base. (Past Participle) (Houston
Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)
• Gerund Phrase
o Begins with a gerund (-ing form of a verb used as a
noun) and features action or an interesting detail.
Examples:
• Traveling Houston's highways in search of the
perfect gift might require a little extra good
cheer this season, transportation officials
caution. Road construction knows no holidays.
(Houston Chronicle, Nov. 29, 2003)
• Finding attorney Tim Hootman's downtown
law office isn't at all a complicated task.
(Houston Chronicle This Week, Nov. 28,
2003)
• Being the running back at Wylie is hard. Being
the backup running back is even harder.
(Dallas Morning News, Nov. 29, 2003)
• Concessive Clause
o Begins with though or although and expresses
difficulties overcome or unusual circumstances.
Example:

2:7e Varying Summary Leads
• Although Bryan Scott Boggs was only 16 when

he used his mother's cell phone to make the
threatening calls to 11 area schools,
prosecutors in the case charged him as an
adult. Yesterday he entered a guilty plea.
• Noun Clause
o Begins with that, how, why, whether, what or when and
features the substance of announcements, decisions or
beliefs.
Example:
• How the state plans to finance public
secondary education in the next decade was
the focus of a week-long confrontation
between the Governor and the Legislature.
(From a workshop handout)

3:1 How News is Gathered
• Eyewitness accounts
• Events calendars/Futures books
• Press releases
Figure 37
• Stringers/freelance contributors
• Beats
• Wire services
• Interviews
• Background research
Figure 38

3:2 Beats
Figure 39
• Compile a list of sources who will be

interviewed periodically about a specific
organization, class, sport, etc.
• These sources should be contacted

frequently, at regular intervals, for
information.
• The sources should be encouraged to contact the reporter or

the newsroom if something special comes up before the
reporter’s next scheduled visit.
• Keep a calendar with important

events/dates/photo opportunities
you have found out about by
questioning your beat sources.
• Follow up on important
information between regular visits,
if necessary.
Figure 40

3:3 Types of Interviews
Figure 41
• Fact Interview:
o Straightforward question-and-
answer conversation intended to get
facts and quotations for advance
stories or supplementary/follow-up
coverage of past events
o Routine questions
o Can be done by telephone
• Personal Interview:
o More formal approach
o Reporter should prepare a list of questions ahead of time.
• Group Interview
o Man-on-the-street or Inquiring Reporter:
Same question asked of random interviewees.
Purpose is to get quick, off-the-cuff responses.
Figure 42
o Symposium:
Reporter gathers
statements from several
people usually
authorities or specialists
in their fields.
Purpose is to compare, analyze and interpret
reactions to specific questions.
3:4a Preparing for the Interview
Figure 43
• Make an appointment in advance.

• Learn everything you can about the
subject or person so you can ask
intelligent questions.
• Know what you want to accomplish in
the interview.
• Make a list of 15-20 good solid questions that will focus on
the subject.
• Types of questions:
o Avoid asking questions that can be answered “yes” or
“no”.
o Use the Ws and H to form relevant questions that will get
the interviewee to open up.
What are your feelings about this?
What do you think was the deciding factor?
Why did people respond so enthusiastically?
Why is it a good idea to do this?
How was this accomplished?
How will the money be raised?
Figure 44

3:4b Preparing for the Interview
• Use the “tell me” method if you

know the interview has an
anecdote that might be used in
the story:
o Tell me about the time your
pig took first place in the
livestock show.
o Tell me what it was like to
be Homecoming Queen.
Figure 45

3:5a Conducting the Interview
Figure 46
• Be on time, with adequate supplies of

paper and writing utensils.
• Introduce yourself and tell the purpose
of the interview.
• Be friendly and courteous, but remember
you have a job to do.
• Don’t interrupt.
• Avoid personal questions.
• Ask specific, thought-provoking questions; avoid yes or no
questions.
• Don’t let the conversation run wild, but if an unexpected
angle should develop, be prepared.
• Take good notes, but do not distract the interviewee while
doing so.
Figure 47
• Use a tape recorder if the

interviewee agrees, but do not
depend on it exclusively. Batteries
and tapes go bad.

3:5b Conducting the Interview
Figure 48
• Obtain all the information you think you will need

before concluding the interview, but be sure to ask
if you can contact the interviewee for more
information if necessary.
• Go over all quotes to check for accuracy.
• Thank the interviewee for his/her time.
• Never agree to let the interviewee read

the story before it is published.
Figure 49

3:6a Writing the Interview
Figure 50
• Begin writing the story soon after the

interview while the notes are still fresh.
• Select and evaluate notes carefully.
• If it is a news story, follow the inverted
pyramid structure—most important down
to least important.
• Begin with an appropriate lead.
• Place your most dynamic quote after the lead to hold the
readers’ attention.
• Support your lead in the body of the story through the use of
factual information and quoted material.
• Alternate paragraphs of direct quotations with paragraphs of
indirect quotations or factual material which serve as
transitional statements.
• Make quotes more compact if
necessary, but do not change the
meaning of what was said.
• Avoid any reference to yourself
(When asked…., I interviewed….)
The story is not about you.
Figure 51

3:6b Writing the Interview
Figure 52
• Weave characteristic expressions,

mannerisms or gestures into the story if
appropriate.
• End your story on the second most

dynamic quote that sums up the
situation. This will eliminate the urge to use a “cheerleader”
statement to wrap up the story. (And a good time was had
by all.)
Figure 53

3:7a Quotes and Transitions
Figure 54
• Direct quotations are word-for-word

reports of what the speaker said. These
are the exact words of the speaker and should be in
quotation marks.
o Example:
“My world does not revolve around number problems,”
Johnson said, “but I do get a sense of achievement and
accomplishment when I solve problems no one else can
get.”
• Indirect quotations are a summary of what the speaker
said. Quotations marks are not used. The speaker’s ideas are
used, but the reporter does not use the speaker’s exact
words.
o Example:
Johnson credits his senior English teacher, Phyllis
Long, with his success on the verbal portions of the
test.
o Advantages:
Information can be condensed
without changing the
meaning.
Indirect quotes can be used as
transitional statements.
Figure 55

3:7b Quotes and Transitions
• Paraphrasing is when the reporter

uses his own words to explain what
the speaker said. No quotation marks
are used.
o Example:
Johnson is pleased with his performance on the test

because it shows that he can do just as well with
words as he knew he could with numbers.
• Partial quotes are the mixture of direct and indirect quotes.

Use quotation marks around the exact words.
o Example:
Johnson is pleased that the test score proves he is not
just a “math and science nerd.”
Attribution:
• Use the word said.
• According to should only be used to attribute information to
a document, but not to a person.
o Example:
According to the policy...but not
according to Bob Smith…

3:7c Quotes and Transitions
• Attribute all information used as direct

quotes, indirect quotes or paraphrased
information to the source.
• The attribution should come after the quote.
• Do not attribute factual information that can be proven or
measured.
Transitions
• Are statements which bridge one quote to the next and keep
the reader on track.
• Can be factual statements which lead into a quote.
• Can be paraphrased or indirect quotes from the interviewee
that may or may not be attributed. (Factual material that is
provable or measurable does not have to be attributed).
• Come between quotes and lead into the quote following the
transition.
• Never end the story. End on a quote.

4:1a Types of Features
Figure 56
• News Features: A close-up look at the

news, focusing on a particular angle rather
than the event itself.
• Informational or Instructional: The purpose is to inform,

not to entertain.
• Shared experience feature: A first-hand account of an

experience.
• Consumer report: An in-depth investigation of a new

product.
• Background report: Behind-the-

scenes account of an event the reader
would not ordinarily get to see.
• Human interest: These stories

make the readers feel an emotion.
Figure 57

4:1b Types of Features
Figure 58
• Personality profile: Give a more

complete picture of a person.
• Featurette: Short story, often told in

chronological order, ending with a punch
line or a surprise.
• Alternative copy: Used as sidebars with other stories and

are an alternative presentation of facts and opinions.
o Q&A
o Timelines
o Lists of places to go, things to
do, people to see
o Quote boxes
Figure 59

4:2 Structure of the Feature Story
Figure 60
• Lead should be dynamic and draw the

reader into the story. Feature leads are
much more creative than summary leads.
• The body of the story should weave

interesting detail among colorful quotes
from the person or persons being
interviewed.
• The conclusion should

wrap up the story
neatly and leave the reader with
something to think about.
Figure 61

4:3 Where to Look for Feature Stories
Ideas are everywhere in the school. Every faculty member and

student is a potential story.
Here are some possibilities:
Figure 62
• Early graduates
• Students who own businesses
• Ethnic or cultural composition of your
school
• Fund raisers
• Twins/Triplets
• Security measures
• Lucky charms and rituals
• Superstitions and phobias
• Health, nutrition and exercise
• Volunteering
• Fashion/Dress code
• Students going into the military
Figure 63

4:4 Feature Leads
Figure 64
Here are some common types of feature

leads:
• Allusion leads: These give the reader a
reference to a character or event in
history, literature or mythology and
relate that reference to what is going on
in the story.
• Anecdotal leads: These use a brief story to represent the
universal experience.
• Contrast leads: These leads point out opposites, such as hot
and cold, wet and dry, rich and poor, then and now. They
work best when the contrast is an obvious one.
• Parody leads: A well-known song, poem, phrase or title is
rewritten to begin a story.
• Narrative leads: Through reading the lead, the reader feels
as though he or she is in the middle of the action.
• Question lead: Use only if the question
is very relevant. The reader wants
answers, not questions.
• Quotation leads: Use only if the quote is
extremely powerful and dynamic and
captures the theme of the story.
Figure 65

4:5 The Body of the Feature Story
Figure 66
The body of the story must hold the

reader’s interest.
Some ways to do this:
• Alternate quotes and transitions: The use of direct

quotations makes the story read more like dialogue and
readers are interested in what others have to say.
• Repetition of core themes, metaphors and figurative

language.
• Varying sentence and paragraph length and pace.
• Consider the point of view.
Figure 67

4:6 The End of the Story
Figure 68
Almost as important as the lead, the end of

the story wraps it up for the reader.
Here are some common ways to wrap up the

story:
• End with a powerful quote.
• End with an anecdote.
• End with a quick summary.
• Use an add-on ending, which makes a point in the end
which was never addressed in the story itself.
• Circle back to the lead. Restate something from the lead if it
helps to complete the message that the story is conveying.
Figure 69

4:7a Alternative Copy/Sidebars
Figure 70
Information does not have to be in story

form in all cases. Sometimes information
can be more easily understood if it is
presented in other forms, or in alternative
copy.
Examples of Alternative Copy or Sidebar

Information:
• Lists: winners, places to contact, items needed.
• Q&As: Questions and answers

published without a lead or
transitions. Question followed
by answer.
Figure 71

4:7b Alternative Copy/Sidebars
Figure 72
• Quizzes: Consists of questions relating to a story. Trivia.
• Quote boxes: Contain reactions to a question and a picture

of the person being quoted.
• Charts, graphs, maps
Figure 73

5:1a Types of Sports Stories
Figure 74
• Advance story: Appears before a game is played; gives the

essentials of an upcoming game or athletic event:
o Starting lineups
o Entries
o Lists of competitors
o Background info on teams
o History of rivalry
o Records against one another
o Strategy comparisons
o Strengths and weaknesses of each team
o May be in inverted pyramid or may be a feature
• Coverage story: About games already played.
o Highlights
o Outstanding plays
o Exceptional performances
o Body may be told chronologically, but usually just hits
highlights

5:1b Types of Sports Stories
Figure 75
• Advance-Coverage stories: Covers

story or stories already played, but
focuses on upcoming game(s).
• Sports features:
o Personality sketches
o Athletic injuries and treatments
o Stories about facilities
o Rules changes
• Sports columns: Personal observations by sports editor
Figure 76

6:1a Types of Opinion Pieces
Figure 77
Ideas come together on the opinion pages of a newspaper—ideas

from members of the staff and from members of the community.
These may take the form of:
• Editorials: The official opinion of the newspaper, arrived at

by consensus of the editorial board in most cases.
o Written in third person
o Do not carry a by-line because they are not the opinion
of a person but of the paper as a whole.
• Columns: Opinion pieces that express the personal
viewpoint of the writer.
o Do carry a by-line
o Can be written in first person
o Better to leave out expressions such as “in my opinion”
or “I think” because these phrases weaken the position.
o Could be from local writer or syndicated writer
Figure 78

6:1b Types of Opinion Pieces
Figure 79
• Letters to the editor: Letters written to the newspaper by

readers or members of the public
o May be in response to an article or editorial
o May be something the reader wants to see action on
o Should be signed, but staff can withhold name if they
have a legitimate reason to do so
• Editorial/political cartoons: Illustrations which make a
political or editorial statement.
o Use symbolism in pictures (flag=patriotism; elephant =
Republicans; donkey=Democrats, etc.)
o Can be humorous or serious
Figure 80

6:2a Types of Editorials
Figure 81
Editorials can:
• Criticize or attack:
o Require suggestions for change.
o If an editorial attacks, it must be accurate in the charge.
o The criticism or attack must be backed up with facts.
• Defend:
o Stand up for an individual or organization under attack
by society.
• Endorse:
o Backing of an issue or a candidate
o Must give solid reasons for doing so
• Compliment:
o Show evidence that the compliment is deserved
o Praise when warranted
Figure 82

6:2b Types of Editorials
Figure 83
• Instigate, advocate or appeal:

o Instigate means to go on a crusade for something—
improvement of facilities or working conditions, etc.
o Advocate through backing suggestions offered by
groups or individuals seeking changes.
o Appeal by encouraging people to donate to a cause or
vote for or against an issue.
• Entertain:
o Should have a worthwhile point and should be written
about something worth the reader’s time.
• Predict:
o Support predictions with fact.
Figure 84

6:3 How an Editorial is Written
Figure 85
Avoid moralizing editorials. People do not read the newspaper to

get a sermon—they go to their churches or other places of
worship. Editorials should be built around a solid framework:
• Introduction:
o Gets the reader’s attention
o States the problem or situation
o States the position
• Body:
o Persuades the reader through logical reasoning
o Backs up stance with solid factual reasoning
o Brings in the opposition’s point of view, then shoots it
down with more logical reasoning
• Conclusion:
o Prompts the reader to take action
Vote
Attend a rally
Support a cause
Write letters, etc.

6:4 Formula for a Persuasive Editorial
Figure 86
S-P-E-C-S
• State the problem Introduction

• Position on the problem
• Evidence to support the position Body
• Conclusion—who is affected and how Conclusion

• Solutions to the problem, at least two

6:5a Column Writing
Figure 87
What should a column do?
• Highlight creative expression of opinion.

• Reflect the personality of the author.
• Showcase superior writing ability and distinctive style.
• Express the viewpoint of one writer rather than a
newspaper. (Any approach--persuasion, praise, explanation,
entertainment--can work)
• Build on careful, thorough reporting that incorporates
purposeful interviews and documented observations.
• Focus on a subject that appeals to many readers.
• Present new insights in a lively manner that shows the
writer’s conviction.
• Provide commentary that stimulates readers to think, to
evaluate, to act, and to see everyday life from a new
perspective ranging from the serious to the humorous.
Figure 88

6:5b Column Writing
Figure 89
• Use an original title that defines the slant or the type of

content. Good titles often play on the writer’s name or
reflect the writer’s skills. Also the “live” headlines must
follow appropriate styles. Bylines are essential, and photos
of the writer are appropriate.
• Appear regularly in a newspaper on the same page.
• To establish an appropriate identity and to distinguish the
column from other articles, the column title should use
typography and graphics to complement the publication
design. A column, however, should never be confused with
a regular feature in the paper.
Figure 90

6:6a Political Cartoons
Figure 91
Political cartoons are a visual representation of an editorial

comment. With an illustration and very few words, cartoonists
make statements on the events of the day.
Political cartoons use:
• Symbolism: Because cartoons use few words to convey a

message, various symbols are employed to represent certain
concepts. To work, these symbols need to be easily
recognized and understood by the readers.
o Some common symbols:
Flag: patriotism
Crown: royalty
Money bag: anything to do with money, taxes,
federal budget, cost-of-living
Donkey: Democrats—Elephant: Republicans
School house: education
Scales: law, justice, court system
Figure 92

6:6b Political Cartoons
Figure 93
• Caricatures: Exaggeration of prominent facial features or

physical characteristics which are recognized by readers as
belonging to certain politicians or celebrities.
• Stereotypes: Cartoonists will often use stereotypes of
certain professions (for example, a school marm to represent
educators) to stand for groups of people.
Figure 94

6:6c Political Cartoons
Figure 95
• Body language and facial expressions to represent

reactions.
• Signs: If there could be some confusion about what some
aspect of the cartoon means, the cartoonist may plant a sign
in front of the object, or in the hands of a character to
explain briefly what is going on.
Figure 96

6:7a Review Writing
Figure 97
A review is not a report. Its primary function is to be critical.

The review will be based on the reviewer’s individual responses
to the performance, exhibit or experience, but these responses
should be based on fact.
The review should:

• Make sense to the reader, whether or not the reader heard
the son, attended the concert, watched the movie, read the
book or attended an exhibit.
• Extend one’s appreciation of the performance or exhibit.
• Convey and honest and fair criticism, pro or con. Usually
contains both pro and con comments, although it is not a
requirement.
• Offer a unique perspective, one reflecting the performance
or exhibit as a whole, and one stressing a significant, fresh
angle.
Figure 98

6:7b Review Writing
Figure 99
• Cite tangible, observable evidence for all conclusions.

• Build on accurate observations and appropriate reporting.
• Make the reader feel like he or she was part of the same
experience.
Figure 100

6:7c Review Writing
Figure 101
Reviews:
• Combine elements of feature writing and of opinion writing.
o Use colorful, sight-sound details
o Express a meaningful, clear viewpoint
• Begin with a novelty or feature lead.
• Give the writer’s overall impression of the art form early in
the piece.
• Organize the experience in a meaningful way, often by
artistic concerns
o Effect
o Style
o Tone
o Acting
o Staging
o Sound quality
• Include details to support criticism, good and bad.
Figure 102

6:7d Review Writing
Figure 103
• Reflect artistic sensitivity and avoid condescending manners

and simplistic statements.
• Use transitions to move reader from one part of the story to
the next.
• Conclude with paragraph that ties the review together,
repeating a key element from the lead.
Figure 104

6:7e Review Writing
Figure 105
What kind of art forms can be reviewed?
• Drama
• Music
• Art (painting, sculpture, architecture, photography)
• Film, media (TV, radio)
• Publications (books, periodicals)
• Restaurants
• Travel packages
• Software (games, new programs)
• Electronics (new gadgets, gizmos, etc.)
Figure 106

7:1a Types of Headlines
Figure 107
• Single line:
Hastings Ninth Grade Center to open Monday
• Double line:
Students cope with decision
not to issue lockers this term
• Hammer
Rise and shine

Early morning D-hall a real eye-opener
• Underline (Main headline with a secondary headline)

It’s always something
Students find innovative excuses for tardies, absences
• Overline
Hurricane’s winds and rain devastate community
A mid-summer’s nightmare
7:1b Types of Headlines
Figure 108
• Wicket
It did not last long
and it melted as soon as it touched ground,
but Tuesday’s brief winter storm had students singing
‘Let it snow, let it snow, let it snow’
• Tripod
Clubs raise funds

It’s a wrap: by decorating gifts

7:2 Top 10 List of ‘Dos’ in Headline Writing
Figure 109
• Do read the article, especially the opening paragraph, to

understand the purpose and the main idea.
• Do give the most general, overall focus/summary of the
story.
• Do remember that the headline may be the reason the reader
decides to read the story (The headline the #2 entry point).
• Do limit the number of words—6-10 generally.
• Do use strong, active verbs. (“To be” verbs are generally
understood, but are not written out as they only take up
space.)
• Do use present tense verbs to show past action. Use the
infinitive (to plus the verb) to show future action.
• Do express a complete thought. Headlines usually read like
simple sentences, without words like a, an and the.
• Do use a secondary headline—or subhead—to convey an
additional idea in the story.
• Do, for downstyle headlines, capitalize only the first word
and proper nouns and adjectives. For upstyle headlines,
capitalize the first letter of each word. Avoid all cap
headlines as they are hard to read.

7:3 Top 10 List of ‘Don’t Dos’ in Headline Writing
Figure 110
• Don’t editorialize in the headline.

• Don’t use acronyms/abbreviations that readers won’t
recognize.
• Don’t put information in a headline that is not in the story.
• Don’t write the headline of a news story from any part of
the story other than the summary lead.
• Don’t copy the wording in the lead for the headline.
• Don’t overuse puns. If you groan, it’s no good. If you laugh,
it’s good.
• Don’t use headlines with double-entendre meanings. It takes
a dirty mind to edit a clean newspaper.
• Don’t split: adjectives/nouns; proper names; verbs/adverbs;
prepositions/objects, etc.
• Don’t turn in three or four versions of a headline unless the
editor specifically requests it.
• Don’t be afraid to ask for help.
Figure 111

7:4 Headline Count System
Figure 112
Even though computers help you fit headlines in these modern

times, knowing headline counts will help you write tighter,
better heads.
Letter Count
Capital I 1
Capital M, W 2
All other capital letters 1.5
Lowercase f, l, i, t, j .5
Lowercase m, w 1.5
All other lowercase letters 1
Spaces .5
Numerals, except for 1 1
The number 1 .5
Question mark, dash 1
All other punctuation .5
Figure 113

8:1a Type Classifications
Figure 114
• Serif
Characterized by thin and thick strokes on letters, and tiny
decorative strokes at the base and other extremities of the letters.
Very readable type. Good choice for body text.
• Sans Serif
Characterized by simplicity. Strokes are the same width. No
decorative strokes at ends of letters. Not as readable as serif
type, but a good choice for larger uses, such as headlines.
• Script or Cursive
Script and cursive types are based on hand-lettered forms. Script
letters do not connect; cursive letters do.
Figure 115

8:1b Type Classifications
Figure 116
Text
Elaborate, old-fashioned faces, also based on hand-lettering.
Used mainly for nameplates for some newspapers.
• Decorative/
Novelty
Decorative and novelty typefaces are distinct, attention-getting
and eccentric. They are used for advertising, posters, greeting
cards and to set the mood for stories in the paper.
Figure 117

8:2a Type Tips
• Keep your type choices simple.

o Stick to two families of type—one serif, one sans serif.
For special features, you can use a novelty or
decorative type if the story calls for it.
o Choose typefaces that have many options, such as:
Bold
Italic
Bold Italic
Extrabold
Light
Extended
• Look at what the pros are doing.
o Study print publications to see the trends.
o Study the type design used for television show titles
and movie titles.
o Keep an idea file with type treatments that appeal to
you.
• Remember that what is trendy right now may not be next
year, and what was trendy last year may not be trendy now.
o Keep updating those idea files.
o Attend workshops presented by student press
associations. There are usually sessions on type design.
• Play with type to see what works for the project you are
doing.

8:2b Type Tips
Use contrasting types to vary the look.
• Size
o Use large and small sizes together.
• Weight
o Use heavy and light weight types together
for maximum contrast.
• Structure
o Study the forms of the letters. Some are
the same thickness throughout. Others are
combinations of thick and thin strokes.
Try different combinations for a variety of
looks.
• Form
o Contrast in form can be done in several
ways:
Upper case vs. lower case
Roman vs. Italic or Script
• Italic and script have many
similarities so it is not a good
idea to combine them.

8:2c Type Tips
• Direction
o Type should be horizontal rather than
vertical in direction.
D U V T
O S E Y
E R P
N T E
O I
T C
A
L
o If you must do a vertical type placement,
turn the type sideways.
easier to read
This is much
o Avoid diagonal type

8:2d Type Tips
• Color/Color
o Warm colors make the letters appear to
come forward; cooler colors seem to
recede. Experiment with the shades of
gray to produce the same effect in black
and white.
• AVOID ALL CAPS
o Unless you have a very specific, logical
reason for using all caps, don’t.
Readability is reduced considerably.
You might use all caps in the main
deck of a major headline for impact,
but use it in small doses, two or three
words.

9:1 Photographic Composition
Figure 118
• Large photographs are the number 1 entry point into a story.

• Photographs must tell a story as well as be visually
appealing.
• Photos should be cropped for maximum impact.
• Photographers should use the “Rule of 3rds” when
composing photos.
• Photos for publication should be action shots that show real
people doing real things.
• Photos should face onto a page, or into a story.
• Vertical pictures often have more impact than horizontal
ones.
• Avoid “grip-and-grin” shots for publication.
• In group photos, no face should be smaller than a dime.
Figure 119

9:2 Photo Ethics
Figure 120
Ethical publications never:

• Combine two or more photos to improve on the composition
and then represent them as being the original scene.
• Insert people into photographs that were not in the original
scene.
• Remove objects or people from photographs to improve on
the composition.
• Make any changes to photographs other than normal
cropping, dodging and burning.
• “Flop” a negative to make a person face a different
direction.
Figure 121

9:3a Caption Writing
Figure 122
• The caption should be a little story about the picture and it

should be complete.
• Always write at least two sentences per caption.
o The first should be in present tense and should describe
the action that is seen.
o The second should be in past tense and should give
additional information to complete the story.
o A third sentence consisting of a quote from someone
involved in the story can be added.
• Captions should give specific information, but should not
state the obvious.
• The caption should begin with an interesting lead.
• Strong visual nouns should be used.
• The caption should be written in complete sentences.
• Complete names should be used, and all people in the
picture should be identified by name, if there are six or
fewer people.
Figure 123

9:3b Caption Writing
Figure 124
• If there are more than six people in the picture, the group
should be identified (for example, Joe Stephens’ biology
class.
• Avoid excessive use of verbals, or –ing words, to begin
captions.
• Never, ever write joke or gag captions.
Figure 125

10:1a Advertising Appeals
Advertising does not create a need for a product or a service, but
it can create a desire based on propaganda techniques and
recognized advertising appeals.
Figure 126
• Transfer or Masculine/Feminine Appeal

o The key to the ad is atmosphere. You see the perfection
in the ad, and the message you get is that you will
transfer these qualities to yourself if you use the
product being offered.
• Desire for possessions:
o The ad makes people want to buy one product over
another, such as a Rolex over a Timex.
• Luxury and elegance/snob appeal.
o Creates a feeling of envy or desire for this “fine”
product.
Figure 127

10:1b Advertising Appeals
Figure 128
• Search for adventure.

o Ad gives the impression that buying the product will
change your life, fill it with action and adventure. Tries
to unsettle the reader or viewer. Most 4-wheel drive
vehicles use this appeal.
• Less than perfect: Ad tries to get consumers to change by
making them dissatisfied with the way they are.
• Loving couples/romance:
o Ad reveals an attraction between the sexes.
Figure 129

10:1c Advertising Appeals
Figure 130
• Emotional words:
o Ad appeals directly to the sensitivity of the consumer.
• Past, present and future:
o Ad has a concern for time, concentrating on the “youth-
giving qualities” of a product.
• Humor:
o Ad evokes a laugh or a chuckle from the consumer.
• Endorsement/Prestige identification:
o Well-known personality uses the product and pitches it
to you.
• Play on words:
o Uses a catch phrase or a pun that conveys a message,
uses wit effectively.
Figure 131

10:1d Advertising Appeals
Figure 132
• Statistics:
o Ad uses facts and figures to prove the quality or
popularity of the product.
• Plain folks/Slice of life:
o Ad uses an “every day” appeal; uses ordinary people to
recommend a product, or makes celebrities appear to be
common folk.
• Bandwagon:
o Ad shows you that “everybody” is doing it. Appeals to
you to be part of the crowd.
Figure 133

10:2 Ads that Sell
Figure 134
• The purpose of advertising is to increase sales for the

advertiser.
• It should also benefit the consumer and the publication.
• The number one entry point on an ad is a large photograph
or illustration. If an ad has a large picture, more people will
look at the ad.
• The second entry point is a large, bold headline. This
headline should attract the attention of the reader by offering
a benefit.
• Subheads can be used to expand on the benefit offered and
can serve as a lead-in to the copy.
• The copy should give information on the product, how it
differs from other similar products, reasons to buy the
product and easy-to-understand statistics.
• White space in the ad lets the ad breathe.
• Keep the design simple. Do not “decorate” with clip art.

10:3 Sample Ad Layout
Figure 135

10:4 Sample Ad Contract
Name of Name of School Advertising
Address
Newspaper Phone Number Contract
RATE Business Name _______________________
AGREEMENT Mailing Address______________________
[ ] Open rate: no discount
[ ] 5% discount
City, State, Zip _______________________
[ ] 10% discount Phone_______________Fax_____________
[ ] Special promo
[ ] School organization Authorized Signature__________________
Color Options
School Representative_________________
[ ] Spot Color $75 ------------------------------------------------------
[ ] Full Color $300
TERMS OF THE AGREEMENT
ISSUES ------------------------------------------------------
The client named above agrees to purchase _________in advertising space in ____
Year _________ issues of the XXXX newspaper. The cost of the advertisement for one issue is
$__________ and the total cost of all newspaper advertising within this contract is
[ ] Issue #1 $________.
[ ] Issue #2 The client named above agrees that the total cost for all ads contractually obligated
to run under this agreement is $___________
[ ] Issue #3 • This contract constitutes a legally binding agreement between the client
and the publication named herein. The client agrees to provide either a
[ ] Issue #4 camera-ready advertisement or the art and copy necessary to create an
advertisement. The publication requires that clean black and white copy be
provided to use. Colored ink or paper drastically reduces the quality of the
[ ] Issue #5 image and will not be accepted.
• The deadline for placing advertisements is 10 (ten) days prior to the
[ ] Issue #6 publication date
• Rates: See current rate sheet for rates, publication dates and policies
[ ] Issue #7 • Payments: To qualify for the 5% “Pay now discount”, payment must be
made when the contract is signed. To qualify for the 10% “3-consecutive
[ ] Issue #8 issue” discount, the same size ad must be purchased for three consecutive
issues. Copy changes may be made.
• Billed accounts are payable within 30 days of the invoice date. Advertisers
METHOD OF who contract for multiple insertions and who choose to be billed will be
billed after each insertion. Advertisers who do not pay for their ads by the
PAYMENT due date may have future ads pulled or rejected for non-payment.
Advertisers will receive tear sheets as proof of payment.
[ ] Cash • We reserve the right to refuse advertising. Products and services illegal or
[ ] Check #________ inappropriate for minors will be rejected by the newspaper staff.
[ ] Bill: Net 30 days

10:5a 10 Steps to Selling an Ad
1. Look professional.
a. Your appearance should be neat and clean. You are
representing a business, the publication.
Figure 136
2. See the right person—ask to see the decision-maker.

a. Make your first contact with the business by calling in
person on the individual who is authorized to make
decisions.
b. Do not telephone.
c. If that person is out or unavailable, leave a card or
information sheet for the advertiser and ask for an
appointment, jot a personal note on the card saying that
you will be back at that time.
d. Follow up!
Figure 137

10:5b 10 Steps to Selling an Ad
3. Make a good first impression.

a. Shake the hand of the decision-maker.
b. Introduce yourself as a member of the yearbook or
newspaper staff.
c. Present your business card.
d. Use language appropriate to the situation—do not use
slang words that the advertiser may not understand.
Figure 138
4. Talk benefits.
a. Give the advertiser an information sheet telling about
your publication
b. Explain the benefits of purchasing an ad.
c. Show the advertiser a copy of the publication.
d. Tell what your circulation figures are—how many
copies of the yearbook you sell, how many newspapers
you distribute.

10:5c 10 Steps to Selling an Ad
Figure 139
e. Talk about student purchasing power. Now is the time

to show the results of marketing surveys.
5. Sell the ad sizes and prices.
a. Explain the sizes and ad rates.
b. Give the owner a copy of the publication rate card.
c. Show a sample page with the ad sizes drawn out so that
the owner can see the actual size and shapes of ads.
6. Show an ad idea.
a. Show the sample ad you have designed and get the
advertiser’s comments.
i. A sample ad is a great way to increase sales.
ii. Prepare the sample ad using pencil sketches or
quick computer designs.
Figure 140

10:5d 10 Steps to Selling an Ad
7. Handle objections.
a. If an advertiser gives reasons for not buying an ad,
respond with some answers to eliminate the objection.
8. Ask the business to purchase.
a. Be sure you actually ask prospects to buy an ad.
b. Avoid asking a “yes-no” question at this point.
i. Say, “Which size ad would be most useful to you
this year?”
9. Get complete information.
a. Get all the information at this time: ad size, price, copy
suggestions, logo, photo or art instructions; business
name, address, phone number, payment status,
customer signature on the contract.
Figure 141

10:5e 10 Steps to Selling an Ad
b. Be prepared to tell the advertiser what the ad will cost

and to collect a check for the amount that day, if
possible.
c. If you plan to bill, clearly state how billing will be
handled.
10. Say thank you.
a. A sincere thank you is the most important way to
complete the selling presentation, even if the business
does not purchase the ad.
Figure 142
Remember: Five characteristics of a successful ad salesperson:
1. Prompt
2. Polite
3. Prepared
4. Persuasive
5. Persistent
--From workshop handouts, origin unknown

11:1a Newspaper Design Tips
Figure 143
• All story packages should be shaped like rectangles.

• All standing elements should go on the page first.
o For front page, that includes nameplate, teasers, index.
o For inside pages, standing elements such as column
headers, staff box.
o Advertising should be placed ahead of stories.
• Create a hierarchy, through the placement of story modules.
o The most important stories go at the top of the page,
with lesser important ones lower on the page.
• Every page should have a dominant photo or center of
visual interest.
• Photos should face into the story/module.
• Every story must have a headline.
Figure 144

11:1b Newspaper Design Tips
Figure 145
• Use no more than 2 typefaces per page, a serif and a sans

serif. You can use a decorative or novelty type for a feature
story headline IF the typeface fits the mood of the story.
• All design elements should have a reason for being there.
• Keep standing elements consistent from issue to issue.
• Headlines should decrease in size as you move down the
page.
• Have vertical and horizontal modules for contrast.
• If color is used, it should mean something. Color is
expensive and should not be wasted on something trivial.
• Keep design simple. It’s called design, not decorating.
• Study professional newspapers for examples.
Figure 146

12:1a Yearbook Planning
Figure 147
A yearbook is:
• A picture book.
o Photography plays a big part in the production of the
book.
• A history book.
o It contains news and features about the school year that
students will keep forever.
• A record book.
o The book contains factual information about the year,
including sports scores, and names and pictures of
students who attended.
Figure 148

12:1b Yearbook Planning and Design
Figure 149
• A reference book.
o Years after memories have faded, the yearbook will still
have images and facts to which graduates can refer.
• A public relations tool.
o Not a cheerleader for the administration.
o A well designed and produced book reflects positively
on the school.
• An educational experience.
o Staffers gain hands-on, real-world experience in
producing a book, writing and editing, design.
Figure 150

12:2a Yearbook Design
• Learn the basics of design, then adapt, using current trends.
o Study current magazines for ideas.
Figure 151
o Keep an idea file of designs from various publications.

o Attend workshops for student journalists to keep
abreast of trends and how to make them work for you.
o Learn to adapt others’ ideas to use in your own
publications; don’t copy them, but pick and choose
elements that you like, then design something that
works for your publication.
o When you are ready to go beyond the basics, let your
yearbook representative guide you so that you will
avoid problems.
• Keep your design simple. Remember, you are designing, not
decorating.
o Keep the reader in mind. All design should help the
reader get the most out of the information presented.
Nothing should confuse the reader.
Figure 152

12:2b Yearbook Design
Figure 153
• Be consistent:
o Choose one or two type families.
o Keep consistent internal margins (there should be a 1-
pica wide line of white space between all elements on
the page unless you are purposely overlapping elements
or purposely going for a different look. (In the class
section, just use a thin white line to separate mug
shots.)
o Be consistent with your column widths within each
section.
Yearbook layout pages are marked off in 6- and 8-
column choices for a double page spread. Some
companies offer more choices.
• Start with these, then branch out as you get
more comfortable with design.
• Design in double page spreads. A reader sees two pages at
once. Design these pages as a unit.
o Every double page spread should have a dominant
element. This is usually a photograph, but could be an
illustration or some other element.

12:2c Yearbook Design
• Every photo should have a caption, and the caption should

be immediately above, below or next to the picture.
Remember the rules for caption writing: if there are five or
fewer people in the picture, each person should be
identified; if there are six or more, the group should be
identified, as in “Joe Smith’s biology class…”
o One exception: Organizational group photos and team
shots should have full identification.
o Do not stack more than two captions on top of each
other.
• Copy (stories, headlines, captions) should NOT be extended
across the gutter (the seam between the pages). It does not
look good, plus part of the type will be lost and will not be
seen by the reader.
• Photographs, especially the dominant photo, can extend
across the gutter.
• If a photograph extends beyond an external margins of the
page, it should bleed off the page and should not end in the
margin area. However, only one picture should bleed, and in
only one direction.
• Headlines should be written journalistically and should have
a subject and a verb. The headline should connect in content
with the dominant picture.
• Keep photographs and other “heavy elements” toward the
center of the double page spread, and lighter elements, such
as copy and graphics, to the outside.

12:3a Simple Steps for Designing a Yearbook Spread
This is for a very basic yearbook spread. As you get more
comfortable with design, you can branch off from this and create
much more sophisticated layouts.
All pages in the book except for the first

and last pages, are designed in double
page spreads. The simplest way to
design the spread is to make use of the
columnar format on the layout sheets
provided by your yearbook publisher.
For consistency, choose a 6-column, 8-

column (or in some cases, a 10-column)
layout for the section. Most yearbook
layouts are based on a mosaic concept;
that is, everything is placed around the
dominant element in pinwheel fashion.
Begin by establishing an eyeline across

the double page spread. The eyeline is a
pica-wide line that goes across the DPS
and will serve as an internal margin
between elements.
Figure 154
The eyeline should be in the upper or

lower third of the DPS. It should never
be across the midpoint of the spread.

12:3b Simple Steps for Designing a Yearbook Spread
Place the dominant photo. It should

be 2-2 ½ times larger than any other
element on the page. It should go
across or next to the gutter. All
pictures should take up the entire
width of the number of columns they
go across. Do not begin or end a
photo in the middle of a column.
Place the other pictures on the page in

pinwheel fashion. Each should rest
upon or hang from the eyeline or
touch the dominant photo. Save room
for the captions next to each picture.
Place the captions next to, above, or

below the pictures they describe. The
captions should be the width of one
column. You can stack two captions,
but no more than that.
Place the story on the page so that it

either rests upon or hangs from the
eyeline. The story should be set one
column wide, then broken into two or
more legs to fit the space. The
Figure 155
headline should go above the story.

13:1a Writing for Broadcast
Figure 156
Writing for broadcast differs from writing for print publications.

Here are some guidelines:
• The lead of a broadcast story is like the headline of a print
story; it lets the reader know what the story is about.
o The lead should get to the point of the story in the first
sentence
o The viewers/listeners should hear the who, what, when
and where in the first sentence. The why and how can
come later.
o The lead should not begin with a name. Save the name
for the second sentence.
• Hit the highlights. Time is important; eliminate the fluff.
Figure 157

13:1b Writing for Broadcast
Figure 158
• Quotes. All comments must be attributed.

o The attribution word is says.
o Do not say, “Quote, end quote”.
• Writing style is brief and concise. Avoid adjectives and
adverbs; they just take up air time. Use vivid nouns and
verbs.
• Contractions
o Ok to use in broadcast writing because they sound
conversational.
Figure 159

13:1c Writing for Broadcast
Figure 160
Use of “our” and “us”

o Ok to use.
o Broadcasters are considered a part of the community
they are talking about, unlike print journalists who are
considered observers.
• Use active voice.
• Use present tense whenever possible.
• Avoid abbreviations except for Mr., Mrs., or Dr.
o If abbreviations must be used, place hyphens between
letters and numbers that should be pronounced
separately, as in “N-double A-C-P.”
Figure 161

13:1d Writing for Broadcast
Figure 162
• Numbers. Write numbers so that announcer can read them

easily.
o Write out numbers one through nine and the number
eleven.
o For 10 and 12 through 999, use Arabic numerals.
o For other numbers, use alphanumeric combinations,
such as one-thousand-eleven; 123-thousand-552.
• Symbols. Spell out symbols.
• Measurements/Amounts: Spell out words which deal with
measurements and/or amounts.
• Ordinal numbers. It is permissible to write 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and
4th in dates, addresses or anywhere else ordinal numbers
may be used.
Figure 163

13:1e Writing for Broadcast
Figure 164
• Round off numbers.

o Write “about 1000” rather than an exact number such as
998.
• Time:
o Avoid the use of a.m. or p.m.
o Say “this morning” or “this afternoon” as these sound
more current.
• Punctuation: Use only these marks:
o Period
o Dash
o Question mark
o Comma
o Three periods (…) indicate the announcer should pause
o Use a double hyphen (--) rather than parentheses.

13:1f Writing for Broadcast
Figure 165
• Corrections. Do NOT use copyediting symbols to correct

mistakes. Strike out words completely and retype them.
• Spell phonetically.
• Keep words to one or two syllables
• Avoid hissing sounds.
• Avoid exotic words; keep everything simple.
• Read the story aloud. Listen to what it sounds like.
• Use the script and storyboard forms to map out the
broadcast.
Figure 166

13:2 Technical Information for Broadcast
The script is divided into a
video portion and an audio
portion. The video section
is used to tell what will be
seen, and the audio section
tells what will be heard at
the same time: the
dialogue, the music, sound
effects, etc. This is like a
print layout sheet, only it
Figure 167
maps out the broadcast.
The storyboard is
a visual, graphic
depiction of a
narrative. It is
used to visually
map out scenes
and camera angles
and tie them to
the audio portion
of the broadcast.
.
Figure 168 The Storyboard.

13:3 Selected Video Terminology Terms
Frame: A single picture on a piece of film.
Individual frames are run through the
projector quickly (30 frames per second for
standard videotape.
Shot: A single set of images taped from the time
the camera starts to the time it stops.
Cut: (1) The place where two separate shots or
sections of a shot are joined together in a
tape. The instantaneous change from one
shot to another. (2) Director’s command to
stop action and recording immediately.
Fade in/Fade The gradual appearance or disappearance of
out: an image from or into darkness.
Dissolve: A transition from one shot to another in
which one shot fades out while the other
fades in. One shot is superimposed over
another.
Rule of As in photography. An element of shot
Thirds: composition based on the screen being
divided into thirds horizontally and
vertically, and then placing important
elements along those lines.
Essential The area that will be seen on most TV
Area: screens. Encompasses 80 percent of the
screen measured from the center.
Headroom: Space between the top of a subject’s head

and a monitor’s upper screen edge.

13:4 Camera Angles
High The camera looks down on the subject. Can
angle: make subjects appear smaller or less important.
Low The camera looks up at the subject. Can make
angle: subjects appear larger or more important.
Straight The camera is on the same level as the subject.
angle: Usually used in news or realistic shots.
Figure 169

13:5 Camera Distances
Extreme A shot in which the camera is very close
Close-up: to the subject. If the subject is a person’s
face, only features such as the eyes or
mouth are shown. Often used to
Figure 170
exaggerate features so that the characters
look ugly or provocative.
Close-up: A shot in which the camera is close to the
subject. When the subject is a person, this
usually means only the person’s face or
face and shoulders are shown. Often used
Figure 171
to show emotion.
Medium Shot The shot between a long shot and a close-
or Mid Shot: up. With characters, it usually shows them
from the waist up.
Figure 172
Long Shot: A shot that uses the camera’s full angle of

view (the camera is zoomed out all the
way), so that the subject is a distance from
the camera, and you can see the whole
Figure 173
object. Also called a full shot.
Extreme A shot in which characters appear very
Long Shot: small in the distance.
Figure 174

13:6 Camera Movement
Pan: The camera moves across the field of vision
from either right or left.
Tilt: The camera moves up or down.
Zoom in A zoom lens moves toward or away from the
or zoom subject quickly so that it is apparent to the
out: viewer.
Crane: The camera moves up and away, often used at
the end of scenes.
Figure 175

14:1 Newspaper Editorial Policy
Your newspaper will need to establish a policy before publishing
so that the staff will know how to handle certain situations.
Discuss and answer the following questions:
• Is the paper an open forum? Will you accept submissions
from outside the staff? Who makes the editorial decisions on
what to include in the paper?
• Will you accept advertising?
o What types of ads are acceptable?
o What types of ads are not acceptable?
• How will you handle the death of a student or faculty
member? (Establish a basic policy with the idea that
circumstances might warrant additional coverage.)
• Use the SPLC Model Guidelines
(http://www.splc.org/legalresearch.asp?id=6) to establish a
policy, and add in the topics not covered.
Figure 176

14:2a Staff Positions
• Editor-in-Chief
o Oversees all aspects of the newspaper production.
Figure 177
o Maintains publications calendar.

o Motivates staff to meet deadlines.
• Assistant Editor
o Assists editor with all responsibilities.
o Acts in the editor’s behalf if the editor is unavailable.
• Design/Layout Editor
o Prepares templates for pages on the computer.
o Works with staff to make sure pages are done correctly.
• Section Editors (News, Features, Sports, Opinion,
Entertainment, etc.)
o Oversee the writing and editing of content in the
respective sections.
• Copy Editor
o Responsible for overseeing editing of all copy,
assigning pages to be edited.
o Follows up to make sure all corrections are made.

14:2b Staff Positions
• Advertising Manager
o Oversees the production of all ads.
o Maintains a list of advertisers for each issue, ad sizes,
contact information, who has paid, who is to be billed.
o Checks to make sure all ads are in place.
• Business Manager
o Prepares tear sheets and invoices to send to advertisers.
o Keeps all records of accounts to be billed.
• Photography and Art Editors
o Receive art and photo assignments from editorial staff.
o Assign or take photos/draw cartoons by deadline.
o Communicate with editorial staff.
• Photographers, Artists
o Take pictures, draw illustrations as assigned.
• Reporters
o Interview, do research, write stories as assigned.
• All staff
o Meet deadlines.
o Communicate with one another.
o Copyedit as assigned.
o Extra duties as assigned.
Production of the publication is a team effort. It may require

that you put in some extra time in order to get everything
done.

14:3a Production Steps
• Editor and adviser prepare production calendar, working
backward from the distribution date.
• If necessary, staff will need to decide on:
o Nameplate
o Typeface for text, headlines, captions
o Style for folios, bylines and other standing features
• Staffers submit story ideas to editor.
Figure 178
• Staff meets, discusses story ideas.

• Editor assigns stories, or staffers volunteer for stories.
• Staffers work with photographers, artists to coordinate
photos and art.
• Staffers interview, research and write stories.
• Editors read rough drafts, make suggestions for
improvement.
• Staffers rewrite and submit final stories.
• Copy editor and helpers edit for style, spelling, punctuation,
fact.

14:3b Production Steps
• Staffers correct stories.

• Staffers prepare pages with the help of the layout editor.
• Photographers, artists submit photos and illustrations, along
with caption information.
Figure 179
• Staffers proof pages, submit to section editors.

• Section editors proof pages, submit to editor.
• Editor proofs pages, submits to adviser.
• Paper goes to press.
Figure 180
• Paper is distributed.
• Staff evaluates paper.


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Introduction to Journalism

2 Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint

• The political watchdog function.

• The entertainment function. Not everything in life is serious.

• The social function. Newspapers and broadcast news provide

• The economic function. Advertising carried in

• The record-keeping function. Through the records kept by the

Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint 3

Congress shall make no law respecting the

4 Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint

• Only the government is prevented from imposing

Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint 5

• Material that is obscene as to minors

o Must meet all three of the following requirements to be

 The average person, applying contemporary

 The publication depicts or describes,

 The work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary,

6 Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint

• Libelous material: Libelous statements are provably false

o Public officials and public figures have less protection

 A public official is a person who holds an elected

Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint 7

 School employees will be considered public officials or

 If the allegedly libelous statement concerns an individual

8 Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint

• Journalists, including student journalists, are allowed to

o Material that will cause a “material and substantial

o Disruption is defined as:

For student media to be

Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint 9

o Mere fear or apprehension about a disturbance is not

 Administrators must pay attention to the context of the

• Consideration must be given to

o past experience in the school with similar

o past experience in dealing with the students at

o current events which influence student

o whether or not there have been previous

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12 Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint

The First Amendment is under constant scrutiny. The First

Selected results of the 2003 survey:

Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint 13

• 33% said that public school officials should be allowed to

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• Truth and Accuracy. Journalists depend upon

--Society of Professional Journalists, www.spj.org

16 Introduction to Journalism © by Dianne Smith, published by TEACHINGpoint

First newspaper in Colonial America:

Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and

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• The trial of John Peter Zenger

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• Newspapers and the Industrial Revolution

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o AP established policy on a new way to write stories:

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 Some historians believe the rivalry between Hearst

• The Yellow Kid (from Hogan’s Alley series)

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Figure 17. The Yellow Kid is in the Public Domain.

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• Some subscribers stopped taking the sensational papers.

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The average person, applying contemporary

The publication depicts or describes,

The work, taken as a whole, lacks serious literary,

A public official is a person who holds an elected

School employees will be considered public officials or

If the allegedly libelous statement concerns an individual

Administrators must pay attention to the context of the

Some historians believe the rivalry between Hearst