Final Exam Literature I

POETRY

Poetry remains distinguished from prose by its form. Among major structural elements used in poetry are the line​,
the ​stanza​ or verse paragraph, and larger combinations of stanzas or lines such as ​cantos​.
Poetry is often separated into lines on a page. These lines may be based on the number of metrical feet, or may
emphasize a rhyming pattern at the ends of lines. Lines may serve other functions, particularly where the poem is not
written in a formal metrical pattern. For instance: lines can separate, compare or contrast thoughts expressed in different
units, or can highlight a change in tone.
Lines of poems are often organized into stanzas, which are denominated by the number of lines included.
Other poems may be organized into ​verse paragraphs​, in which regular rhymes with established rhythms are not
used, but the poetic tone is instead established by a collection of rhythms, alliterations, and rhymes established in
paragraph form. Many medieval poems were written in verse paragraphs, even where regular rhymes and rhythms were
used.
In many forms of poetry, ​stanzas are interlocking, so that the rhyming scheme or other structural elements of one
stanza determine those of succeeding stanzas. Related to the use of interlocking stanzas is their use to separate thematic
parts of a poem.

ELEMENTS

PROSODY
Prosody is the study of the meter, rhythm, and intonation of a poem. Prosody also may be used more specifically to
refer to the scanning of poetic lines to show meter. Rhythm and meter are different, although closely related.
Rhythm is the actual sound that results from a line of poetry. The methods for creating poetic rhythm vary across
languages and between poetic traditions. Metrical rhythm generally involves precise arrangements of stresses or syllables
into repeated patterns called foot within a line. Foot is a single unit made up of a pair of unstressed and stressed syllables
Feet can be classified according its stress pattern in:
● Iamb:​ one unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable (e.g. ​describe, Include, retract)
● Trochee:​ one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable (e.g. ​picture​, ​flower)
● Dactyl:​ one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables (e.g. ​annotate an-no-tate)
● Anapest:​ two unstressed syllables followed by one stressed syllable (e.g. ​comprehend com-pre-hend)
● Spondee:​ two stressed syllables together (e.g. ​e-nough)
● Pyrrhic:​ two unstressed syllables together
Metre is a recurring pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in lines of a set length and is determined by the

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type of foot and the number of feet in a line. It can be:

● Monometer: ​one Foot
● Dimeter: ​two feet
● Trimeter: ​three feet
● Tetrameter: ​four feet
● Pentameter: ​five feet
● Hexameter: ​six feet
● Heptameter: ​seven feet
● Octameter: ​eight feet

RHYME
Rhyme is the repetition of a vowel and consonantal sound. The beginning sound of rhyming syllables must be
different, but the middle (vowel) sound and the ending (consonantal) sound must be the same. Rhyme can be achieved by
means of:
● Alliteration​: the repetition of consonants, particularly at the beginning of words and at the beginning of stress
syllables
● Assonance:​ The juxtaposition of identical or closely similar vowel sounds for examples words.
● Consonance​: occurs where a consonant sound is repeated throughout a sentence without putting the sound only at
the front of a word. Consonance provokes a more subtle effect than alliteration and so is less useful as a structural
element.
● Onomatopoeia​: a general name for the expression of meaning by the imitation of a sound, whether in a single word
or a group of words. Some of the devices that result in a general onomatopoetic effect are concerned with the
manipulation of vowels and some with the manipulation of consonants.

RHYMING SCHEMES
In many languages poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poetic forms. However, the
use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme
schemes. Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming
schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and
well-defined rhyming scheme, while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes.
Most rhyme schemes are described using letters that correspond to sets of rhymes:
● "a-a-b-a" rhyme scheme: when the first, second and fourth lines of a quatrain rhyme with each other and the third
line does not rhyme.
● "a-b-b-a" quatrain or "enclosed rhyme":​ is used in such forms as the Petrarchan sonnet

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● Ottava rima: ​consists of eight iambic lines, usually iambic pentameters. Each stanza consists of three alternate
rhymes and one double rhyme, following the a-b-a-b-a-b-c-c pattern
● Terza rima: a three-line stanza using chain rhyme in the pattern A-B-A, B-C-B, C-D-C, D-E-D. There is no limit to the
number of lines, but poems or sections of poems written in terza rima end with either a single line or couplet
repeating the rhyme of the middle line of the final tercet. The two possible endings for the example above are
d-e-d, e or d-e-d, e-e. There is no set rhythm for terza rima, but in English, iambic pentameter is generally preferred.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
One of the essential distinctions between poetry and prose is that a great part of the language of poetry is figurative
language, that is, many of the statements made, or their implications, or their assumptions on which they are based, must
be interpreted imaginatively and figuratively, not literally.
The most frequent used figures of speech are the two figures of likeness:
• ​Simile​: a statement by which a thing or action or quality is directly compared to some unlike thing, action or quality. The
simile is a figurative comparison not a literal one. ​Example: My Luve is like a red, red rose.
• ​Metaphor​: a statement of identity, in which a thing, an action or a quality is indirectly or by implication affirmed to be
some other unlike thing, quality or action. ​Example: There is a garden in her face.
• ​Personification: abstract qualities, lifeless things, objects in nature, etc., are spoken of as persons, by being given name
and shown as acting or feeling as a person, or by being given some attribute or power of a human being. Personification is a
very common figure of speech related to metaphor.
• ​Hyperbole​: is the use of exaggeration, maybe to evoke strong feelings or to create a strong impression, but it is not meant
to be taken literally. ​Example: the bag weights a ton.
• ​Paradox​: is a statement that apparently contradicts itself because it goes against popular belief, and yet might be true.
Example: The angels, not half so happy in heaven, went envying her and me – yes! That was the reason (as all men know, in
this kingdom by the sea) that the wind came out of the cloud one night, chilling and killing my Annabel Lee.
• ​Oxymoron​: a word or a group of words that is self-contradicting​. Examples: bitter sweet, dark light, living death.
• ​Metonymy: a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by a name initially associated. ​Example: Hollywood
referring to the USA cinema, Westminster referring to the UK Parliament.
• ​Apostrophe: an absent person, a personified inanimate being, or an abstraction, is addressed as thought to be present.
Example: Come back early or never come!
• ​Synecdoche: is a figure of speech in which a part represents to whole, and less commonly the whole represents a part​.
Example: The world treated him badly​.

GENRES

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Poetry is often thought of in terms of different genres and subgenres. A poetic genre is generally a tradition or
classification of poetry based on the subject matter, style, or other broader literary characteristics.
● Narrative poetry: genre of poetry that tells a story and is written in chronological order. Narrative poetry may be
the oldest type of poetry.
● Epic poetry: ​this genre is often defined as lengthy poems concerning events of a heroic or important nature to the
culture of the time. It recounts, in a continuous narrative, the life and works of a heroic or mythological person or
group of persons.
● Dramatic poetry​: is drama written in verse to be spoken or sung, and appears in varying, sometimes related forms
in many cultures
● Satirical poetry​: Poetry can be a powerful vehicle for satire. The Romans had a strong tradition of satirical poetry,
often written for political purposes.
● Light poetry​: or light verse, is poetry that attempts to be humorous. Poems considered "light" are usually brief, and
can be on a frivolous or serious subject, and often feature word play, including puns, adventurous rhyme and heavy
alliteration. Although a few free verse poets have excelled at light verse outside the formal verse tradition, light
verse in English is usually formal.
● Lyric poetry: is a genre that, unlike epic and dramatic poetry, does not attempt to tell a story but instead is of a
more personal nature. Poems in this genre tend to be shorter, melodic, and contemplative. Rather than depicting
characters and actions, it portrays the poet's own feelings, states of mind, and perceptions.
● Elegy: is a mournful, melancholy or plaintive poem, especially a lament for the dead or a funeral song. The term
"elegy," which originally denoted a type of poetic meter (elegiac meter), commonly describes a poem of mourning.
An elegy may also reflect something that seems to the author to be strange or mysterious. The elegy, as a reflection
on a death, on a sorrow more generally, or on something mysterious, may be classified as a form of lyric poetry
● Fable: is an ancient literary genre, often (though not invariably) set in verse. It is a succinct story that features
anthropomorphized animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature that illustrate a moral lesson (a "moral").
● Prose poetry is a hybrid genre that shows attributes of both prose and poetry. It may be indistinguishable from the
micro-story (a.k.a. the "short short story", "flash fiction
● Speculative poetry​, also known as fantastic poetry, (of which weird or macabre poetry is a major subclassification),
is a poetic genre which deals thematically with subjects which are 'beyond reality', whether via extrapolation as in
science fiction or via weird and horrific themes as in horror fiction.

SONNET
A sonnet is a poetic form of fourteen lines following a set rhyme scheme and logical structure, meant to be sang,
originated in Italy with Giacomo Da Lentini credited with its invention. Sonnets are particularly associated with love poetry,
and often use a poetic diction heavily based on vivid imagery.
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In the 16​th century, sonnets flourished in England thanks to Sir Tomas Wyatt, who dedicated his firsts sonnets to
Anne Boleyn, King Henry VIII's second wife and mother of Queen Elizabeth I. In the 17th century, John Donne together with
George Herbert introduced religious sonnet dedicate Virgin Mary. Later on, sonnets changed the subject matter from love
to hate, revenge, politics, friendship, etc.
The term sonnet is derived from the Italian word sonetto (from Old Provençal sonet a little poem, from son song,
from Latin sonus a sound). By the thirteenth century it signified a poem of fourteen lines that follows a strict rhyme scheme
and specific structure. Conventions associated with the sonnet have evolved over its history.
Writers of sonnets are sometimes called "sonneteers", although the term can be used derisively.

TYPES OF SONNETS

PETRARCHAN SONNETS
Petrarchan Sonnets were created by Giacomo da Lentini who dedicated all sonnets to a young lady called Laura.
This type is traditionally written in iambic pentameter lines. The structure of a typical Italian sonnet of the time includes:
● Octave: ​is made up of two quatrains with a rhyming pattern of abba abba. It forms the "proposition", which
describes a "problem", or "question".
● Volta: ​is the ninth line with and signals the move from proposition to resolution. ”. Even in sonnets that don't
strictly follow the problem/resolution structure, the ninth line still often marks a "turn" by signaling a change in the
tone, mood, or stance of the poem
● Sestet: ​is made up of two tercets following a rhyming pattern of cdecde or cdccd. It proposes a "resolution”.

SHAKESPEAREAN SONNETS
Also known as English Sonnets, the form is often named after Shakespeare, not because he was the first to write in
this form but because he became its most famous practitioner. This type of sonnet was the most popular in the 16​th century,
although the musicalization changed from country to country provoking variations. The form consists of fourteen lines
structured as three quatrains and a couplet, which contains the moral of the sonnet, a conclusion or a refutation. The third
quatrain generally introduces an unexpected sharp thematic or imagistic "turn", the volta. In Shakespeare's sonnets,
however, the volta usually comes in the couplet, and usually summarizes the theme of the poem or introduces a fresh new
look at the theme. With only a rare exception, the meter is iambic pentameter, although there is some accepted metrical
flexibility. The usual rhyme scheme is end-rhymed a-b-a-b, c-d-c-d, e-f-e-f, g-g.

SPENSERIAN SONNET
Spenserian sonnets are a variant on the English form is the Spenserian sonnet, named after Edmund Spenser, who
dedicated his sonnets to the Queen Elizabeth I in his book the “The Fairy Queen”. The rhyme scheme followed is abab, bcbc,

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cdcd, ee. The form is treated as three quatrains connected by the interlocking rhyme scheme and closed by a couplet. The
linked rhymes of his quatrains suggest the linked rhymes of such Italian forms as terza rima.

SONNET CYCLE
● CROWN OF SONNETS: is a sequence of sonnets, usually addressed to one person, and/or concerned with a single
theme. Each of the sonnets explores one aspect of the theme, and is linked to the preceding and succeeding
sonnets by repeating the final line of the preceding sonnet as its first line. The first line of the first sonnet is
repeated as the final line of the final sonnet, thereby bringing the sequence to a close.
● HEROIC CROWN: ​comprising fifteen sonnets, in which the sonnets are linked as described above, but the final
binding sonnet is made up of all the first lines of the preceding fourteen, in order. This form was invented by the
Siena Academy. A variation on the form is sometimes used in which the binding sonnet is the first sonnet, and
subsequent sonnets end with a line taken from it in order.
● CURTAL CYCLE: sonnets that are cut shorter made up of two stanzas of 10 lines each, thematically unified to create
a long work. Later the love sonnets changed and they were od 17 o 18 lines.

ELIZABETHAN ERA
The Elizabethan era was the epoch from 1558 to 1603 in English history when Queen Elizabeth I reign. Historians
often depict it as the golden age in English history. The Elizabethan age is seen as a renaissance that inspired national pride
through classical ideals, international expansion, and naval triumph over the hated Spanish foe.
This "golden age" represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music and
literature. The era is most famous for theatre, as William Shakespeare and many others composed plays that broke free of
England's past style of theatre. It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home, the Protestant
Reformation became more acceptable to the people, most certainly after the Spanish Armada was repulsed. It was also the
end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland.
The Elizabethan Age is viewed so highly largely because of the periods before and after. It was a brief period of
largely internal peace between the English Reformation and the battles between Protestants and Catholics and between
parliament and the monarchy that engulfed the seventeenth century. The Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time,
by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism.
England was also well-off compared to the other nations of Europe. The Italian Renaissance had come to an end
under the weight of foreign domination of the peninsula. France was embroiled in its own religious battles. In part because
of this, but also because the English had been expelled from their last outposts on the continent, the centuries-long conflict
between France and England was largely suspended for most of Elizabeth's reign.
During this period, England had a centralised, well-organised, and effective government, largely a result of the
reforms of Henry VII and Henry VIII. Economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic

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trade.