TRM Principles NSN

Transmission Principles
Transport Physical Layer Overview
1 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0
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Transport Physical Layer Overview
Learnining Element Objectives

• Describe the main characteristics of PDH and SDH
transmission
• List the different transmission media: Copper, Fibre and
Radio
• Understand the impact of different fault conditions (AIS
received from a leased line)
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PCM and the PDH
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Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)
• It would be very wasteful of transmission resources if only 2Mbit/s signals were

transmitted over the telecommunication network.
• Four 2Mbit/s signals interleave in multiplexed to produce a higher speed signal of
approximately 8 Mbit/s.
• Then four of these 8 Mbit/s signals multiplexed together to form 34 Mbit/s signal
• Four of 34 Mbit/s signals again multiplexed to make a 140 Mbit/s signal
• The process of this types of Multiplexing is known as the Plesiochronous Digital
Hierarchy (PDH)
• Plesiochronous - "almost synchronous”
• Due to timing differences in the incoming 2 Mbit/s streams bits may be stuffed into
the frames as padding the TS location varies slightly in the higher layers
(8,34,140Mbit/s) from frame to frame this is called “jitter” .
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• Few years ago the common way to build a backbone network that
supplies broadband communication to the suppliers was a PDH network
• The topology of a PDH network is the Mesh topology where every
multiplexer in each site worked with its own clock. In order to synchronize
between two multiplexers that works together, usually the transmission
was made according to the local clock and the reception was made
according to the recovered clock that was recovered from the received
data
• The fact that each of the multiplexers transmits according to its own clock
creates a problem when we need to multiplex several transmitted data
streams, the problem is that we can't decide which clock to choose for the
multiplexing. If we will choose a fast clock we will not have enough data to
put in the frame from a slower incoming data stream (we will get empty
spaces in the frame), from the other hand if we will choose a slow clock
the data at the faster incoming stream will be lost
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PCM
There are two PCM systems recommended by the ITU:-

• T1 (24 chan. in USA, Canada and Japan)
• E1 (30 chan. in Europe and most of the world)
We will look at PCM 30.
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PCM30
The conversion of analogue signals (speech) into a

digital format is generally referred to as PCM.
This is achieved by a number of processes:
Sampling
Quantizing
Encoding
Multiplexing
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Sampling
• This is where a “snapshot” of the analogue signal is taken.

• Also the polarity and amplitude of the signal is determined (8000 times a
second or every 125 μsec)
Analogue Signal
Samples
Sampling moments
(8000 per sec)
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PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
PAM Samples
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Quantizing
This is where the “snapshot” sample is assigned a quantizing

level (one of 256).
+127
Q
u
a
n
t
i
z +2
i +1
0
n 0
-1
g -2
L
e
v
e
l
s -127
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Non-Linear Quantizing Table
16
3 123123
16
16
123
16
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Encoding (example)
16
1001111 15
1001110 14
1001101 13
1001100 12
11
1001010 10
9
1001000 8
7
6
1000101 5
4
3
2
1
0
0
1
2
3
4
1000101 5
6
7
1001000 8
9
1001010 10
11
1001100 12
1001101 13
1001110 14
1001111 15
16
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Multiplexing
Chan 1
10011011
Chan 2
00011011
Chan 3 11111011 10011000 00011011 10011011

10011000
Chan 4
11111011
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System bit rate
The system bit rate can be calculated as follows:-
Sampling frequency X No of Time Slots X Bits per Time Slot
8000 X 32 X 8=
= 2048 kbit/s
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PCM 30 Frame TS0
125 μs
Encoded signals 1 to 15 Encoded signals 16 to 30
0 1 2 15 16 17 30 31
Signalling
information
Si 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
3.9 μs
Si 1 A Sa4 Sa5 Sa6 Sa7 Sa8

0.49 μs
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PCM 30 Frame TS 16 in Multiframe
125 μs
2Mbit/s frame
No. 0 No. 8 No. 15
0 1 16 31 0 1 16 31 0 1 16 31
Signalling frame 2 ms
0 1 2 8 14 15
0 0 0 0 X YX X a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d
NMFAS Chan 8 Chan 23 Chan 15 Chan 30

MFAS
Signalling words Signalling words
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Plesiochronous Digital Hiearcy
Hierarchy level
0 1 2 3 4
1
64 kbit/s -
data -
- P mux
signals -
30 H/O Mux
2 to 8
1 H/O Mux
- 8 to 34
-
- P mux
-
30 H/O Mux
2 to 8 H/O Mux
1 8 to 34
- H/O Mux
-
- P mux 34 to 140
- H/O Mux
30 2 to 8 H/O Mux
8 to 34
Digital
H/O Mux
Exchange
2 to 8 H/O Mux
8 to 34
4 x 2048 kbit/s 4 x 8448 kbit/s 4 x 34368 kbit/s 139264 kbit/s
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Justification
Chan 1
2048 +50ppm
Chan 2
2048
Chan 3 Chan 4 bit Chan 3 bit Chan 2 bit Chan 1 bit
2048 -50ppm
Chan 4
2048
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Higher Order Frame Structures

848 bits
SUBFRAME 1 SUBFRAME 2 SUBFRAME 3 SUBFRAME 4
1 to 10 1112 13 to 212 1 to 4 5 to 212 1 to 4 5 to 212 1 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 212
FRAME CB TD JC TD JC TD JC J/D TD
WORD
1536 bits
SUBFRAME 1 SUBFRAME 2 SUBFRAME 3 SUBFRAME 4
1 to 10 11 12 13 to 384 1 to 4 5 to 384 1 to 4 5 to 384 1 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 384
FRAME CB TD JC JC TD JC J/D TD
WORD TD
2928 bits
SUBFRAME 1 SUBFRAME 2 SUBFRAME 3 TO 5 SUBFRAME 6
1 to 12 13 14 15 16 17 to 488 1 to 4 5 to 488 1 to 4 5 to 488 1 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 488
FRAME CB TD JC JC TD JC J/D TD
TD
WORD
REMOTE SERVICE
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Structure of E1 frame (2.048 Mbit/s)
012 16 31
32 TDM time slots (with 8 bits each / frame)
Time slots 1-31 carry digital signals (usually PCM speech) with a bitrate
of 64 kbit/s.
Time slot 0 is used for frame synchronization:

received bit stream ... where does a new frame begin?
... ...
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Digital 2-8
2-8 8-34
8-34 34-140
34-140
Digital
Exchange Mux
Mux Mux
Mux Mux
Mux
Exchange
Switch
Switch
8Mbit/s 34Mbit/s 140Mbit/s
2Mbit/s
Digital 2-8
2-8 8-34
8-34 34-140
34-140
Digital
Exchange Mux
Mux Mux
Mux Mux
Mux
Exchange
Switch
Switch
8Mbit/s 34Mbit/s 140Mbit/s

2Mbit/s
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E1/T1/JT1 balanced interfaces cabling

1/4
RX A TX A
TX B RX B
TX A RX A
RX B TX B
CORRECT cabling ?
wrong cabling!
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E1/T1/JT1 balanced interfaces cabling

2/4
RX A TX A
RX B TX B
TX A RX A
TX B RX B
CORRECT cabling ?
YES!
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E1/T1/JT1 balanced interfaces cabling 3/4
RX A TX A
TX B RX B
TX A RX A
RX B TX B
TX wires induce a signal into the RX wires
When wrongly using the two wires of a twisted pair for different directions (TX and RX), the
principle of balanced signals will NOT have it’s positive effect of elimination of common
mode interfering signals.
In opposite, both signal (TX+RX) will interfere with each other, the more, the longer the
cable length is. Signal quality (bit errors) will be degraded.
Also alarm management is affected: In case one end of the cable is disconnected from the
terminal, the alarm “loss of signal” would be expected. But due to induction from the TX to
the RX wire, there might be an incoming signal detected. No alarm at all or for instance
“frame alignment lost” would be generated instead.
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E1 un-balanced signal
electromagnetic
interferences
co-axial cable
TX RX
signal is carried on center conductor, shield is grounded
0/1 information (pulse length)

PCM signal undefined
time
disturbances can cause bit errors
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E1/T1/JT1 balanced signal

electromagnetic
interferences
TX A RX A
TX B RX B
Differencial voltage
TX A – TX B
PCM signal
Input stage is a
differential amplifier that
amplifies the difference
voltage between signal A
and B, but rejects the
common mode
disturbances
time
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Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
SDH is a new multiplexing technique, which allows the insertion and

Removal of an individual channel at any bit rate in the hierarchy.
The SDH has been designed to enable very effective monitoring and
management of the telecommunications network to be carried out.
The SDH network works with a single central clock that synchronizes all the
elements in the network
SDH is an internationally agreed standard. And developed to address

following basic requirements.
• Facilities to add or drop tributaries directly from a high speed signal
• Need for extensive network management capability
• Standardised interfaces between equipment
• Need for inter-working between North American and European system
• Standardisation of equipment management process
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The SDH standards define the basic transmission bit rate and frame
structures
The frame are know as “Synchronous Transport Module” (STM) and the bit
rates are as follows:-
• STM-1 155.52 Mbit/s
• STM-4 622.08 Mbit/s
• STM-16 2.48832 Gbit/s (2.5 Gbit/s)
• STM-64 9.95328 Gbit/s (10 Gbit/s)
The most common tributary bit rate to SDH is 2Mbit/s and a maximum of
63*2Mbit/s signal can be accommodated in an STM-1 (155.52Mbit/s)
• In order to have the ability to connect a low rate PDH stream an improved
stuffing algorithm is used.
• The SDH protocol enables transmitting any of the PDH bit rates directly by
mapping it to the STM-n frame, that gives the user the flexibility to transmit
any configuration of tributary rates using only one multiplexing element,
depicted bellow the difference between the SDH network element and the
PDH
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SDH is based on byte interleaving and not bit interleaving , as PDH was based on.
The bit rate increased from 64 Kbps in PDH to 2 Mbps in SDH.
155.52Mbit/s
140Mbit/s
45Mbit/s STM-1 155.52 Mbit/s Optical or Electrical

STM-4 6.22.08 Mbit/s Optical
PDH 34Mbit/s SDH
Multiplexer STM-16 2.48832 Gbit/s (2.5 Gbit/s) Optical
6Mbit/s STM-64 9.95328 Gbit/s (10 Gbit/s) Optical
2Mbit/s
1.5Mbit/s
64Kbit/s
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STM-1 Basic Transport Level
9 columns 261 columns
SECTION
OVERHEAD STM-1 VIRTUAL CONTAINER
9 rows
(VC-4)
SOH
CAPACITY = 150.34 Mbit/s
2430 bytes/frame x 8 bits/byte x 8000 frames/sec = 155.52 Mbit/s
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Overhead Location
9 columns
1 column
3 rows RSOH
1 row Pointer 9
r P
o O Payload
5 rows MSOH w H
s
VC-4
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Regenerator Node
RSOH RSOH
SDH
P Pointer Regenerator P Pointer
Payload O Payload O
H
Node H
MSOH MSOH
RSOH is stripped away New RSOH is created

and checked on input on output
The RSOH carries such information as frame alignment signal and management channels.
In order to manage a SDH regenerator, for example, the management channel to the node
must be placed in the RSOH as this is the only part of the signal that a regenerator can
access. The rest of the STM-1 frame just passes through untouched.
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Multiplexer Node
RSOH RSOH
SDH
P Pointer Multiplexer P Pointer
Payload O Payload O
H
Node H
MSOH MSOH
RSOH and MSOH are New RSOH and MSOH

both stripped away are created on output
and checked on input
There are three types of SDH multiplexer nodes:

Terminal Multiplexer (TM) with only one SDH interface
Add-and-Drop Multiplexer (ADM) with two SDH interfaces
Digital Cross-Connect (DXC) with three or more SDH interfaces
The part of the STM-1 signal that passes through the multiplexer is often referred to as the
VC-4, but technically it is an AU-4 (Administrative Unit level-4). The payload plus Path
Overhead (POH) make up a VC-4, while VC-4 plus pointer constitute an AU-4.
At an ADM or DXC node, cross-connections may not always be made at the AU-4 (VC-4)
level, but rather at a lower (tributary) level within the payload (such as E1). In that case the
payload must be terminated on input and opened up, in order to access the tributaries inside
which are to be cross-connected. The pointer is used to access the payload and then
discarded. Also the POH is stripped away and checked. On output, a new payload with new
POH and new pointer are created. In effect, it is a whole new STM-1 signal.
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Section Overheads
Multiplexer Multiplexer section

section Regenerator section
Regenerator
section
SDH
SDH SDH
Terminal Cross- Terminal
connect
multiplexer equipment multiplexer
SDH SDH
regen- regen-
erator erator
Path section
To summarize:
1. The Multiplexer section is added at the output of every multiplexer, and terminated and
checked at the input of the following multiplexer.
2. The Regenerator section is added at the output of every multiplexer or regenerator. It is
terminated and checked at the input of every multiplexer and regenerator. Every node
creates a Regenerator section.
3. The Path section (POH) is created with the payload and contains information about the
payload, such as its name, type and structure. The Path section stays with the payload
between the multiplexing and demultiplexing stages, regardless of how many intermediate
nodes the signal may pass through. The Path section provides for end-to-end monitoring of
the signal path.
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Regenerator Section Overhead
RSOH
9 columns
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0
RSOH A1 & 2 Frame Alignment
3 rows B1 E1 F1
D1 D2 D3 J0 Trail Trace
B1 Error Monitoring
9 rows
E1 Service Telephone
F1 User Byte
D1 - 3 Data Channel
The Regenerator section overhead consists of 3 rows and 9 columns (27 bytes).
The first six bytes are designated as A1 & A2. These bytes contain the frame alignment
signal, indicating where the frame begins and allowing the receiving node to synchronize to
the incoming signal.
J0 byte is reserved for trail trace identification. If we like, at every output we can give a name
to the signal and check this name at the next input. Note that this ID is valid for only a single
hop.
(One byte only carries a single character, but at 8000 frames per second a string of
successive frames can carry a longer ID.)
FXC STM supports a trail trace identifier up to 15 characters long. (Unused characters
should be filled in with spaces, to prevent any incompatibility with SDH equipment from
different vendors – some use space characters as filler, others use null characters.)
B1 is for error monitoring using 8-bit interleaved parity (BIP-8).
E1 is reserved by ITU-T for service telephone use. It is a 64k channel.
(At 8000 frames per second, each byte in the STM-1 frame represents a 64 kbit/s channel.)
F1 is a user byte, reserved by ITU-T for the user to use in any way he wishes. The user byte
is also a 64k auxiliary channel between stations.
Bytes D1-D3 can be used for high-speed data or SDH network management information: 3 x
64k = 192 kbit/s channel. This channel is officially called DCCr, or Data Communic-ations
Channel in RSOH.
Empty bytes are 64k channels which are not currently defined. These bytes can be used for
any purpose (for example, to carry the Q1 channel for transmission management). However
the ITU-T could reserve them in the future for some new functionality. So they can be used
within a network, but should not be used when the signal passes from one network to
another.
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Multiplexer Section Overhead
MSOH
9 columns
B2 Error Monitoring
K1 - K2 Network Backup
K2 (bits 6-8) RDI
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2 9 rows S1 SSM
D4 D5 D6 M1 REI
MSOH
D7 D8 D9
5 rows E2 Service Telephone
D10 D11 D12
D4 - 12 Data Channel
S1 M1 E2
Similar to RSOH is the Multiplexer section overhead (45 bytes). Whereas RSOH can be
decoded by both regenerators and multi-plexers, MSOH can only be decoded by
multiplexers.
The first three bytes are B2, used for error monitoring. Like B1 byte in RSOH, this is also
interleaved bit-parity checking, but with 24 bits instead of 8.
M1 byte is for Remote Error Indication (REI). If a parity error in the incoming signal is
detected via the B2 bytes, REI is sent back through the M1 channel to the transmitting node.
Bytes K1 & K2 are used for automatic protection switching.
But FXC STM uses a simpler solution, which does not require protection information to be
transmitted through these bytes.
Bits 6-8 of K2 are for Remote Defect Indication (RDI). If the receiver detects a major fault
in the incoming signal, it will send back RDI to the transmitting node. (This is similar to FEA
– far end alarm – in PDH.)
S1 byte is for SSM – Synchronisation Status Message. S1 carries information about the
quality of the clock used to generate the signal. This information is useful in SDH network
synchronization.
E2 byte is reserved as a second service telephone channel.
Bytes D4-D12 can be used for high-speed data or SDH network management information: 9
x 64k = 576 kbit/s channel. This channel is officially called DCCm, or Data Communications
Channel in MSOH.
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Path Overhead
1 column
J1 Trail Trace
P B3 Error Monitoring
O
H
C2 Signal Label
G1 Path Status (Errors & Far End Equip.)

POH
F2 Path User Channel
9 rows
H4 Multiframe Pointer
F3 Path User Channel
K3 Automatic Protection Control
N1 Tandem Connection Monitoring
The Path overhead (POH) is created with the payload and travels with the payload through
the SDH network. It is only terminated when the payload itself is terminated (for example,
when it is altered due to new cross-connections).
J1 byte is for trail trace identification. It can contain a name which is given to the payload.
When the payload is terminated, the name is checked to verify that the correct payload was
received.
Note that the trail trace in RSOH contains the name of the signal (which is valid for only
one hop), while the trail trace in POH contains the name of the payload.
B3 byte is for end-to-end error monitoring, using 8-bit parity.
C2 byte contains the signal label. This identifies the type of signal carried in the payload,
such as PDH, or ATM, or Frame Relay. It allows the receiver to verify that the incoming
STM-1 signal is carrying the correct type of payload.
The label “Unequipped” indicates that the signal is carrying an empty payload, one which
does not contain any information.
G1 byte is used to report the path status, such as REI and RDI.
F2 and F3 bytes are reserved by the ITU-T as path-level end-to-end user channels. They
could be used to send auxiliary information.
H4 byte contains the multiframe pointer. The multiframe pointer is needed when 2 Mbit/s
signals are carried in the payload.
K3 and N1 bytes are not used by FXC STM. The protection mechanism used, SNC-type
protection (Sub-Network Connection protection), is both simpler and more flexible.
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Multiplexing Tributary Units to STM-1
F F F
155.52 Mbit/s
SOH P
O Tributary
H Units
260 columns
The payload can carry tributary units, either 2 Mbit/s or 34 Mbit/s signals. Again, one STM-1
can hold up to 63 x 2M, 3 x 34M, 1 x 140M, or a combination of 2M and 34M signals.
A 2M frame is 32 bytes long (TS0-31). After path overhead and pointer information are
added, it becomes a TU-12 (see following page).
One TU-12 occupies 36 bytes, or 4 columns in the payload. There is room for 63 x TU-12’s
in a STM-1 signal.
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STM-1 Multiplexing Structure
PTR POH 2 Mbit/s
TUG-2 TU-12 VC-12 C-12
TUG-2
SOH PTR POH PTR POH

TUG-3 TUG-2
STM-1 AU-4 VC-4 TUG-3 TUG-2 TU-12 VC-12 C-12
TUG-3 TUG-2
TUG-2 PTR POH
TUG-2
TU-12 VC-12 C-12
PTR POH 34 Mbit/s
TU-3 VC-3 C-3

Multiplexing
Mapping
140 Mbit/s
Áligning
C-4
Pointer proccessing
In SDH, each tributary signal is mapped into a “container” suitable for holding it. For
example, a 2Mbit/s signal is mapped into a C-12 container.
Why C-12? Because a European 2 Mbit/s E1 signal is a level “1” type “2” signal, while a
North American 1.5 Mbit/s T1 signal is a level “1” type “1” signal. So actually the “12” in C-12
should not be pronounced as “twelve” but rather as “one-two”.
When POH information is added to the C-12 container, it becomes a VC-12 “virtual
container”. When a pointer is added, to indicate where in the container the tributary can be
found, this becomes a TU-12 “tributary unit”.
The STM-1 frame structure is based on multiplexing level-1 signals (2M) into level 2 (6M),
level-2 signals into level 3 (45M), and level-3 signals into level 4 (150M).
So three TU-12's are multiplexed into one TUG-2 “tributary unit group” level-2. Seven TUG-
2's are multiplexed into one TUG-3, and three TUG-3's are multiplexed into one VC-4.
3 x 7 x 3: This is how we get the number 63 x 2M which can be carried in one STM-1 signal.
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K, L, M Numbering
TUG3 -1 TUG3 -2 TUG3 -3
TUG2 -1 1-1-1 1-1-2 1-1-3 2-1-1 2-1-2 2-1-3 3-1-1 3-1-2 3-1-3
TUG2 -2 1-2-1 1-2-2 1-2-3 2-2-1 2-2-2 2-2-3 3-2-1 3-2-2 3-2-3
TUG2 -3 1-3-1 1-3-2 1-3-3 2-3-1 2-3-2 2-3-3 3-3-1 3-3-2 3-3-3
TUG2 -4 1-4-1 1-4-2 1-4-3 2-4-1 2-4-2 2-4-3 3-4-1 3-4-2 3-4-3
TUG2 -5 1-5-1 1-5-2 1-5-3 2-5-1 2-5-2 2-5-3 3-5-1 3-5-2 3-5-3
TUG2 -6 1-6-1 1-6-2 1-6-3 2-6-1 2-6-2 2-6-3 3-6-1 3-6-2 3-6-3
TUG2 -7 1-7-1 1-7-2 1-7-3 2-7-1 2-7-2 2-7-3 3-7-1 3-7-2 3-7-3
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
VC12 VC12 VC12
So we can have up to 63 x 2M channels in an STM-1 signal. We could just number them

from 1 to 63, but this limits the amount of information we get.
Instead we can draw a diagram with 9 columns across and 7 rows down. We then divide
this grid into 3 vertical slices.
These three sections represent the TUG-3's, numbered 1,2,3 (across the top). Each can
contain one 34M or 45M signal, or 21 x 2M signals.
Then each TUG-3 can be divided horizontally into 7 TUG-2's. They can each hold one 6M
signal or 3 x 2M signals.
And every TUG-2 can be divided (across the bottom) into three VC-12's (or more accurately
TU-12’s), which can each carry one 2M signal.
So every box in the grid can be referenced according to its TUG-3 number (K), its TUG-2
number (L), and its VC-12 number (M). Each 2M channel in the STM-1 signal can be
identified by its K-L-M index, from 1-1-1 to 3-7-3.
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2M Mapping Alternatives
• Asynchronous
• Independent of bit stream format
• No access to 64k or n x 64k signals
• Accepts timing tolerance of +/-50 ppm
• Byte Synchronous
• G.704 frame structure required
• Direct access to 64k or n x 64k signals
• Signal must be “SDH-synchronous”
Byte-synchronous mapping requires that the 2M signal be formatted according to the G.704
frame stucture (TS0-31).
Asynchronous mapping does not require that the 2M signal have any particular format, and
even allows the use of the 2M equipment’s internal clock.
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Transmission Media
A telecommunications network employs various types of

transmission media
• Copper
• Microwave Radio
• Optical Fibre Cable
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Copper Cables
• Most copper cables now only exist in the local access network between
the customer premises and the local switch or access node. The major
method of transmitting telecommunications information for many years but
now being replaced by optical fibre cables
• There are many different types of copper cables in a network, some of the
“twisted pair” Variety and some of the “ co-axial “ type
• Cooper cables are used where it is necessary to carry analogue
information as it is difficult to transmit analogue signals over fibre cables
• Large existing operators have a vast investment in cooper cables in the
local access network and new technologies are being developed to enable
them to better use of these cables
• Digital signals can be coded in a special ways to enable them to be
transmitted over copper more effectively providing fast internet access and
other new services
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Microwave Radio
1/3
• Technically, Microwave are radio frequencies that lie between 300MHz
and 300GHz
• These radio frequencies, when radiated from an antenna, can be focused
with aid of parabolic dish
• This will cause the radio signal to be focused into narrow beam and then
can be used for “ line of sight “ transmission
• In telecommunications the microwave frequencies between 1GHz and
38GHz are normally used
• Microwaves radio antennae are normally spaced at maximum of about
48Km apart
• As microwave are analogue, special microwave modems are used to
converts the digital signals to analogue and back to digital at far end of the
microwave link
• Microwave radio system can provide rapid provision of new services and
allow remote locations to be connected without the expense of laying
cable across difficult terrain
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Microwave Radio
2/3
The advantages of microwave transmission are:
• Capital cost is usually low
• Relatively quick and easy to install
• Additional service can be provided cheaply
• Irregular terrain difficulties can be overcome
The disadvantages are:
• Restricted to line of sight
• Weather conditions affect the signal
• Microwave repeaters must ha electrical power access
Frequency Band Typical Distance Main Usage

7/8 GHz More than 30 Km 8 Mbit/s-140 Mbit/s
18 GHz 20-25 Km 2-34 Mbit/s
23 GHz 5-15 Km 2-34 Mbit/s
38 GHz Less than 10 Km 2-8 Mbit/s
RA45355EN05GLA0 45
A typical digital Microwave System

3/3
Analogue Microwave Radio Path
Modem Modem
Digital
Digital Signal
Signal
RA45355EN05GLA0 46
Fibre Optic
RA45355EN05GLA0 47
Fibre optics
Standard fibre optics:

FIBRE OPTIC TRANSMISSION WAVELENGTH ATTENUATION BAND
Æ
Core/cladding WAVELENGTH
62,5/125 m Multi-mode 1st window 4 dB/km 160 MHz/km
850 nm
62,5/125 m Multi-mode 2nd window 2 dB/km 200 MHz/km
1310 nm
50/125 m Multi-mode 1st window 3 dB/km 400 MHz/km
850 nm
50/125 m Multi-mode 2nd window 1 dB/km 800 MHz/km
1310 nm
9/125 m Single-mode 2 nd window 0,4 dB/km >20 GHz/km
1310 nm
9/125 m Single-mode 3rd window 0,2 dB/km >200 GHz/km
1550 nm
RA45355EN05GLA0 48
Light transmission in fibre optics
SM 9/125 MM 50/125
The principle applied to fibre optic is total internal

reflection of light.
RA45355EN05GLA0 49
About fibre optics
MM 50/125 SM 9/125 Cladding

Core
50 µm 9 µm
125 µm 125 µm
Because of a non-uniform refraction index between the fibre optic core

and cladding, under certain launching conditions a light ray enters the
fibre optic guide and propagates along towards the fibre end, being
guided by a successive reflection mechanism.
RA45355EN05GLA0 50
Single mode fibre optic distribution
• Made from a central core of a very pure glass surrounded by

an outer layer of less dense glass
• Fibre are coated with plastic and stranded together to form
multicore cables
• Very large bandwidth, Carry transmission digital signals in
excess of 300Gbit/s
• Optical fibres very small & Light, easy to install in buildings &
equipment racks
• Sophisticated methods needed to splice them together.
• The light transmitted along optical fibre is in the infra red
range, hence invisible to human eye. This Light can damage
the eye if exposed for long periods
• Safety arrangement must put in place when dealing with
optical fiber installation and maintenance
RA45355EN05GLA0 51
Example of an optical fibre cable
Tube
Containing the
fibres
Optical
fibres
Reinforcing Outer
material Cable sheath
RA45355EN05GLA0 52
Single mode fibre optic distribution
• Extremely wide bandwidth, > 3 GHz

• Transparent, no signal alteration
• Negligible loss, 0,2 to 0,5 dB/km
• Very good linearity
• Low loss, both power supply and signal
• Virtually avoids grounding problems, EMC proof
• Standard, proven and reliable technology
• Design and installation costs are significantly lower
• Flexible, point to point or point to multi-point configuration
RA45355EN05GLA0 53
General fiber handling rules
• Never touch the ferrules (or connector tips) with your fingers
or let them make contact with any non specified surface or
material after removing the protective caps of the LC
connector plugs
• Do not put the fibre under permanent tensile stress
• Be care full with bending optical fibres below a radius of
R=35mm
RA45355EN05GLA0 54
SDH Alarms
REGEN. SECTION MULTIPLEXER SECTION HIGHER ORDER LOWER ORDER
LOS PATH PATH
LOF MS-AIS
A1
RS-TIM
J0
B1 RS-BIP
MS-AIS
K2 MS-AIS
MS-BIP
B2
MS-REI
M1
MS-RDI AU4-AIS
K2
AU-AIS
AU-LOP
HP-UNEQ
C2
HP-TIM
J1
B3
HP-BIP VC4-AIS
HP-REI
G1
HP-RDI
G1
TU-AIS
TU-LOP TU12-AIS
TU-LOM
H4
HP-PLM
C2 LP-UNEQ
V5
LP-TIM VC12-
J2
LP-BIP AIS
V5
LP-REI
V5
LP-RDI
V5
LP-PLM
V5
55 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0 AIS
The SDH alarm hierarchy looks very forbidding, but SDH alarm routing and interpretation
are not so confusing when the process is followed logically.
Each higher-level alarm appears to generate a cascade of lower-level alarms, but these
lower-level alarms are suppressed by the system so that only the original, highest-level
alarm is indicated to the user.
Down along the left-hand side are listed the overhead bytes (RSOH, MSOH, and POH)
where the system detects the faults which produce these alarms.
In ITN nodes, Higher-order Path refers to level-4 faults (which affect the entire payload),
while Lower-order Path refers to level-1 faults (which only affect individual 2M tributaries).
MS-level alarms signify that the entire STM-1 signal is faulty.
PLM indicates that the type of payload received does not match the expected one. TIM
indicates that the received signal “name” is incorrect.
RDI signals the far-end that a fault has been detected in the incoming signal. REI merely
reports that a parity error has been detected.
RS = Regenerator Section AU = Administrative Unit
MS = Multiplexer Section TU = Tributary Unit
HP = Higher-order Path VC = Virtual Container
LP = Lower-order Path
AIS = Alarm Indication Signal PLM = PayLoad Mismatch
BIP = Bit Interleaved Parity RDI = Remote Defect Indication
LOF = Loss Of Frame REI = Remote Error Indication
LOM = Loss Of Multiframe TIM = Trace Identifier Mismatch
LOP = Loss Of Pointer UNEQ = Unequipped
LOS = Loss Of Signal
RA45355EN05GLA0 55
SDH Alarms
• LOS Loss of signal Drop in incoming optical power level

causes high bit error rate
• OOF Out of frame A1, A2 errored for ≥ 625 μs
• LOF Loss of frame If OOF persists for ≥ 3 ms
• RS BIP Error Regenerator Section Mismatch of the
recovered
• BIP Error (B1) and computed BIP-8 Covers the whole STM-N
frame
• RS-TIM Regenerator Section Mismatch of the accepted Trace
Identifier Mismatch and expected Trace Identifier in byte J0
• MS BIP Error Multiplex Section BIP Mismatch of the
recovered Error (B2) and computed N x BIP-24 Covers the
whole frame except RSOH
RA45355EN05GLA0 56
SDH Alarms
• MS-AIS Multiplex Section K2 (bits 6, 7, 8) = 111 Alarm Indication Signal for ≥ 3

frames
• MS-REI Multiplex Section Number of detected B2 Remote Error Indication errors
in the sink side encoded in byte M1 of the source side
• MS-RDI Multiplex Section K2 (bits 6, 7 8) = 111 for Remote Defect Indication ≥ z
frames (z = 3 to 5)
• AU-AIS Administrative Unit All ones in the AU pointer Alarm Indication Signal
bytes H1 and H2
• AU-LOP Administrative Unit 8 to 10 NDF enable 8 to 10 Loss of Pointer invalid
pointers
• HP BIP Error HO Path BIP Error (B3) Mismatch of the recovered and computed
BIP-8 Covers entire VC-n
• HP-UNEQ HO Path Unequipped C2 = 0 for ≥ 5 frames
RA45355EN05GLA0 57
SDH Alarms
Anomalies/Defects Detection criteria

• LP BIP Error LO Path BIP Error Mismatch of the recovered and computed BIP-8
(B3) or BIP-2 (V5 bits 1, 2) Covers entire VC-n
• LP-UNEQ LO Path Unequipped VC-3: C2 = 0 for ≥ 5 frames frames VC-m (m = 2,
11, 12): V5 (bits 5, 6, 7) = 000 for ≥ 5 multiframes
• LP-TIM LO Path Trace Mismatch of the accepted Identifier Mismatch and
expected Trace Identifier in byte J1 (VC-3) or J2
RA45355EN05GLA0 58
SDH Alarms

• LP-REI LO Path VC-3: Number of detected Remote Error Indication B3 errors in
the sink side encoded in byte G1 (bits 1, 2, 3, 4) of the source side VC-m (m = 2,
11, 12): If one or more BIP-2 errorsdetected in the sink side, byte V5 (bits 3) = 1
on the source side
• LP-RDI LO Path VC-3: G1 (bit 5) = 1 for ≥ z Remote Defect Indication frames VC-
m (m = 2, 11, 12): V5 (bit 8) = 1 for ≥ z multiframes (z = 3, 5 or 10)
• LP-PLM LO Path Mismatch of the accepted Payload Label Mismatch and
expected Payload Label in byte C2 or V5 (bits 5, 6, 7)
RA45355EN05GLA0 59
SDH Alarms

• HP-TIM HO Path Trace Identifier Mismatch of the accepted Mismatch and
expected Trace Identifier in byte J1
• HP-REI HO Path Number of detected B3
• Remote Error Indication errors in the sink side encoded in byte G1 (bits 1,2, 3, 4)
of the source side
• HP-RDI HO Path G1 (bit 5) = 1 for ≥ z
• Remote Defect Indication frames (z = 3, 5 or 10)
• HP-PLM HO Path Mismatch of the accepted
• Payload Label Mismatch and expected Payload Label in byte C2
• TU-LOM Loss of Multiframe H4 (bits 7, 8) multiframe X = 1 to 5 ms not recovered
for X ms
• TU-AIS Tributary Unit All ones in the TU pointer
• Alarm Indication Signal bytes V1 and V2
• TU-LOS Tributary Unit 8 to 10 NDF enable 8 to 10
• Loss of Pointer invalid pointers
RA45355EN05GLA0 60

TRM Principles NSN

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Transmission Principles

Transport Physical Layer Overview

1 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

Transport Physical Layer Overview

Learnining Element Objectives

2 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

PCM and the PDH

3 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

• It would be very wasteful of transmission resources if only 2Mbit/s signals were

4 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

5 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

There are two PCM systems recommended by the ITU:-

We will look at PCM 30.

6 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

The conversion of analogue signals (speech) into a

7 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

• This is where a “snapshot” of the analogue signal is taken.

8 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation)

9 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

This is where the “snapshot” sample is assigned a quantizing

10 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

Non-Linear Quantizing Table

11 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

12 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

Chan 3 11111011 10011000 00011011 10011011

13 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

System bit rate

The system bit rate can be calculated as follows:-

Sampling frequency X No of Time Slots X Bits per Time Slot

14 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

PCM 30 Frame TS0

Si 1 A Sa4 Sa5 Sa6 Sa7 Sa8

15 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

PCM 30 Frame TS 16 in Multiframe

NMFAS Chan 8 Chan 23 Chan 15 Chan 30

16 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

Plesiochronous Digital Hiearcy

4 x 2048 kbit/s 4 x 8448 kbit/s 4 x 34368 kbit/s 139264 kbit/s

17 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

18 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

Higher Order Frame Structures

SUBFRAME 1 SUBFRAME 2 SUBFRAME 3 SUBFRAME 4

1 to 10 1112 13 to 212 1 to 4 5 to 212 1 to 4 5 to 212 1 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 212

SUBFRAME 1 SUBFRAME 2 SUBFRAME 3 SUBFRAME 4

1 to 10 11 12 13 to 384 1 to 4 5 to 384 1 to 4 5 to 384 1 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 384

SUBFRAME 1 SUBFRAME 2 SUBFRAME 3 TO 5 SUBFRAME 6

1 to 12 13 14 15 16 17 to 488 1 to 4 5 to 488 1 to 4 5 to 488 1 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 488

19 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

Structure of E1 frame (2.048 Mbit/s)

32 TDM time slots (with 8 bits each / frame)

Time slot 0 is used for frame synchronization:

20 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

8Mbit/s 34Mbit/s 140Mbit/s

8Mbit/s 34Mbit/s 140Mbit/s

21 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

E1/T1/JT1 balanced interfaces cabling

22 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0

E1/T1/JT1 balanced interfaces cabling

23 © Nokia Siemens Networks RA45355EN05GLA0