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Working Stress Method
Modular Ratio
ES
m=
EC
o m = Modular ratio
o ES = Modulus of elasticity of steel
o EC = Modulus of elasticity of concrete
Equivalent Area of Concrete
AC = mAS
o AC = Area of concrete
o AS = Area of steel
Critical Depth of Neutral Axis (XC)
æ mc ö÷
X C = çç ÷d
çè t + mc ÷ø
Here, D = Overall depth
d = Efffective depth
scbc = c = permissible stress in concrete
s st = t = permissible stress in steel
Actual depth of Neutral axis (Xa)
BX a2
= mAst (d - xa )
2
Special case :
(i) when X a = X c for balanced section
(ii) when X a > X c for over reinforced section
(iii) when X a < X c for under reinforced section
Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Section
Critical depth of Neutral axis, (XC)
mc
XC = ⋅d
t + mc
Actual depth of Neutral axis, (Xa)
bX a2
+ (1.5m - 1)ASC ( X a - dc ) = mAst (d - xa )
2
Singly Reinforced T‐Section
Effective width of flange
For beam casted monolithic with slab
ì
ïæ l0 ö
ïç
ïç + bw + 6df ÷÷÷
ï
ïçè 6 ÷ø
ï
ï
Bf = Minimum í or
ï
ï
ï
ï l l
ï bw + 1 + 2
ï
ï 2 2
ï
î
For isolated T‐beam
l0
Bf = + bw
æ l0 ö
çç + 4÷÷
çè B ø÷
l0 = Distance between points of zero moments in the beam
B = Total width of flange
bw = Width of web
Critical depth of Neutral axis (Xc)
æ mc ö÷
X C = çç ÷d
çè t + mc ÷ø
When Neutral axis is in flange area
o Actual depth of Neutral axis
BX a2
= mAst (d - X a )
2
Here, Xa = Actual depth of Neutral axis
Moment of resistance (Mr)
When Neutral axis is in web area
For actual depth of neutral axis
Moment of resistance (Mr)
Limit State Method
Design stress strain curve at ultimate state
Design value of strength
o For concrete
f 0.67 fck
fd = = = 0.45 fck
g mc 1.5
g mc = Partial factor of safety for concrete = 1.5
fd = design value of strength
o For steel
fy
fd = = 0.87 fy
1.15
Singly Reinforced Beam
Limiting depth of neutral axis (xu, lim)
700
xu,lim = ´d
0.87 fy + 1100
Actual depth of neutral axis (Xu)
0.87 fy Ast
C = T Xu =
0.36 fck b
Lever arm = d – 0.42 Xu
Ultimate moment of resistance
M u = 0.36 fck bX u (d - 0.42 X u )
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast (d - 0.42 X u )
Special cases
1. Under‐reinforced section : Xu < Xu,lim
M u = 0.36 fck bX u (d - 0.42 X u )
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast (d - 0.42 X u )
2. Balanced section: Xu = Xu,lim
Mu = 0.36 fck bX u ,lim (d - 0.42 X u ,lim )
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast (d - 0.42 X u ,lim )
3. Over reinforced section : Xu > Xu,lim
Xu limited to Xu,lim
Moment of resistance limited to (Mu,lim)
Doubly Reinforced Section
Limiting depth of neutral axis
700
X u,lim = ´d
0.87fy + 1100
For actual depth of neutral axis (Xu)
C = T C1 + C2 = T
0.36fck bXu + (fsc - 0.45 fck )Asc = 0.87 fy Ast
Ultimate moment of resistance
M u = 0.36 fck bX u (d - 0.42 X u ) + (f sc - 0.45fck ) Asc (d - dC )
fSC = stress in compression
T‐Beam
Limiting depth of neutral axis
700
X u,lim = ´d
0.87fy + 1100
Singly reinforced T‐Beam
o When NA is in flange area
Xu < Df
o
0.87fy Ast
Xu = < Df
0.36fck bf
o Ultimate moment of resistance
Mu = 0.36 fck bf X u (d - 0.42 X u ) or Mu = 0.87 fy Ast (d - 0.42 X u )
o When NA is in web area
Xu > Df
3
Df < Xu
Xu > Df and 7
For actual depth of neutral axis
0.36 fck bw xu + 0.45 fck (bf - bw )Df = 0.87 fy Ast
Ultimate moment of resistance
æ D ö
Mu = 0.36 fck bw xu (d - 0.42xu ) + 0.45 fck (bf - bw )Df ççd - f ÷÷÷
çè 2 ø÷
æ D ö
Mu = 0.87 fy Ast1 (d - 0.42xu ) + 0.87 fy Ast2 ççd - f ÷÷÷
èç 2 ø÷
0.36 fck bw xu 0.45 fck (bf - bw )Df
Ast1 = , Ast2 =
0.87 fy 0.87 fy
3
When Xu > Df and Df > Xu
7
y f = 0.15 X u + 0.65Df < Df
For actual depth of neutral axis
0.36 fck bw X u + 0.45fck (bf - bw )y f = 0.87fy Ast1 + 0.87fy Ast2
0.36 fck bw X u + 0.45fck (bf - bw )y f = 0.87fy Ast
Design Beams and Slabs and Columns
Effective span
Simply supported beams and slabs (leff)
ìïl + w
leff = minimum ïí 0 Here, l0 = clear span
ïïî l0 + d
w = width of support
d = depth of beam or slab
For continuous beam
1
If width of support < of clear span
12
ì
ïl + w
leff = minimum ïí 0
ï
î l0 + d
ï
1
If width of support > of clear span
12
o When one end fixed other end continuous or both end continuous.
leff = l0
o When one end continuous and other end simply supported
ìl + w / 2
ï
leff = minimum ïí 0
ï
î l0 + d / 2
ï
Cantilever
d
leff = l0 +
2
æ wö
leff = ççl0 + ÷÷÷
èç 2ø
Frames
leff = Centre to centre distance
Support Condition Span/overall depth
Mild Steel Fe 415/Fe 500
Simply supported 35 28
Continuous 40 32
Slenderness limit
For simply supported or continuous beams
ì
ï 60b
ï
ï
l0 >
/ minimum í b2
ï
ï250
ï
ï
î d
l0 = Clear span
b = Width of the section
d = Effective depth
For cantilever beam
ì
ï 25 b
ï
ï
l0 >
/ minimum í b2
ï
ï100
ï
ï
î d
Ast 0.85
o Minimum tension reinforcement =
bd fy
o Maximum tension reinforcement = 0.04 bD
o Maximum compression reinforcement = 0.04 bD
where, D = overall depth of the section
o Nominal cover for different members
Beams 25 mm
Slab 20 to 30 mm
Column 40 mm
Foundations 50 mm
One way slab
ly
>2
lx
ly = length of longer span
lx = length of shorter span
Columns
Working Stress Method
Slenderness ratio
effective length
l=
least lateral dim ension
If l > 12 then the column is long.
Load carrying capacity for short column
P = ssc Asc + scc Ac
AC = Area of concrete, AC = Ag - ASC
s SC = Stress in compression steel
sCC = Stress in concrete
Ag = Total gross cross‐sectional area
ASC = Area of compression steel
Load carrying capacity for long column
P = Cr (sSC ASC + sCC AC )
Cr = Reduction factor
leff
Cr = 1.25 -
48 B
leff
or C r = 1.25 -
160 imin
Effective length of Compression Members
Degree of End Symbol Theoretical value of Recommended value
Restraint of Effective Length of Effective Length
compression
members
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Effectively held in 0.50 l 0.65 l
position and
restrained against
rotation in both ends
Pitch (p)
ìïleast lateral dimension
ïï
f = minimum ïí 16 fmin
ïï
ïïî 300 mm
Helical reinforcement
o Diameters of helical reinforcement is selected such that
éA ùf V
0.36 êê g - 1úú ck £ h
ë AC û fy VC
o
æ1000 ö÷ p
Vh = çç ÷ (pdh ) (fh )2
èç P ÷ø 4
p
AC = (dC )2
4
VC = AC ´ 1
dh = centre to centre dia of helix
= dg – 2 clear cover ‐ h
fh = diameter of the steel bar forming the helix
Concentrically Loaded Columns
e = 0 ‐ column is truly axially loaded.
Pu = 0.45fck Ac + 0.75 fy ASC
Bond, Anchorage and Development Length
Bond stress (tbd )
V
tbd =
å pjd
V = Shear force at any section
d = Effective depth of the section
å p = Sum of all perimeter of reinforcement
= n ⋅ p(f)
n = Number of reinforcement
f = diameter of reinforcement
Development Length (Ld)
fs st
Ld =
4 ⋅ t bd
For WSM
f ⋅ 0.87fy
Ld =
4 ⋅ tbd
For LSM
Shear stress
For Homogeneous beam
V
q= ⋅ AY
lb
q = shear stress at any section
V = shear force at any section
AY = Moment of area of section above the point of consideration
bD3
I = Moment of inertia of section =
12
For Reinforced concrete beam
o Shear stress above NA
V
q= ⋅ (x a2 - y 2 )
2l
V
qmax = ⋅ x a2 at y = 0
2l
o Shear stress below NA
V
q=
bjd
Nominal shear stress
V
tV =
bd
Minimum shear reinforcement
o For WSM and LSM
ASV 0.4
³
bSV 0.87 fy
o
2.175 fy ASV
o SV £
b
ASV = Area of shear reinforcement
SV = Spacing for shear reinforcement
Spacing of shear reinforcement
2.175 fy ASV
SV =
o b
Inclined stirrups
ædö
VS = ASV ⋅ sSV ⋅ (sin a + cos a) ççç ÷÷÷
çè SV ÷ø
for WSM
ædö
VSu = ASV ⋅ (0.87 fy )(sin a + cos a) ççç ÷÷÷
çè SV ø÷
LSM
Pre‐stress Concrete
Analysis of prestress and Bending stress
Stress concept Method
Beam provided with a concentric tendon :
o Direct compressive force :
P
fa =
. A
o Extreme stresses due to bending moment alone :
M
f0 =
Z
o Stress at the extreme top edge :
P M
+
A Z
o Stress at the extreme bottom edge :
P M
-
A Z
Beams with eccentrics tendon :
Direct stresses due to prestressing force:
P
+
A
Extreme stresses due to eccentricity of the prestressing force :
P.e
Z
Extreme stresses due to bending moment :
M
Z
Stress at top fiber
P P.e M
= - +
A Z Z
Stress at bottom fibre
P P.e M
= + -
A Z Z
Strength Concept method
If the beam is subjected to a bending moment M, then the C‐line will be
shifted from the P‐line by a distance 'a' called lever arm.
M M
a= =
P C
Extreme stresses in concrete are given by
C C ´ eccentricity of C
=
A Z
Load Balancing Concept
Axial longitudinal force provided by the tendon =
P cos q = P {since q is small}
Direct stress on the section
P cos q P
= =
A A
Net Bending Moment
(W - 2P sin q)l wl 2
M= +
4 8
Losses of Pre‐stress
Types of Losses Losses in pre‐tensioned Losses in posttensioned
member member
1. Loss of pre‐stress during
tensioning process due to
friction.
(a) Loss due to length effect No Loss P0kx
(b) Loss due to curvature effect No Loss P0ma
(c) Loss due to both length and No Loss
curvature effect P0 (kx + ma)
Here,
P0 = Pre‐stressing force at the
jacking end
K = Wobble friction factor
15 x 10‐4 per meter < K < 50 x 10‐
4
per meter.
= Cumulative angle in radians
through which tangent to the
cable profile has turned
between any two points under
consideration.
= Coefficient of friction in
curves
= 0.25 to 0.55
2. Loss of pre‐stress at the No Loss Dl
⋅ ES
anchoring stage l
Here,
Dl = effective slip of the wire.
l = Length of the tendon.
ES = Young's modulus for
tendon wires
3. Loss of pre‐stress occurring
Sub‐sequently
(a) Loss of stress due to (3 ´ 10-4 )E S 2 ´ 104
⋅ ES
shrinkage of concrete log10(T + 2)
Here,
ES = Young’s modulus for Here
tendon wire T = Age of concrete at the time
of transfer of stress (in days)
(b) Loss of stress due to creep f ⋅ m ⋅ fC f ⋅ m ⋅ fC
to concrete
Here,
m = Modular ratio
= ES/EC
fC = Original pre‐stress in
concrete at the level of steel
m ⋅ fC zero
(c) Loss of stress due to elastic it all the bars are tensioned at
shortening of concrete same time
Here
fC = Initial stress in concrete at Dl
⋅ ES for subsequent
the level of steel. l
tensioning
(d) Loss of stress due to creep
of steel or loss due to stress 1 to 5% of initial pre‐stress. 1 to 5% of initial pre‐stress
relaxations.