METAL CASTING (Reference Book for MY4130)

By Prof. Karl B. Rundman Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering Michigan Tec
h. University
METAL CASTING
QUICKEST LEAST EXPENSIVE ROUTE TO A NEAR NET SHAPE PRODUCT
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 1. 1. 3. 6. 7. 10. 11. 11. 14. 16. 19. 22. 23. 24. 26. 26
. 27. 28. 30. 31. 32. 33. 33. 33. 35. 36. 39. 39. 40. 41. 43. 44. 45. 45. 46. 46
. 47. 47. 48. 49. 53. 53. I. INTRODUCTION Metal Castings, Metal Casting Process
Metal Casting Design Pattern Design Rapid Prototyping II. SAND CASTING PROCESSES
Sand Size Distribution Strength of Green Sand Permeability and Compactibility T
emperature Dependence of Green Strength Chemically Bonded Molding and Core Sand
Reclamation of Foundry Sand Sand Life Cycle Reclamation Systems III. OTHER CASTI
NG PROCESSES Precision Casting; Cosworth Process Rheocasting & Thixocasting Lost
Foam Casting Die Casting Squeeze Casting Investment Casting IV. MELTING OF META
LS AND ALLOYS Energy and Material flow in Cupola Melting Cold Blast Cupola Heat
of Combustion and Iron/Coke Ratio in Charge Energy of Melting and Energy Balance
in Cupola V. FLUID FLOW AND GATING DESIGN Laws of Mass and Energy Conservation
(Bernoulli’s Law) Velocity at Efflux Point (Mold Filling Time) Pressure at Interme
diate Point in Gating System (Gas Aspiration) Number of Gates in System Fluidity
of Molten Metals VI. SOLIDIFICATION AND PROCESSING OF METAL CASTINGS Intrinsic
and Extrinsic Factors Microscale-Dendritic Solidification Solidification on a Ma
croscale - Defect Production Controlled Thermal or Mechanical Treatment after Ca
sting Latent Heat of Solidification, Cooling Curves Steady State Heat Transfer P
rocesses - Fick’s First Law VII. HEAT TRANSFER AND SOLIDIFICATION IN INSULATING MO
LDS VIII. SHRINKAGE, RISER DESIGN Shrinkage in Metals During Solidification
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55. 55. 56. 57. 58. 60. 61. 62. 63. 69. 69. 71. 72. 73. 73. 73. 74. 76. 77. 77.
77. 79. 80. 81. 83. 84. 85. 91. 95. 101. 103. 104. 106. 110. 114 114. 115. 117.
120. 122. 122. 123. 125. 126. 128. 130.
Macroshrinkage Microshrinkage Riser Design Calculation of Modulus of Riser and C
asting Location of Riser, Size and Shape of Riser Number of Risers Casting Yield
IX. HEAT TRANSFER AND SOLIDIFICATION IN PERMANENT MOLDS Finite Element Analysis
of Solidification - Die Casting X. CONTINUOUS AND SEMI-CONTINUOUS CASTING Conti
nuous Casting of Steel Semi-Continuous Casting of Al Alloys, Free Machining Bras
s Microstructure of Continuous and Semi-Continuous Castings XI. SOLIDIFICATION,
BINARY SYSTEM Equilibrium Solidification Non-equilibrium Solidification The Sche
il Equation and Coring in Dendrites XII. ALUMINUM ALLOYS Aluminum Casting Alloys
Processing Processing and Microstructure of Several Selected Al Si Base Alloys
Alloy 356.2, Modification & Age Hardening Alloy 319.1, Grain Refinement with TiB
Alloy KS281, Phosphorous as a Nucleation Agent for Proeutectic b. XIII. ADDITIV
ES TO MOLTEN METAL XIV. CAST IRON Phase Equilibria in Fe - C- Si System, Stable
and Metastable Diagrams Gray Cast Iron, Section Size Effects and Inoculation, Ch
ill Wedges Mechanical Properties of Gray Cast Iron Ductile Cast Iron, Production
Microstructures of Hypereutectic Ductile Cast Irons Alloying of Cast Irons Mech
anical Properties of Ductile Cast Irons Austempered Ductile Cast Iron Compacted
Graphite Iron and Malleable Cast Iron XV. DEFECTS IN CASTINGS Gases in Metals Ho
t Tears Residual Stresses in Castings Residual Stress Measurements XVI. CAST STE
EL Peritectic Reaction, Segregation of Alloy Elements During Solidification Segr
egation of Alloying Elements During Solidification of Steel Melting and Refining
Steel Mechanical Properties of Cast Steel Weldability of Cast Irons and Steels
Selective Surface Hardening of Cast Steels and Irons
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131. 131. 134. 139. 140. 148.
XVII. CAST COPPER ALLOYS Brasses, Bronzes and Precipitation Hardening XVIII. HOM
OGENIZATION OF CASTINGS XIX. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS IN METAL CASTING Product Lif
e Cycle and the Environmental Concern Envelope RCRA, Lead Flow in Foundries
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I. Introduction
Metal Castings
Metal castings form integral components of devices that perform useful functions
for human beings, an idea shown schematically below:
DEVICE ENERGY MATERIALS
INFORMATION
Casting
USEFUL FUNCTION
Engineer
Design
Pattern Maker
Casting Engineer
Manufacturing Engineer
The cast component has a shape, size, chemical composition and metallurgical mic
rostructure which is determined by engineering decisions arrived at by: A. Desig
n Engineers (Mechanical Engineers) B. Pattern Makers (Skilled craftsman, CAD) C.
Casting Engineers ( Metallurgical Engineers) D. Manufacturing Engineers (Mechan
ical, Metallurgical Engineers) The engineering professionals that carry out this
process work together, sharing information so that the casting will perform as
intended in a timely and cost effective manner. It should be noted that the cast
ing may only be a small part of the useful device (usually in more sophisticated
devices like an automobile where there may be hundreds of components), or it ma
y be the entire device (simple device like a frying pan).
Metal Casting Process
The metal casting process is the simplest, most direct route to a near net shape
product, and often the least expensive. This process in its fundamental form re
quires a mold cavity of the desired shape and molten metal to pour into the mold
cavity. Humans beings have been producing castings for thousands of years, most
often pouring molten metal into molds made of sand. This is schematically shown
below, a figure defining the basic components of a mold cavity (cope, drag, par
ting line, riser, sprue, pouring basin, etc.), as well as that part of the molte
n metal handling system known as a ladle. The production of molten metal and mol
ds to make castings has traditionally been an art form, an expression of human c
reativity carried out both for aesthetic and practical reasons. The objective of
metal casting has been to produce useful implements for human consumption as we
ll as beautiful works of art. It is clear on examination of ancient art castings
as well as modern industrial castings that their production requires significan
t skill as well as technological know how. The ancient artisan used traditions a
nd learned skills passed down through the ages, as well as experience to produce
acceptable castings. The modern pro-
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ducer of industrial castings makes use of these same skills, but supplements the
m with an understanding of the fundamental principles of fluid flow, heat transf
er, thermodynamics and metallurgical microstructural development. MOLTEN METAL C
OPE (Upper half of sand mold) POURING CASTING CAVITY BASIN CORE RISER Q SPRUE PA
RTING LINE DRAG (Lower half of sand mold) Q Q Q
LADLE
RUNNER These latter engineering skills are used to help design a system which wi
ll allow the metal caster to produce a sound (pore free) casting, free from defe
cts (sand inclusions, slag, cracks, etc.), with the correct dimensions and combi
nation of mechanical properties to satisfy the designer’s requirements for the int
ended application. Producing a “good” casting requires a design effort to: 1. Create
a gating system (pouring basin, sprue, runner) to bring molten metal into the m
old cavity free from entrapped slag, sand or gases. 2. Provide a riser which fee
ds liquid metal into the casting cavity as the liquid is cooling and solidifying
(all liquid metals will shrink as they cool and most liquid metals will shrink
as they solidify). The riser may have to provide up to 5 - 7% by volume for the
casting as it solidifies. 3. Control heat flow, Q in the above figure, out of th
e casting so that the last liquid to solidify is in the riser. 4. Control the ra
te of heat flow so as to control the nature of the solidified product. Modern in
dustrial castings are produced by a wide variety of processes, processes which a
re broadly defined in terms of: I. The type of mold material (sand, permanent, e
tc.); II. The manner in which the molten metal is introduced into the cavity (gr
avity, pressure, vacuum); III. The state of the metal (percent which is liquid);
IV. The state of the mold cavity itself (air, vacuum, solid, gas). There are ma
ny examples of processes incorporating different combinations of the above which
are illustrated in Table 1 below. Each process illustrated in this table can ha
ve many different variations within each category. For example sand casting can
involve molds bonded with clay and water (so-called green sand mold) or the sand
grains can be bonded with a chemical resin of some type(so-called chemically bo
nded sand); die casting can be high pressure, low pressure, etc.
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In addition, combinations of two different processes can be present in a given p
rocess, i.e. it is common to utilize semi-permanent molds in some processes, whe
re the molds contain both metal and sand components. The combination selected fo
r a given application depends upon the availability of processes, limited only b
y the creativity and engineering capability of the metal caster. Table 1: Castin
g Processes, Mold and Metal Details Casting Processes Sand Casting I. Mold Mater
ial Sand( Bonded with clay and water or chemicals) Metal Metal Ceramic Sand (Unb
onded) Metal Sand Sand(Unbonded with Vacuum and Enclosing Plastic Film) Metal, G
raphite Metal or electromagnetic Field II. Manner of Entry Gravity III. State of
Metal 100% Liquid IV. State of Mold Cavity Air
Permanent Mold Die Casting Investment Lost Foam EPC Thixocasting Rheocasting Cos
worth V Process
Gravity Pressure Gravity Gravity Pressure Vacuum Gravity
100% Liquid 100% Liquid 100% Liquid 100% Liquid >50% Liquid Balance Solid 100% L
iquid 100% Liquid
Air Air Air, Vacuum, Gas Styrofoam, PMMA Air Air Air
Centrifugal Ingot - NOT Cast to Shape
Centrifugal Forces Gravity
100% Liquid 100% Liquid
Air, Gas Shroud Air or Gas Shroud
Metal Casting Design
The principles of successful casting design involve a systematic blend of experi
ence and engineering basics to allow the creation of a successful casting, from
inception through production. The major components of the design process are out
lined in the six steps listed below and described graphically and schematically
in the figure shown. Casting Design Steps 1. Physical Design of Part to be Cast
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Purpose of Casting (Size, Shape), Tolerances (manufacturing and engineering), Di
mensional change in processes, Relationship of this Part to Others to Optimize i
ts Design (Concurrent Engineering) 2. Material Selection for Part to be Cast Mec
hanical and physical properties, castability, section size sensitivity, fluid fl
ow properties 3. Pattern Production For Molds and Cores Gating and Riser Design,
Fluid flow and Heat Transfer 4. Casting Process Selection, Casting Production L
imitations due to metal cast, casting size, dimensional requirements Cost to Pro
duce 5. After Casting Processing Machining, heat treating, welding 6. Evaluation
of Cast Product The casting design process is an iterative procedure, requiring
excellent communication in all steps of the process. This communication is illu
strated through the use of arrows in the schematic below. Clearly the designer o
f the casting (often a mechanical engineer) needs to underCASTING DESIGN PROCESS
ENVELOPE Part Design (Function - size & shape, relationship to other parts) Con
current Engineering Material Selection and Fabrication Choice Casting Process Se
lection Solidification Simulation Pattern & Tooling For Production in Foundry Co
sting the Job Fluid Flow Simulation Solidification Simulation Prototype Producti
on Casting Production After Casting Processing (Machining, Welding, Heat Treatme
nt) Final Part Shipped
stand the fundamental material properties of the casting, its limitations as a m
aterial, and the limitations on the potential processes needed to produce that c
asting. General considerations by designers include: Minimize Section Size Chang
es; Eliminate Sharp Corners; Understand the Mechanical Property Requirements of
the Casting, the Machining Requirements, Tolerancing, the Locating Requirements,
the Handling Requirements, the Process Limitations, and How Statistical Methods
Can Be Used in Process Control. It is important for the design engineer to alwa
ys question the “old way” of making parts, to be aware of new technology so that the
“design envelope”
Evaluation (Mechanical & Physical Properties)
Final Part
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can be stretched to its ultimate. Once the material to be cast has been selected
and the casting process chosen, the designer will send drawings (CAD) to the fo
undry to answer the question, “Can this part be produced in a cost effective way a
s a casting?” Experienced pattern makers with the help of fluid flow and heat tran
sfer experts (often metallurgical engineers) will proceed to lay out the require
ments for the molds and the cores necessary to produce the part. At this point i
n the process, or even in the design stage, simulation of the solidification of
the proposed part is a desirable activity. Modern computers are currently being
used with powerful software packages to give a preview of solidification, illust
rating in color and in real time the path of solidification in the casting. This
methodology is important in reducing the time between design and prototype cast
ings, in providing valuable insight to the designer and the person who does the
gating and risering. Clearly a dialogue is needed between the pattern maker, the
casting engineer, and the designer to produce tooling to make acceptable castin
gs. This dialogue is illustrated as dashed lines on the above schematic. After t
he designer and pattern maker are satisfied that a viable casting is possible (a
process enhanced by the ability of the participants to talk in the same compute
r language, and for each to have a working knowledge of the other’s problems), the
foundry planning people will provide a cost estimate for the designer. Assuming
that the cost estimate is within the realm of reality, patterns are produced fo
r prototype castings. (If the cost is too high it will be necessary to return to
the drawing board and ask more hard questions.) General considerations applied
to the prototype castings by the casting engineer include: Evaluate Dimensional
Accuracy; Quantify Microstructural Integrity (presence of required microconstitu
ents, casting defects, porosity, shrinkage, other); Understand Response to Machi
ning, Heat Treatment or Welding; Determine Mechanical Properties in Critical Sec
tions. Rapid protoyping of castings is currently being used to reduce the time b
etween design and cast parts. Stereolithography, Selective Laser Sintering, Fuse
d Deposition Modeling, Laminated Object Manufacturing, Solid Ground Curing, and
Direct Shell Production Casting are some of the methods used to produce patterns
very quickly from the CAD models of the designer. These methods are described i
n a following section of this set of notes. It is also crucial that the casting
engineer learn that dimensional tolerances are important and that he/she underst
and the source of the dimensional changes resulting from the casting process as
well as the basic differences in achievable tolerances attained by different cas
ting processes (i.e. lost foam vs green sand vs investment,etc.). Improvements i
n design can be suggested at this stage of the process as illustrated in the abo
ve schematic, improvements which produce a better casting while at the same time
minimizing and reducing the cost and difficulty of production. Time Required to
Complete the Design Process The time required to take a casting from the design
stage through to satisfactory production will obviously depend upon many factor
s, but times ranging from 18 months (e.g., a new part produced by conventional p
rocesses or a minor change in an existing casting) to 5 years (e.g., a new part
or combination of parts produced by a new process) is not uncommon. Clearly it i
s to everyone’s advantage to minimize this time, an effort aided by good communica
tion between the various players in the drama, and in these times, wise use of s
olidification and fluid flow simulation, and rapid prototyping techniques. Two e
xamples contrasting a new design with a redesign are given below. EXAMPLE: New E
ngine Design - Kohler - TH1416 Overhead Cam Engine (14 - 16 hp) Old Engine - San
d Castings (Green Sand); 7 Castings in Upper Half (2 cylinder Heads, 2 Cylinders
, Upper Half of Block, Intake Manifold, Cam Housing), 4 in
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Lower Half (Lower Half of Block - Crank Housing, Stud Mounting Bosses, Oil Pump
and Filter, Starter Housing). 319 Aluminum alloy (See section on kAl alloy casti
ngs for microstructure description) This engine had been produced for a number o
f years as 11 different sand castings and assembled to make a satisfactory engin
e. The need to reduce cost and still improve the product led the design team to
consider new ways to produce castings. Enter the LOST FOAM process. New Engine -
Replace the seven castings in the old design with one Lost Foam Casting. Replac
e the four castings in the old design with one Lost Foam Casting. In this proces
s, 7 foam patterns are glued together to make one pattern for casting the upper
half, and 4 foam patterns are glued together to make the lower half. These assem
blies together with a sprue (the entry point for molten metal) then have sand co
mpacted and vibrated around them prior to pouring the casting. This change from
11 separate castings to 2 castings eliminates many manufacturing steps, from mac
hining to assembly. All of the gaskets and seals previously needed are eliminate
d. In this process even the oil passages are cast-in thereby eliminating the nee
d to drill holes. 319 Aluminum alloy Time Line - There is a significant learning
curve for the design team and the foundry which is producing the castings. This
new design has been in process for about 3.5 years. Prototype castings have bee
n produced and are being tested. EXAMPLE: Redesign of the Existing Head for a 35
00 Series Caterpillar Engine, so that the engine would run cooler. Gray Cast Iro
n (See sections in these notes on gray iron describing the microstructure and pr
operties) The designer came to the pattern shop with new ideas requiring larger
water passages so that the engine would run cooler (Late 1994). Modifications of
the pattern were made and prototype castings have been produced, with a very la
rge reduction in the temperature at which the engine would run. It is expected t
hat the new heads will be in production by late 1996. In this example the basic
casting and the casting process remained the same, gray iron poured into green s
and with suitable coring; thus a more rapid turn around time than the example of
the change in casting process from green sand to lost foam.
Pattern Design
Pattern making is a time - honored skill which is an integral part of the castin
g process. Patterns are routinely produced from wood, plastics, and metals depen
ding upon the complexity of the casting being produced, on the number of casting
s required and obviously on the capability of the pattern shop that is involved.
The design of patterns must include the following components: 1. An allowance f
or the solid state shrinkage that will always accompany the casting as it cools
from the melting temperature to room temperature. This will depend upon the meta
l being cast, each of which will have its own unique coefficient of thermal expa
nsion, α. For
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ex mple, α for luminum t 20 oC is 23.9 x 10-6 in/inoC, for iron is 11.7 x 10-6 i
n/inoC nd th t for copper is 16.5 x 10-6 in/in oC (see p ge 50 - 51). Thus the
line r dimensions of the p ttern will lw ys be l rger th n the c sting by n m
ount determined by the line r exp nsion coefficient. Of course the exp nsion coe
fficients for e ch of the bove m teri ls will ch nge somewh t with temper ture
nd so the p ttern m ker will usu lly give generous llow nce to cover the tem
per ture dependence of the exp nsion coefficient. 2. Inclusion of dr ft ngle
so th t the p ttern c n be removed from the mold (or in the c se of die c sting
or perm nent mold c sting, so the c sting c n be removed from the met l die) ft
er the molding s nd h s been r mmed round the p ttern. These dr ft ngles c n v
ry from one c sting to nother but ngles in the r nge 1 - 2 degrees re quite
common. 3. Inclusion of enough extr stock to llow for v ri tions in c sting di
mensions due to mold prep r tion, p ttern we r, etc. This mount will depend gre
tly upon the c sting process being employed. For ex mple the mount of “extr ” stoc
k will be typic lly gre ter for s nd c sting th n for die c sting. M chining
nd process toler nces re typic lly gre ter for s nd c stings th n for perm ne
nt mold c stings. Det ils on p ttern m king c n be found in sever l public tions
form the Americ n Foundry Society (AFS).
R pid Prototyping
(B sed on De n Peters’ rticle in Foundry M n gement nd Technology, June 1996) R
pid prototyping is technology th t llows the building of 3-D models (p tterns
or molds) by producing dditive l yer-by-l yer CAT sc n type slices of p tter
n in pl stics, w xes, or p per , or of CAT sc n type slices of mold in cer mic
s. “Perh ps no other technology since the invention of interch nge ble p rts nd
utom ted ssembly lines h s held s much promise for the compression of le d tim
es for newly designed p rts.” Some methods of ccomplishing such useful work re d
escribed below: Stereolithogr phy Stereolithogr phy is the process by which thre
e dimension l pl stic objects re cre ted directly from CAD d t . A. D t receiv
ed from CAD file is “sliced” into thin, horizont l cross sections. B. Next, n ult
r violet, softw re-guided l ser (HeCd), dr ws the first cross-section of the CAD
design on the surf ce of v t of ultr violet sensitive photopolymer,or liquid
pl stic. Where the l ser light touches the liquid photopolymer, it solidifies to
the precise dimensions of the cross section. C. When the first l yer is complet
ed, n elev tor within the system lowers the first solid pl stic l yer so the ne
xt l yer c n be pplied, reco ting the the solid l yer with liquid photopolymer
in prep r tion for the dr wing of the next cross-section. D. The thickness of e
ch l yer r nges from 0.003 - 0.015 in. E. The process continues until the entire
CAD file h s been tr nsformed into solid model, prototype, or c sting p ttern
. F. It is then removed from the v t nd begins brief fin l curing process ft
er which it c n
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be s nded, pl ted, or p inted. Sc nning Mirror Cured Resin (Model) L ser Pl tfor
m Lowers s P rt is Built
Resin Support L ttice
Build Pl tform
After Foundry, Sept 97
L min ted Object M nuf cturing L min ted object m nuf cturing is process by wh
ich three dimension l p per p rts re produced by l ser cutting of he t sensitiv
e p per. A. A single be m l ser cuts the outline of p rt “slice” from CAD file o
n sheet of he t sensitive p per. B. Once the cross section l outline is comple
ted, nother sheet of p per is l yered on top of the first, nd the configur tio
n of the next slice is tr ced by the l ser. Applic tion of he t then bonds the s
econd slice to the first, thereby producing the l min tes. C. This cutting nd l
min ting process is continued until the entire p rt is modeled. D. A prototype
results with the pproxim te consistency of wood. Optics X-Y Positioning Device
L ser
P per Supply Roll P per T ke-up Roll Built-Up P rt Block
Pl tform
Ex mple L yer Outline nd Crosssh tck
After Foundry, Sept 97
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Selective L ser Sintering Selective l ser sintering is process by which three
dimension l pl stic objects re cre ted directly from CAD file. A. D t is rec
eived from CAD file. B. A thin l yer of he t-fusible powder (such s polystyre
ne, polyc rbon te, poly mide) is deposited on the working pl tform of sinterst
tion m chine. C. The first cross section of the object is then tr ced out on th
e powder l yer by he tgener ting CO2 l ser. The temper ture of the powder imp
cted by the l ser be m is r ised to the point of sintering, fusing the powder n
d p rticles nd forming solid m ss. D. Another l yer of powder is then deposit
ed on top of the first, nd the process is repe ted until the finished prototype
is complete. Fused Deposition Modeling Fused deposition modeling is process b
y which three dimension l thermopl stic objects re built by depositing thermopl
stic m teri l in thin l yers. A. Solid or surf ce d t from CAD file is m the
m tic lly sliced into horizont l l yers. B. A temper ture controlled he d, drive
n by the CAD slices, extrudes thermopl stic m teri l (ABS, w x, poly mide) one
l yer t time. The thermopl stic modeling medium is 0.070 in. di meter fil
ment th t feeds into the temper ture-controlled m chine he d, where it is he ted
to semi-liquid st te. C. The he d extrudes nd precisely deposits the m teri
l in thin l yers onto fixtureless b se.The he d is controlled by toolp th d t
th t re downlo ded to the FDM system, which oper tes on X, Y, nd Z xes. D. A
s the m teri l solidifies it fuses to the previously deposited l yer. Solid Grou
nd Curing Solid ground curing is process by which photo-polymer resins re use
d to build up 3D p rt. A. The process st rts with Unix-b sed cross section g
ener tion of CAD file d t . B. An im ge of the first cross section is produced o
n n electrost tic lly ch rged er s ble gl ss pl te, forming photo m sk. C. A
l yer of photo-polymer resin is then spre d on fl t work pl tform. D. An ultr
violet light projected through the photo m sk solidifies the resin. E. The exces
s resin is then v cuumed w y, nd the solidified resin is surrounded by w x. F.
The entire l yer is then milled to uniform thickness. G. This process ( bout
70 seconds per l yer) is repe ted until ll cross sections re completed. H. The
w x is then melted off to yield the completed prototype model. Direct Shell Pro
duction C sting DSPC is process in which cer mic mold is produced by l yer
ing process, thereby elimin ting the need for p ttern. A. A mold is gener ted
in CAD file.
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B. A cer mic mold is built up by feeding cer mic powder to the CAD-gener ted sli
ce in the sh pe of the mold cross section. C. The cer mic is followed closely by
n ink jet printhe d which deposits liquid binder ccording to the p rt’s cross
section. D. This is followed by nother l yer of cer mic nd binder until the e
ntire mold h s been constructed. E. Once the mold is finished it c n be poured w
ith molten met l yielding the prototype c sting directly.
II. S nd C sting Processes
Molding s nds ccount for the production of the m jor qu ntity of c stings. S nd
is used in the r tio of s much s 10 tons of s nd per ton of met l to s littl
e s 1/4 ton of s nd per ton of met l depending upon the type nd size of c stin
g nd the molding method employed. The m jority of c stings re m de in green s
nd molds, molds whose m jor components re s nd (usu lly silic , SiO2), cl y suc
h s bentonite, nd w ter. The cl y - w ter combin tion is responsible for the b
inding ction between the s nd gr ins, nd c n be present in v rious mounts fro
m 5 to 50 percent by weight. A typic l green s nd might cont in 6 % cl y nd 3 %
w ter, m teri ls which re replenished s the molding s nd is reconstituted nd
reused g in nd g in. In the ide l world, the s nd gr ins would be reused for
ever. In ctu l f ct the s nd gr ins themselves suffer some ttrition due to mec
h nic l, therm l, nd chemic l tt ck in the course of their use nd so must be
repl ced on consistent b sis, usu lly through the production of cores. This “flo
w”of s nd in green s nd foundry is illustr ted below together with the flow of m
et l.
W ter Molding S nd Prep r tion Cl y Used S nd Molds Spent S nd Dust SAND AND MET
AL FLOW
Cores (New S nd)
Molten Met l
Mold Production
C sting Oper tion Solid Met l
Returns
C sting
Cle rly in foundry which is t ste dy st te (produces the s me weight c stings
d y in nd d y out) the mount of new s nd dded in cores must equ l the spent
s nd nd dust lost due to ttrition or for other re sons. In f ct in most foundr
ies, perfectly good s nd is l ndfilled every d y so s to b l nce the flow of m
teri l into nd out of f cility. In Michig n in 1991, pproxim tely 1,000,000
tons of s nd w s l ndfilled to produce bout 1,000,000 tons of c st product. A l
ittle reflection by the re der will bring the re liz tion th t wh t comes into
volume (the Pl nt) must lso le ve, otherwise it is likely to get very crowded
in hurry (the l w of continuity on l rge sc le).
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While silic is the molding medi which is used in l rgest qu ntity, other s nds
re lso utilized in the foundry for speci l pplic tons, including chromite, o
livine, g rnet, c rbon s nds (petroleum cokes) nd other refr ctory m teri ls th
t c n be obt ined with re son ble cost. Additives commonly used in molding s
nds includes cere l (finely ground corn flour) nd wood flour (cob flour, cere l
hulls) for improved flow bility of s nd nd coll psibility fter c sting, se c
o l ( finely ground co l) for improved surf ce finish, nd m ny other m teri ls
which find use in speci l pplic tions. Det ils on s nd, dditives, nd testing
of s nds c n be found in Principles of Met l C sting by Heine, Loper, nd Rosen
th l (1967), ch pters 5 nd 6, nd in the AFS S nd nd Core Testing H ndbook.
S nd Size Distribution
The properties of molding s nd depend strongly upon the size distribution of the
s nd th t is used, whether it is silic , olivine, chromite, or other ggreg te.
A typic l s nd th t could be used in green s nd foundry producing c st iron w
ould h ve s nd size distribution which would be described by most of the s nd
residing in size r nge which would be observed on four or five screens of st
nd rd sieve size distribution. A typic l distribution might look like the follo
wing:
30 25 20 Silic S nd 15 10 5 0
10
100 AFS Mesh Size
1000
Det ils on desir ble s nd size distributions for specific c sting situ tions nd
det ils on me surement of the size distributions c n be found in the AFS liter
ture.
The Strength of Green S nd
The strength of green s nd is inv ri bly determined with the id of wh t is c ll
ed “st nd rd r mmed s mple”, th t cylindric l s mple (when r mmed 3 times in n AF
S pproved r mming device) which h s dimensions of 2 inches in di meter by 2inch
es high. The strength of green s nds depends upon number of f ctors, including
the cl y nd w ter content, the type of cl y, the s nd size distribution, the t
emper ture of the s nd, the mount nd type of dditive, the degree of mulling o
r mixing, the extent of comp ction (number of r ms of testing m chine), the d
sorbed species (N or C ) etc. The d t below indic tes the effect of moisture f
or four screen s nd bonded with 7% western bentonite (montmorillonite cl y wit
h dsorbed N +) nd 7% southern bentonite (montmoril11
lonite cl y with dsorbed C ++). The d t points represent ctu l me sured d t
in the MY 4130 l bor tory. It c n be seen th t the green compressive strength go
es through n pp rent m ximum t bout 3 wt % moisture.
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Weight Percent Moisture
"Four Screen Silic S nd" 7 % Western Bentonite 7 % Southern Bentonite
She r strength me surements re lso used s n indic tor of green s nd’s streng
th, where the 2” x 2” st nd rd s mple is she red long the xis of the cylinder. Typ
ic lly she r strength d t is bout one fourth th t of compression results. This
c n be seen in the following l bor tory d t in which both green compression n
d green she r re plotted vs the number of r ms:
12
S nd D t , 98
30
Green Compression
25 20 15 10 5 0 1
Green She r
10 Number of R ms
100
Perh ps the most sensitive strength me surement is the tensile me surement, bec
use it is the binder which is being tested, pulled p rt. The other strength tes
ts, the compression nd she r test, reflect not only the binder strength but ls
o the interference of s nd gr ins s they ttempt to slide p st one nother unde
r the she r stresses which re developed during the test. Unfortun tely, the ten
sile test is very difficult test to do in consistent m nner nd is subject t
o very l rge sc tter bec use of experiment l inconsistencies. A c reful study by
Boenisch on the tensile strength of green s nds s function of the bove v ri
bles h s given better perspective on the import nce of the dsorbed species,
especi lly where the w rm strength (strength in the r nge 70 to 100oC)is
13
concerned. A schem tic of the tensile strength vs moisture content for s nd t r
oom temper ture cont ining 6% cl y is given below. 40
6% CLAY
Density
30 Strength 20
10 Perme bility 0 0 2 4 6 8 Weight Percent Moisture
It c n be seen th t the strength incre ses to m ximum t bout 3 percent moist
ure for 6 percent cl y binder, then f lls slowly out to 8 percent moisture. In
cre sing strength from 0 to 3 % reflects the t king on of w ter by the cl y resu
lting in swelling of the cl y p rticles,thereby pushing the s nd p rticles p rt
, resulting in reduced density nd incre sed perme bility. At bout 3% the cl y
becomes s tur ted with w ter; beyond this point the w ter merely fills sp ce in
the void volume, resulting in n incre se in density nd decre se in perme bilit
y nd tensile strength..
Perme bility nd Comp ctibility
Two other properties of green s nd molds which re quite import nt nd me sured
routinely in n oper ting foundry re comp ctibility nd perme bility. Comp ctib
ility is me sure of the bility with which the cl y-bonded s nd c n be p cked
round p ttern. It is simple me surement in which loose s nd is screened int
o 2” di meter x 4” high cylinder nd then fixed pressure of 140 psi is impressed
by piston which slides into the cylinder (See AFS Mold nd Core S nd H ndbook
for Det ils). This is property which is very sensitive to the mount of moist
ure in the s nd, nd is represented below for four screen s nd tested in the M
TU l bor tory.
Tensile Strength in oz / in.
14
50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 2 2.4 2.8 Percent Moisture 3.2 3.6
Four Screen Silic - 7% Western Bentonite nd 7% Southern Bentonite
Perme bility is me sure of the e se with which ir c n p ss through the s nd
ggreg te, property which is very sensitive to the s nd size distribution, most
ure nd cl y content nd degree of comp ction. Ag in, det ils bout this me sure
ment c n be obt ined form the AFS Mold nd Core S nd H ndbook. Typic l d t for
perme bility vs % moisture nd perme bility vs number of r ms for four screen
s nd obt ined t MTU re given below:
180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 2.5 3 3.5 Percent Moisture 4 4.5 5
Four Screen Silic S nd 7% Western Bentonite, 7% Southern Bentonite
It c n be seen in the perme bility vs. % moisture gr ph th t s w ter is dded,
the perme bility incre ses in ne rly line r m nner due to the swelling ction
of the cl y p rticles, thereby pushing the s nd p rticles further p rt nd m ki
ng more room for ir p ss ge. On the other h nd,
15
incre sing the number of r ms required to tt in 2” high specimen results in dr
m tic decre se in perme billty, n pp rent result of the closing off of some of
the continuous ir p ss ges.
S nd D t , 98
180 160 140 120 100 80 60 1 10 Number of R ms 100
Temper ture Dependence of the Green Tensile Strength
The profile of strength vs moisture shown bove is interesting in th t the stren
gth ppe rs to be well-beh ved function which rel tes directly to the bility
of the cl y p rticles to ccomod te the w ter molecules into nd onto the surf c
e of the cl y p rticles. In f ct it is known th t the w ter molecules effectivel
y exp nd the hex gon l l ttice of the cl y by t king up residence between the b
s l pl ne l yers of the structure. Me surements of the l ttice sp cing of the b
s l pl nes illustr ted exp nsion in discrete steps corresponding to successive l
yers of w ter. At bout 3 percent moisture the cl y l ttice c nnot bsorb ny m
ore w ter nd so exp nsion ce ses. As the s nd he ts
16
up when in cont ct with the molten met l during c sting, the strength properties
will ch nge dr m tic lly s is illustr ted in the schem tic di gr m below.
Room Temper ture
Adsorbed Sodium No Sodium
80 oC
o 95 C
Percent Moisture
The room temper ture curve is typic l of s nd bonded with Western Bentonite, w
hose cl y miner l is predomin ntly montmorrilonite (Al2Si5 O5(OH)2). In ddition
the montmorrilonite h s signific nt qu ntity of dsorbed N . It is thought th
t this dsorbed species pl ys n import nt role in m int ining the w rm strengt
h of green s nd, very import nt property in the short time th t c sting is f
illing with molten met l nd in the time before signific nt solidific tion h s o
ccurred. Boenisch nd others h ve surmized th t the bonding mech nism needed to
expl in the bove temper ture dependence requires two sep r te nd distinct mode
ls of how the w ter is involved with the s nd nd the cl y, low moisture model
involving pol rized w ter molecules on both cl y nd s nd nd high moisture m
odel involving ionic bonds between the N ions nd the w ter molecules. The pol
r bonding t low moisture is referred to s rigid w ter bonding nd the ionic w
ter bonding t high moisture is referred to s bridge bonding. The pol r bonds
re thought to be quite we k nd re very temper ture dependent, while the ionic
bonds re rel tively strong nd therefore less temper ture dependent. Confirm ti
on of the model comes when the dsorbed ionic species re removed from the cl y
by n ion exch nge process; the result is the room temper ture
17
properties t high moisture dropping r pidly to zero s shown bove.The two bond
ing models proposed re simply represented below:, where F represents she r fo
rce
Rigid W ter Bonding “Velcro Effect” Pol r Bonds Rigid W ter F
S nd Gr in F Cl y
Ionic W ter Bonding “Bridge” F
S nd Gr in
F + Cl y N +
Implic tions of the bonding in green s nd molds for the qu lity of c stings rel
tes to events th t occur in the short time while the met l is still molten, when
ny cr cks or sp lls in the s nd surf ce could be filled with molten met l ther
eby resulting in defects on the surf ce of the c sting. Defects produced t this
time re ffection tely c lled r tt ils, buckles nd sc bs. The scen rio th t p
romotes this situ tion is shown below:
Dry S nd In Compression
Room Temper ture S nd
Molten Met l
W rm, Wet S nd In Tension
When the molten met l hits the green s nd surf ce, drying of the s nd nd ev por
tion of the w ter begins immedi tely.W ter v por is driven out into the cool gr
een s nd nd condenses, r ising the me n moisture content of the s nd in the l y
er next to the dry w rm s nd. Of course, the dry s nd is exp nding s result o
f the he ting thereby putting the wet w rm s nd in tension. If the w rm s nd h s
no or little tensile strength the s nd will f il m king conditions ripe for buc
kling of the dry s nd l yer. If this h ppens before the molten met l h s solidif
ied the molten met l will penetr te the resulting buckle very quickly producing
surf ce defect on the c sting. Surf ce defects on c stings re, therefore, mor
e prev lent when the w rm wet strength of the s nd is low. This condition occurs
when the cl y binder h s insufficient qu ntity of the dsorbed spe-
18
cies which ccount for ionic bridge bonding, th t portion of the bonding mech ni
sm which is so import nt t high moistures nd temper tures (see the Figure on t
he top of p ge 18). An ex mple of the import nce of bridge bonding occurred to
Germ n foundry which experienced r sh of c sting surf ce defects shortly fte
r ch nge w s m de in the w ter supply for the foundry, w ter supply which co
nt ined l rge qu ntity of chloride ion content. It w s eventu lly discovered t
h t the chloride ion in the w ter supply w s le ching the N ion out of the bind
er, thereby reducing the bridge bonding c p bility. The s nd strength w s beh vi
ng in the m nner predicted by the dotted line in the Figure on p ge 18.
Chemic lly Bonded Molding nd Core S nd
A signific nt fr ction of s nd molds nd virtu lly ll cores re bonded chemic l
ly with from 1 -2 wt.% binder. The bulk of the binder m teri ls re org nic, lt
hough there re some inorg nic binder systems s well. The three m jor c tegorie
s of binders re I. V por Cured (Cold Box), II. No B ke, nd III. He t Cured. De
t ils on e ch of these three c tegories re given below: I. V por Cured (Cold Bo
x) - resin + s nd + v por Process - Mix resin with s nd, Comp ct or Blow round
room temper ture p ttern, Re ct with G s, Strip p ttern from s nd. Use bout 1 -
1.5 % resin Ex mples: 1. Sodium silic te + CO2 g s (mid 50s) 2. Fur n + SO2 g s
(mid 70s) 3. Phenolic Ureth ne + TEA or DMEA g s (e rly 70s) Adv nt ges: No he
t, r pid cure, good dimension l ccur cy II. No B ke - Resin + s nd + liquid c t
lyst Process - Mix resin with liquid c t lyst, Comp ct or Blow round room temp
er ture p ttern, Strip P ttern, W it for setting to be complete. 1 - 1.5 % resin
Ex mples: 1. Sodium silic te + liquid ester 2. Phenolic Ureth ne + liquid mine
3. Fur n + phosphoric cid Adv nt ges: no he t, higher strengths, good dimensio
n l ccur cy III. He t Cured - (Hot Box) - resin + s nd + he t Process - S nd is
preco ted with resin, S nd is blown or dropped onto hot p ttern, S nd rem ins f
or period of time until resin melts nd bonding is complete, P ttern is stripp
ed. Use bout 2 - 3 % resin Ex mples: 1. Oil Core - linseed oil - l te 1600s 2.
Shell process - l te 40s in Germ ny 3. Fur n nd Phenolic Adv nt ges: higher str
ength th n cold box or no-b ke, good dimension l ccur cy. Chemic lly bonded cor
es nd molds h ve in gener l much higher tensile strengths th n green s nd, typi
c lly in the r nge 100 - 500 psi, strength which v ries with mount of resin,
type of resin, moisture level in core or mold,time fter setting h s begun, etc.
The effect of the mount
19
of resin on the tensile properties h s been determined for no-b ke binder used
t MTU c lled Nov th ne, product of Ashl nd Chemic l. This rel tionship is il
lustr ted below:
200
Nov th ne
160 120 0.7 24 Hours fter Stripping 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 Weight Percent Resin 1.2 1.
3
The use of chemic l binders for m king molds h s some obvious dv nt ges; for ex
mple gre ter longevity of the mold nd higher strengths . Bec use w ter is not
p rt of the bond in chemic lly bonded molds nd cores, they do not h ve to be “p
oured off” immedi tely fter prep r tion. Green s nd will lose moisture with time,
thereby shrinking nd signific ntly ffecting mold dimensions, not to mention t
he dded possibility of h ving runouts on the p rting line. Some chemic lly bond
ed s nd molds h ve excellent longevity, c n be kept on the shelf for extended pe
riods of time nd selected s needed. Unfortun tely however, most chemic lly bon
ded s nds will bsorb some moisture from the ir with time on the shelf, nd bec
ome signific ntly we ker in the process. This is much gre ter problem in the s
ummertime th n in the winter. The two to three orders of m gnitude difference in
tensile strength between green s nd nd chemic lly bonded s nd c n be understoo
d by considering the n ture of those bonds. Cl y nd w ter is extremely pl stic
( result of the we k pol r bonds), one s nd gr in sliding e sily over nother i
n response to she r force. On the other h nd, the chemic l bond involves very
strong direction l bonding within the polymeric (or inorg nic) chemic l which h
s been formed in the re ction. As result the pl sticity of these types of bond
s is very low comp red to the cl y-w ter bond. Of course, these high strengths
re bsolutely necess ry for cores which lmost lw ys h ve much l rger st tic st
resses present th n is observed in molds. Obviously the more intric te nd sm ll
er the core, the gre ter the need for strength. The mount of binder m teri ls c
onsumed in US found-
20
ries over the l st 35 ye rs ( nd projected to the ye r 2000) is shown below. Thi
s gr ph gives n
150,000
Core Oil PUNB & PUCB Shell Other
100,000
50,000
0 1960 1970 1980 1990 PUNB - Phenolic Ureth ne No B ke PUCB - Phenolic Ureth ne
Cold Box From M rch, 1995 Foundry M n gement & Technology - P ul C rey Ye r 2000
indic tion of the import nce of these binder m teri ls in m king cores nd molds
.Considering th t the mount of resin used is bout 1 - 2 % of the s nd weight,
the tot l mount of binder used in 1990 (~130,000 tons) me ns th t pproxim tely
8.7 million tons of s nd were used to bond cores nd molds. The l rgest fr ctio
n is used in m king cores, which in turn re l rgely used in green s nd molds. T
his is consistent with the rough mount of s nd delivered to l ndfills in 1990 o
f bout 10 million tons. Rec lling th t xiom “Wh t goes in must come out”, it is cl
e r then th t the m jority of the s nd ending up in l ndfills is direct result
of the ddition of chemic lly bonded cores. The bove figure illustr tes the eb
b nd flow of technology in the rel tive mounts of the different kinds of binde
rs used. Notice th t the mount of oil core binder use (which m de up the bulk o
f ll binder used in 1960) is projected to lmost dis ppe r by the ye r 2000. Th
e production of oil cores is time consuming, energy intensive nd requires gre t
c re in h ndling; their production requires moving soft nd e sily deformed gre
en cores into n oven to be cured. An excellent ex mple of this proces c n be ob
served t the Grede Foundry in Kingsford, MI, frequent tour destin tion for th
e MY 4130 l bor tory. The demise of oil cores h s been repl ced with other proce
sses, most not bly the use of phenolic ureth ne in cold processes (room temper t
ure). This w s in p rt response to the energy crisis in the 1970s nd 80s, whe
re foundries worked h rd to reduce their dependence on direct energy use to prod
uce cores nd molds. It is interesting to note th t the shell process, which is
he t ctiv ted nd w s discovered in the 1950s, is still n import nt pl yer in
the binder business. This is bec use shell molds nd cores re much stronger th
n those produced by the cold process binders, nd so h ve survived in m ny ppli
c tions requiring higher strengths nd good dimension l control. The shell proce
ss nd the cold box phenolic ureth ne binder method c n lso be observed t the
Grede foundry.
21
Recl m tion of Foundry S nd
Recl m tion of foundry s nd me ns “to m ke like new”. As result of the processes e
ncountered by foundry s nd before, during, nd fter the c sting oper tion, m ny
of the s nd gr ins (both in the cores nd the molds) re no longer s they were
before the process beg n. As is true of most m teri ls in service, s nd experie
nces therm l, chemic l, nd mech nic l inputs during its lifetime. Some of the s
pecific ex mples of e ch of these re illustr ted below: Therm l Stress - A s nd
gr in close to the molten met l c n experience severe therm l gr dients from on
e side of the s nd gr in to nother. The low therm l conductivity of this m teri
l me ns th t fr cture of the s nd gr in c n occur due to the mism tch cre ted w
hen one side of the s nd gr in exp nds (hot side) while the cold side does not w
nt to exp nd. Fr ctured s nd gr ins me n th t sm ller p rticles re cre ted, so
-c lled fines, which re not desir ble in molding s nd ggreg te prim rily bec
use of the neg tive effect th t fines h ve on the perme bility of the s nd. Wit
h silic s nd, these problems of exp nsion nd contr ction re ex gger ted bec u
se of the ph se ch nges which silic s nd goes through s it is he ted to high t
emper tures. Chemic l Ch nge - The binders used to cre te ggreg tes th t re bo
nded together before nd fter m king c stings c n re ct with the s nd gr in or
under the influence of he t be ch nged chemic lly so th t the p rticul r gr in c
ould be in situ tion where it could no longer be re dily bonded to other s nd
gr ins. The effectiveness of the binder would then be reduced. There re m ny sp
ecific ex mples of these kinds of situ tions between the cl y binders used in gr
een s nds nd the org nic binders used to produce cores. Mech nic l Stresses - T
he s nd h ndling system provides ch llenge for s nd gr ins which re subjected
to br sion nd imp ct by other s nd gr ins. This h ppens prim rily when the s
nd is being tr nsported from one st tion to nother within the foundry. This rou
gh tre tment c n result in gr in fr cture or sp lling which cre tes fines, nd t
he problems the fines gener te. The worst tre tment comes in pneum tic systems w
here the gr ins re tr nsported through tubes t high velocities, rubbing into
nd colliding with e ch other nd the cont iner. Tr nsport on conveyors or in buc
kets minimizes this type of rough cont ct. An ide l s nd h ndling system would,
fter the c stings re produced, remove ll of the fine p rticles in the system,
scrub the unw nted chemic l l yers of of those gr ins th t h ve been so ffecte
d, nd t ke new s nd into the system so th t the proper s nd size distribution i
s m int ined. Unfortun tely there re no ide l h ndling systems nd e ch foundry
must determine the qu ntity
22
of new s nd necess ry to dd to m int in the desir ble properties of the s nd. T
he effects of the bove conditions on “S ndy the S nd” gr in re shown below:
H ppy Gr in
Fresh Binder on Whole S nd Gr in Re cted Binder on Fr ctured S nd Gr in
Unh ppy Gr in
S nd Life Cycle
A typic l life cycle of foundry s nd in green s nd foundry involves s nd being
tr nsported through the process in the following w y: 1. Enter s new s nd for
core m king 2. Binder is combusted either completely or p rti lly, freeing the s
nd gr ins to enter the green s nd system to be reused over nd over. 3. Fin lly
through ttrition the s nd gr in le ves the system through the dust collector,
or is purposely removed to m ke room in the system. This is illustr ted in the f
ollowing schem tic
Core S nd Core Molten Met l Mold Green S nd
“Sh ken Out” S nd
“Sh ken Out” C sting
Adhering S nd Removed in Cle ning Room nd Sent to
L ndfill or Recl m tion
23
The “sh ken out” s nd cont ins s nd in v riety of conditions depending upon the se
verity of the inter ctions (chemic l, mech nic l, therm l) within the s ndh ndli
ng nd prcessing system. These v rious components include: 1. Green s nd un ffec
ted by the he t of the c sting process (th t s nd removed from the immedi te vic
inity of the c sting). This component would likely be the l rgest component nd
would include the w rm wet s nd illustr ted in the sketch on p ge 18. 2.Core s n
d in which the binder h s been combusted to the extent th t the s nd gr in is no
longer bonded to its neighbors. This component will cont in ll degrees of comb
ustion from s nd which h s been m de “like new” by the he t of the process to gr ins
which re still covered with p rti lly combusted binder, or uncombusted binder
which h s fr ctured in h ndling or t sh keout. This component is likely to be t
he second l rgest component of the “sh ken out” s nd. 3. Green s nd in the immedi te
vicinity of the c sting, the “he t ffected s nd”. This cl y bonded s nd will to
l rge extent h ve h d its binder destroyed by the he t from the c sting process.
This component will lso likely be quite l rge, g in depending upon the c stin
g size nd sh pe. 4. Core butts, those p rts of the cores which h ve not been f
fected enough by the he t or mech nic l h ndling during nd fter sh kout to dis
integr te. These chunks c n m ke up signific nt p rt of the sh ken out s nd,
g in depending upon the size of the cores, nd especi lly upon the temper ture o
f the met l poured (iron is much hotter th n luminum nd therefore would be exp
ected to better bre k down the cores in the c sting). 5. Dust nd fines resultin
g from therm l nd mech nic l stresses of the process. This would m ke up sm l
l fr ction of the weight of the sh keout s nd nd would be removed in the dust c
ollection system. In most green s nd systems the core butts (No. 4 bove) re sc
reened out nd sent to the l ndfill nd the dust (No.5 bove) is removed in b gh
ouses or wet scrubbing systems. This le ves ll of the rem ining s nd to reenter
the green s nd system for reuse where cl y nd w ter is dded to newly bond the
core s nd component (which h s no cl y binder) nd the burnt green s nd compone
nt (which needs new binder). Unfortun tely the component of burnt core s nd whic
h h s not h d the binder completely combusted does not re dily ccept the cl y w
ter binder nd neither does the s nd cont ining the burnt cl y. Thus, unless
signific nt fr ction of the green s nd feed stock is removed from the system nd
new s nd is dded the properties of the green s nd will diminish with time nd
c sting qu lity will decre se. Most oper ting foundries will therefore simult ne
ously dd new s nd to the system nd l ndfill cert in fr ction of used system
s nd. This is n expensive process, especi lly when it costs more to “throw w y” s
nd th n it does to buy it new.
Recl m tion Systems
At this point in time most foundries continue to l ndfill l rge qu ntities of s
nd,but bec use of the ever rising costs to l ndfill re seriously considering re
cl m tion to m ke their throw w y s nd “like new”, to be used in the production of
cores. This desire on the p rt of foundries h s sp wned l rge number of comp n
ies which build recl m tion systems. The bulk of these systems rely on therm l
nd mech nic l methods to scrub or cle n the s nd gr in surf ces. Chemic l method
s involve liquids, nd h ndling l rge qu ntities of liquids simply gener tes n
ew environment l problem. As result there re no foundries th t nticip te cle
ning s nd gr ins chemic lly.
24
Mech nic l systems currently v il ble involve vibr ting screens, r pidly rot ti
ng impellers which throw s nd g inst met l or rubber surf ces, nd pneum tic sy
stems which scrub s nd gr ins g inst one nother in series of tubes. The obje
ctive in ll of these processes is to sep r te one s nd gr in from nother,to re
move the spent binder from the surf ce of the gr ins, nd to return the s nd gr
in to the system re dy for nother co t of new binder. Therm l systems re desig
ned to combust the s nd gr in surf ce l yers (especi lly effective with p rti ll
y or uncombusted org nic core nd mold binders), removing them to the tmosphere
or scrubber system to c pture obnoxious combustion g ses. Combin tions of mec
h nic l nd therm l systems c n be used to m ximize the recovery of s nd. These
systems re designed to h ndle th t portion of the s nd system which w s formerl
y thrown w y, which includes core butts nd the excess s nd removed from the sy
stem to m int in s nd qu lity. Unfortun tely this l tter component cont ins si
gnific nt qu ntity of s nd which does not need recl m tion, nd good fr ction
which does need recl m tion goes merrily on its w y to green s nd processing. Th
is dilemm results from the current sh keout pr ctice which is designed to mix
ll of the bove s nd components together t the point of sh keout. Cle rly bet
ter w y in principle would be to sep r te nd segreg te these components t sh k
eout. Consider n ltern te system to the one on p ge 23 below:
Core S nd Core Molten Met l Mold Green S nd
S nd
Un ffected S nd Goes Direct To Reuse in System Burnt S nd nd Core S nd C sting
With Core nd Burnt Green S nd Recl m tion Dust to B ghouse or Altern te Use
This is truly n ide l system, one which design engineers should strive to devel
op.
25
III. Other C sting Processes
Precision C sting Processes
This term implies ne r net sh pe (or s close s possible) nd re designed to m
inimize or elimin te m chining fter c sting. In gener l, bec use of the require
d tight dimension l toler nces these processes h ve molds which re very rigid;
they c n include perm nent molds or very h rd expend ble molds. Processes which
re considered to be precision c sting processes include investment c sting, die
c sting, perm nent molding processes nd the Cosworth process. Die c sting nd
perm nent molding processes involve using perm nent molds together with either g
r vity c sting(perm nent molding) or pressure ssisted c sting (die c sting). In
vestment c sting nd the Cosworth process utilize dispos ble molds produced with
ggreg te cer mic m teri ls which re used only once. Investment c sting h s be
en used for centuries nd the process is well known(see previous h ndout). Mold
m king is time consuming process which necess rily drives up the cost of the p
roduct c sting. In ddition, remov l of the c sting from the mold nd core ssem
bly is often times difficult nd time consuming s well. In some inst nces the f
ired refr ctory co ting h s to be removed by dissolution in c ustic medi . Coswo
rth Process The Cosworth process (referred to s the precision s nd process) is
new process to produce luminum lloy c stings, developed in the mid 70’s to mee
t highly speci lized needs of Formul One r cing c rs m nuf ctured by Cosworth E
ngineering,Ltd. in Engl nd. In this process, molten met l
COSWOR TH PROCESS Fur n-bonded Zircon S nd Mold
Electric Holding Furn ce & Pump
Controlled Bottom Filled Mold Using Electrom gnetic Pump Inert G s
is pumped with n electrom gnetic pump up into the mold from the bottom of the m
old in very controlled m nner. Benefits include: 1.Improved levels of ccur cy
nd integrity 2.Very little porosity
26
3. Excellent surf ce det il 4. Excellent mech nic l properties 5. Virtu lly no c
le ning nd finishing costs 6. Minimum m chining 7.High c sting yield The high c
sting yield results from the minim l g ting system. Minimum porosity results fr
om the controlled m nner in which the molten met l enters the mold nd the prese
nce of n inert tmosphere over the molten met l. Rheoc sting nd Thixoc sting O
ther c sting processes which re innov tive nd h ve potenti l for future develo
pment include Rheoc sting nd Thixoc sting.
RHEOCASTING In rheoc sting, the lloy is he ted into the liquid ph se • eld nd th
en cooled b ck into the two ph se liquid plus solid region, where it is stirred
nd subsequently injected s slurry into die. Solid l α + α A l B α+β l+β β
α
INJECTION
α
Liquid As Stirred
α+β As Solidi• ed


Adv nt ges of rheoc sting include gre tly reduced die we r ec use of the much l
ower injection temper tures, minimum shrink ge nd gre tly refined microstructur
l sc le. Pr ctic l limit tions include use with low melting point met ls nd th
ose lloys with wide freezing r nge. In ddition speci lized stirring equipmen
t is needed to m int in liquid properties prior to injecting. In THIXOCASTING

th
e lloy is he ted only into the two ph se region (to B)until

it cont ins out 5
0 % solid nd liquid. At this point the ch
rge c n still e h ndled s solid,
the liquid-solid

mixture holding together
y surf ce tension forces. This volume
c n then e pl ced into die nd then su jected to forces which result
in the
solid-liquid mixture flowing in response to those forces. It is s id to e thixo
tropic(like c tsup).

Adv nt ges include low energy costs
for melting, minimiz ti
on of shrink ge pro lems,distortion is kept to minimum ec use of reduced temp
er ture gr dients, etc.
27
Lost Fo m or Ev por tive P ttern C sting The lost fo m process is n economic l

method of producing complex,

close-toler nce c stings, nd in recent ye rs h s
een growing in popul rity y c sting designers. Lost fo m c stings re
G ting


C sting nd G ting P ttern Assem ly


P ttern in Vi r ted S nd


Refr ctory Co ted Assem ly
C sting in S nd



m de (see ove schem tic) y prep ring
p ttern of polystyrene or polymethyl
m
eth cryl te, tt ching it to suit le g ting system,
co ting the whole
ssem

l
y with refr

ctory slurry (silic or lumin ), nd urying it in ed of un on
ded s nd vi r ted nd jolted round the p ttern. After this the molten met l is
poured into

the mold, v porizing the p ttern nd repl cing it with molten met l
which su sequently solidifies. The s nd is then removed nd the c sting retrieve
d. The p tterns re dimension lly
precise nd often very complex. In principle t
here is no need for cores, there y s ving dr m
tic lly on sp ce nd m teri ls in
the foundry. The fo m p tterns re often
ssem
led into clusters of c stings (d
epending

upon the c sting) nd dried efore em edding in s nd. The loose s nd is
vi r ted to
comp ct round the fo m p ttern, critic l step which h s two purp
oses; the un onded s nd is tr nsported into nd round the nooks nd
cr nnies wi
thin the p ttern nd it is tightly p cked to form dimension lly st le ggreg
te

which must rem in without signific nt shifting during the c sting process. Vi
r tion p r meters
of signific nce re dur tion, direction, frequency, nd mpli
tude. In principle oth of the p ttern m teri ls mentioned will first melt
nd t
hen v porize when the molten met l is poured into the fo m, rele sing com ustion
products into the loose s nd, where some of them promptly
condense. Other produ
cts esc pe into the tmosphere


where they re c ptured y the ventill tion syste
m nd put through scru ers. Unfortun tely the ctu l sequence of
28
events th t occurs when met l hits fo m is
quite complex, depending upon the tem
per ture of

the molten met l nd the fo m
eing used. The two
common fo ms used
re descri ed structur lly nd chemic


lly elow. It should e noted th t the pol
ystyrene cont ins

rel tively

st le enzene ring s p rt of the monomer,

f
ctor which inhi
its com ustion. On the other h nd the PMMA h s less c r on, doe

s not cont in enzene ring nd in ddition cont ins
oxygen, which ids in com
ustion. The net result is th t the PMMA h s less c r on deposition defects th n
the polystyrene.

POL YSTYRENE (Styrofo m®) H C H H H H Oxygen toms id com ustion
POL YMETHYL
METH
ACR YLA TE (Plexigl ss) H C H H C H C C H C C H Benzene ring inhi its com ustion
C H C C O C H O
H C
92.3 % C 7.7 % H
55.8 % C 7.0 % H 37.2 % O


Recently one m nuf c turer of m rine engines h s dded pressure ch m er to the
ir lost

fo m line. After pouring the c sting the mold is inserted into pressur
e ch m er, the lid is closed nd pressure is pplied during the time th t the c
sting is solidifying. This mech nic l ction reduces shrink ge porosity nd refi
nes the c st structure resulting in much improved f tigue properties. ADVANTAGES
OF LOST FOAM PROCESS

(Oct.,1990 , Foundry M n gement nd Technology) 1. Design


freedom. Just out ny sh
pe is f ir g me. 2. C sting configur tion flexi ility
. Thin w lls, zero dr ft, ckdr fts, undercuts & keyw ys. 3. C st-in met l inse
rts re e sily dded to the p ttern. 4.Prototype c sting development time nd
co
st usu lly gre tly reduced. 5.Complex p rts m de in production qu ntities c n e
come very cost competitive. 6.Coring required in most complex c stings
is no lon
ger needed. 7.As-c st surf ces of most fo m c stings re quite ccept le. 8. P
rting lines nd ssoci ted costs

to grind them off re elimin ted. 9. M chining
costs reduced or elimin ted ec use of tight
toler nces

nd ne r net sh pe resul
t. 10. Pr ctic lly ll met ls
nd lloys c n e c st y the process. 11.C sting
qu lity is e sily

controlled y use of
SPC techniques. CHALLENGES FOR LOST FOAM
1. Emission pro lems ssoci ted
with “ lowing” fo m p tterns nd with g ses produced
in the c sting process. 2. St ility of fo m p tterns over time; i.e. shelf lif
e. 3. Deform tion of p tterns during

comp ction. 4. Uniform v poriz tion of fo m
during c sting nd remov l of com ustion products. 5. Remov l of refr ctory co
ting from c sting surf ce.
29


DIE CASTING Die c sting is process where y molten met l (usu lly low melting
point m teri l like Al, Zn or Mg lloys) is injected under pressure into perm
nent mold (usu lly high melting point ferrous met l, hot worked tool steel
such s H-13 [0.35C, 1.5 Mo, 5 Cr, 1 V] or H-21 [0.35 C, 9 W, 3.5 Cr] h rdened t
o 45 - 48 RC). The pressure die c sting process h d its origin in typec sting (
lloys of le d, ntimony nd tin) m
chines, which h d re ched high level of ut
om tion nd mech nic l efficiency y the mid 1800s {B rton, “Die C
sting: P st, Pr
esent, nd Future.” Engineers Digest,

35, 9, 53
- 59 (1974)}. The ulk
of the die
c stings produced tod
y re done y the Hot
Ch m er Process (mostly Zn se llo
ys) nd the Cold Ch m er Process
(mostly Al se lloys). Schem tic di gr ms of
these processes re illustr ted elow nd re d pted from sketches of A.J. Cleg
g in his text “Precision C sting Processes”.
COLD CHAMBER PRESSURE DIE CASTING Aluminum, Copper B se Alloys Met l In Plunger
Die C vity
Plunger
Shot Sleeve Die Set (Tool Steel) Fixed Pl ten
Port
Molten Met l
Moving Pl ten
Holding Furn ce
HOT CHAMBER PRESSURE DIE CASTING Zinc B se Alloys


In the hot ch m er process, signific nt p rt
of the met l delivery system is i
n const nt cont ct with the molten met l, there y cre ting the
opportunity for s
olution (dissolving) of the
delivery system in the met l to e c st. Bec use of
this tendency, the hot ch m
er m chine is used exclusively
for the production of
the low melting point zinc se lloys. In the cold ch m er m chine,
e ch “shot” is
l dled into the shot sleeve prior to injection of the met l there y minimizing


the deterior tion of the met l delivery

system. Thus luminum nd copper se
l
loys re produced in the cold ch m er m chine. Bec use of the intim te cont ct
etween the molten met l nd the high conductivity die sets, the c stings solidif
y
very r pidly in comp rison to s nd c stings,
often requiring only few second
s etween “shots”.
Cores m de of w ter solu le s lt re occ sion lly inserted into
the die c vity efore the shot
nd then dissolved

in w
ter fter c sting. Very
complex c stings (m rine engine locks) c n e produced y this process.
30
Squeeze C sting


Squeeze c sting is hy rid m chine c sting process which com ines fe tures of f
orging nd c sting

in one oper tion. M ny die c stings re produced in which the
re is no possi le w y to elimin te microshrink ge, situ
tions in which the r te
of solidific tion nd the tortuosity of the p ths v il le
round the dendrites
is such th t fluid flow to feed shrink ge is ne rly impossi le.
In these inst n
ces the c sting is then left with the microshrink ge s inevit le defects, defe
cts which c n signific ntly reduce the f tigue properties

nd ductility

of these
m teri ls. In the squeeze c sting process descri ed schem tic lly elow, the pr
ess
force

effectively

squeezes

out the shrink ge porosity

th t otherwise would n
ot e le to e removed y risering pr ctice, the mov le punch exerting forc
e on the c sting while it is solidifying.
Press

Movement Press Force During Solidi• c tion
Mov le Punch
Squeeze - C st Component Molten Met l St tion ry Die H lf
Ejector Pin
Press Open
Press Closed
In ddition to elimin
ting shrink ge porosity, the

process lso lters the solid
ific tion structure, re king up dendrites,there

y refining the structure, nd e
ven reducing the dendritic rm sp cing ec use
of the improved he t tr nsfer pro
perties ssoci ted with the intim te cont ct etween the dies nd the
c sting. I
n norm l die or perm nent mold c stings this intim te cont ct is lost ec use of
the c sting shrinking w y from the die interf ce s cooling occurs.
31
Investment C sting (Lost W x Process) Text from “Foundry M n gement nd Technology”,


(1989) In investment c sting, cer mic slurry

is poured round dispos le p t
tern (norm lly of modified

p r ffin w xes, ut lso of pl stics) nd llowed to
h rden to form dispos le mold. The p ttern is destroyed when it melts out dur
ing the firing of the cer mic mold. L ter molten met l is poured
into the cer mi
c shell mold, nd, fter the met l solidifies, the shell mold is roken up to re
move the c sting. The flow nd process di gr m schem tic is shown s follows:
W x P ttern
More Investment of Slurry on P ttern Melting & Removing W x Pouring Met l into H
ot, Fired Cer mic Shell
Investment of Slurry on P ttern
Up to 7 Cycles of Investment &Drying This gives Drying 7 L yers of Investment Mo
re Investment of Slurry on P ttern
Firing
Drying (Removes Moisture, Developes Strength)
Knockout C sting & Remove Cer mic Investment
Drying
Fired Cer mic Co ting
C sting
Adv nt ges of the investment

c sting process include: 1. M ss Production

of Comp
lex Sh pes is possi le. 2. Reproduction of fine
det ils is possi le, with tighte
r dimension l toler nces th n
usu lly cheived y other commerci l c sting proce
sses. 3. The process is d pt le to pr ctic lly ny met l. 4. P rts do not v ry
in dimension cross
p rting lines.(P rting lines re not norm lly present.)

5.
The process is d pt le to the melting nd pouring of lloys th t must e poure
d in v cuum or under n inert tmosphere. 6. The process permits close control
of microstructure - gr in size, gr in orient tion, direction l solidific tion -
th t determines the mech nic l properties of the c st p rt. The investment proc
ess cre
tes signific nt mount of spent w xes nd cer mic shells. Much of the
w x c n e reused in g ting nd riser p rts where precision is not required. The
s me is true
32


for the spent cer mic molds, which c n e crushed nd reused in some of the oute
r l yers where precision is not required.
IV. Melting of Met ls nd Alloys



Melting

is ccomplished in met l c sting f cilities y com ustion of fossil fuel
s or y the use of electric l energy. The most common melting furn ces in foundr
ies include the cupol (c st iron), electric induction (c st
iron, steel, lumin
um), electric rc (c st iron nd steel), nd g s fired cruci
le furn ces( luminu
m nd other non-ferrous). The cupol , st ck furn ce descri ed in the next sect
ion, utilizes met llurgic l
coke s the fuel. Electric induction furn ces provid
e power to the met l ch rge y inducing eddy currents in th t ch rge with high

power, high frequency

ltern ting current. Electric rc furn ces he t directly
y striking
n rc etween gr phite electrodes
nd the ch rge in the furn ce. G
s fired cruci le

furn ces usu lly involve com ustion of n tur l g s immedi tely
outside cruci le cont ining
the ch rge. Bec use of the complexity of the melti
ng process in cupol nd ec use l rge fr ction of the c st iron produced in
the world is melted in cupol ’s, the next section will tre t in det il the meltin
g process nd energy

tr nsfer in modern cupol melting.

Det ils on the other mel
ting furn ces c n e found in other texts on the su ject.
Energy nd M teri l Flow in Cupol Melting
The di gr m on p ge 34 depicts schem tic lly the inputs nd outputs of m teri l
nd energy ssoci ted with melting in cupol furn ce for the
production of hot
met l (c st iron). Signific nt energy inputs
include coke
com ustion, electrici
ty for ir
injection, nd n tur l g s com
ustion for com ustion ir prehe ting
nd/or com ustion of excess CO in n fter urner. Signific nt energy outputs incl
ude molten iron
with dequ te superhe t, sl g t the s me temper ture s the iro
n, he t losses y conduction through the w lls, nd exh
ust he t losses “up the st
ck”.

The di gr m illustr tes two methods to prehe t com ustion ir (to cre te h
ot l st) entering the cupol ; the recuper tive method (Altern te I) which m kes
use of the hot exh ust g ses to prehe t int ke ir, nd the direct he ting of i
nt ke ir with n tur l g s (Altern te II).The chemic l re ctions shown represent
the m jor exothermic (EX) nd endothermic (EN) re ctions occurring within
the c
upol t pproxim

tely the position
shown. Cold Bl st

Cupol In cold l st cup
ol

, ir (23% y weight
O2 nd 77% y weight N2) is lown into

the tuyeres t
l st r te (units of cu ic feet per minute, cfm) determined y the r te of ch rg
e flow nd the required hot met l temper ture. The iron ch rge, often cont ining

equ l mounts of scr p steel (of composition pproxim tely 0
- 0.4 wt. % c r on
nd 0.3 wt. % silicon) nd c st iron returns (cont ining c r on in the r nge 3
- 3.6 wt. % nd silicon in the r nge of 2 - 3 wt. %), is dded t the ch rge doo
r together with limestone (flux)
nd coke,
which (1) provides fuel for the melti
ng process, nd (2) provides

c r on to ring the scr p steel
composition up to t
he r nge 3 3.6 wt.% c r on. In ddition silicon is dded to ring the silicon co
ntent of the steel ch rge
component up to th t of c st iron; this is usu lly in
the form of silicon c r ide (SiC)
or ferrosilicon (FeSi). It is ssumed from her
e on th t the only source of c r on in the ch rge (other th n th t in the
steel
nd iron)
is in the coke.This mix is ch rged into the cupol t r te l nced
with the l st r te so th t prehe ting, melting, nd superhe ting of the ch rge
occurs giving hot met
l t the desired chemic l composition nd temper ture t t
he t p hole ( t the se of the furn ce).
33
The m jor he t-gener ting re ction

within the cupol is ): C + O2 -> CO2
(Exothe
rmic with 14550

BTU/ pound c r on). It is thought

th t CO

is gener ted y reduct
ion of CO2 y the re ction CO2 + C -> 2CO, ut for he t
l nce purposes the
re
ction 2C + O2 -> 2CO (Exothermic with 4350

BTU/pound

c r on)

is used. It c n e
seen th t the most efficient use of c r on would e to com ust completely to CO2
. Unfortun tely this situ tion would result in excess oxid tion nd thus loss o
f expensive silicon dditions s well s Fe ( nd other more expensive elements
s well) in the m nner: Si + O2 -> SiO2

nd Fe + CO2 -> CO + FeO . Therefore to
void l rge losses of Si nd Fe, the l st is kept deficient in O2 so th t sign
ific nt mount of CO is gener ted to provide reducing tmosphere within the cu
pol .
N tur l G s


After urner
Exh ust G s Recuper tor Hot Air He t Loss



Ch rge (Am ient Temp) Iron Units Coke (Fuel & C r on) Limestone Silicon Units
C CO 3 -> C O + CO 2 (EN)
Altern te I Hot Bl st Prehe ting Zone C lcin tion Zone Iron Melt Zone Steel Melt
Zone Tuyere
Air
Fe + CO 2 -> FeO + CO (EX) CO 2 + C -> 2CO (EN) C + O 2 -> CO 2 (EX) Csolid -> C
melt
Hot Bl st Cold Bl st Hot Bl st Hot Air Prehe ter Forced Air Blower
KWH
Tuyere Fl me Zone Coke Bed
Hot Met l 2600-2800 oF Sl g
Air
Altern te II Hot Bl st N tur l G s
34


He t of Com ustion nd Iron/Coke R tio in Ch rge The iron to coke r tio (Fe/Coke
)
will typic lly
v ry in the
r nge 6/1 to 11/1, depending
upon cupol size, v i
l ility of
hot l st, coke reeze injection or ny com in tion of these f ctors
. Cle rly igger Fe/Coke
r tio me ns less fuel per ton of iron nd therefore p
otenti lly less he t v il le for melting. For illustr tive purposes let us ss
ume ch rge with 2000 pounds
of iron units
(1/2 iron
returns nd 1/2 scr p stee
l). The weight

of
coke, c r on in coke, c r on
v il
le s fuel (CA), nd r tio
of v il le c r
on to iron (C*) is
given in T
le 2 elow for Fe/Coke r tios o
f from 6 -> 11. T le 2: Coke nd C r on Av il
ility with 50 % Returns
- 50%
Steel Mix. Iron/Coke

R tio (1 ton Fe) Coke (L
/Ton Fe)

C (0.9 Coke) (L / Ton Fe
) C s Fuel, CA(L ./ Ton Fe)1 C* = CA / Fe (L C / L Fe) 6 333 300 268 0.134 7
285 257 225 0.1125 8 250 225 193 0.0965 9 222 200 168 0.084 10 200 180 148 0.074
11 182 164 132 0.066



1. Assuming th
t 32 pounds of C r on re needed
to c r urize the scr
p steel in
the ch rge. T le 3 includes the
energy v il ility from this c r on
(in millio
n BTU per ton of iron) for com ustion to CO2, to CO,
nd to three com in tions w
ith different

CO/CO2 r tios

(volume percent of com ustion g s, including nitroge
n). T le 3: Energy
Av il ility
For Different Fe/Coke nd CO/CO2 R tios Iron/Co
ke R tio Pounds c r on Av il le Per Ton Fe, CA 6 268 7 225 8 193 9 168 10 148 1
1 132
Million BTU per Ton FE: MBTU

= 4350(1 + 2.344[CO2 / CO + CO2])
x CA x 10-6 C + O
2 -> CO2 (14550 BTU/#

C r on) CO/CO2 = 6.6/17 (11694 BTU/#

C r on) CO/CO2 = 11.6
/14 (9930 BTU/#

C r on) CO/CO2 = 18.2/10 (7961 BTU/# C r on) 2C + O2 -> 2CO (435
0 BTU/# C r on)* 3.9 3.13 2.66 2.13 1.16 3.27 2.63 2.23 1.79 0.98 2.81 2.25 1.92
1.54 0.84 2.44 1.96 1.67 1.34 0.73 2.15 1.73 1.47 1.18 0.64 1.92 1.54 1.31 1.05
0.57




*From selected com ustion d t pu lished y Whiting Met . Equipt. Systems Co
35




The ir
required in CFM (cu ic feet per minute) to com ust the c r on to produce
the
ove CO/
CO2 r tios
nd to s tisfy melt r te of 20 tons per hour is give
n in T le 4 elow.
. T
le 4: Bl st R te to Produce 20 Tons Iron Per Hour Iron/
Coke R tio Av il le C r on / Fe R tio, C* 6 0.134 7 0.112 8 0.096 9 0.084 10 0.
074 11 0.066


Bl st R te in Cu ic Feet Per Minute (CFM) for Melt R te of 20 Tons /Hour CFM =
2.519 x 103 x ( 1 + [CO2 / CO + CO2]) x TPH x C* CO/CO2 = 6.6/17 CO/CO2 = 11.6/
14 CO/CO2 = 18.2/10 11587 10434 9121 9727 8760 7657 8344 7514 6402 7263 6541 571
8 6398 5762 5037 5706 5139 4493





T le 4 ove shows th t the l st r te to chieve
given CO/CO2
com ustion r t
io necess rily decre ses s the mount
of coke v il le
for com ustion decre se

s. Of course, most cupol s will h ve l st
r te fixed y the equipment v il
le; i.e. the electric motor present with
the l st f n m y gener te 7000 cfm, or
perh ps 8000 cfm. A given foundry m y e interested in how the CO/ CO2 r tio
wo
uld ch nge with v ri tion in Fe/Coke r tio for their specific situ tion of l
st r te nd melt r te. Energy of Melting nd Energy B l nce in Cupol The minimu
m energy requirement of cupol is to provide enough he t to prehe t, melt, nd
superhe t the ch
rge dequ tely. The theoretic l requirement to he t ton of i
ron
(4.3 wt. % c r on) to 2750
oF is pproxim tely 1.06 million BTU (See the fig
ure elow). Cle rly there will e signific nt energy losses in the
exh ust g ses
, in the sl g, nd through the sidew lls of the cupol . It would
e the go l of
the foundry to minimize these losses through proper control

of l st r te, melt
r te, Fe/Coke r tio, etc. A l rge fr ction of lost com ustion energy goes into t
he exh ust g ses. Estim tes of
these losses re in the r nge of the
mount requi
red to he t the iron: i.e. Svo od ’s Foundry Energy Conserv
tion Work ook estim te
s
40% in melted iron, 35% in l tent he t in st ck g s (un urned CO), 13% in sens
i le he
t in st ck g s, nd 12% other (sl g, sidew lls). The l tent he t fr ctio
n will o viously incre se s the mount of CO in the effluent
incre ses. Conside
r, for ex
mple, foundry with Fe/coke r tio of 8/1 nd l st r te of 6402 c
fm. By T les 2 nd 3 this corresponds to n energy production r te of pproxim
tely 1.54 MBTU / Ton
(20 Ton/Hour). The exh ust g s cont ins 18.2 wt. % CO, n
mount which if
com usted to CO2 would yield n extr 1.27
MBTU. This l tent he t
mounts to out 45 % of the potenti l energy
in the l st ( pproxim tely 2.81
MBTU/Ton); the energy in the molten met l
is out 38 % of this potenti l energy
. The rem ining 17 % then is due to sensi le he t losses in the st ck g ses, los
ses in the sl g, he t losses through the sidew ll, etc.
The he t needed in melti
ng one ton of iron, the m ximum mount of he t v il le, the l tent he t in exh
ust
g ses for CO/CO2 r tio of 11.6/14, nd the
potenti l w ste he t lost s s
ensi le he t in
g ses, sl g, etc. re illustr ted elow for different Fe/coke r
tios. It will e noted th t the efficiency of the cupol incre ses s the Fe/cok
e r tio incre ses; i.e. the mount of w ste he t,
36



either s
l tent he t or sensi le he t decre ses. Of course, one h s to remem er
th t the l st r te must decre se to m int in fixed CO/CO2 r tio s Fe/coke r
tio incre ses.
1.4 1.2 1.06 MBTU t 2750 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
o o
F
Fe - 4.3 C Iron Pure Fe
2400
2800
3200
TEMPERATURE ( F)
He t Content of Iron vs. Temper ture for Pure Fe nd Fe - 4.3 C
4.0 3.5 3.0
CO/CO 2
MAXIMUM HEAT CONTENT IN BLAST C + O 2 -> CO 2
LATENT HEAT IN CO
2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 5
11.6/14
HEAT LOSSES IN CUPOLA
HEAT CONTENT IN IRON AT 2750
6
7
8 9 10 TONS IRON PER TON COKE
11
12
37



Homework Pro lem . (Option l; extr credit) . Determine the l st r te in cfm n
eeded to produce CO/CO2 r tio of 11.6/14 t 9 tons of iron
per ton of coke for
cupol s producing iron t the r te of 20 TPH nd 40 TPH. . Determine
the Tons
Fe / Tons Coke r tio needed to produce CO/CO2 v lue of 11.6/14 for l st r
t
e
of 6800 cfm nd melt r te of 16 TPH. c. Estim te the cupol efficiency in .
ove. d. Estim te the cfm nd the

tons

Fe / tons coke r tio needed to incre se
the efficiency of the cupol in . ove to 45%.
38
V. Fluid Flow nd G ting Design (After Flinn)

A m jor f ctor in m king good c sting is the
ility to get the met l from the
cont iner into the mold with minimum of tur ulence, sl g, entr pped s nd or o
ther m teri ls in the mold or molten met l system which could
get swept into the
mold c vity. Accomplishing this t sk consistently requires
sic underst ndin
g of fluid flow principles s well s the insight provided
y experience. The fo
llowing m teri l follows the method outlined in R. Flinn’s ook on Met l C sting.
Consider the following simple fluid flow system.
1 Pouring B sin Mold
*
h1 h2
Exit or (Efflux Point)
Molten Met l
* *
2 3
Notes: 1. Pouring B sin Rem ins Full t ll Times
2. Liquid Met l is Le ving t
Efflux Point 3. Assume pouring B sin is Imperme le
Sprue
L w of Conserv tion of M ss
Along line of flow m tter is conserved so th t A2v2 = A3v3 where A2 nd A3 re
the cross section l re s t points 2 nd 3 nd v2 nd v3 re the fluid velocit
ies t points 2 nd3.
L w of Conserv tion of Energy (Bernoulli’s L w)

Energy, E, long line of flow in fluid c n e expressed s: E = h + v2/2g +
P/ρ + z whe e: E = ene gy in units of length (fo  ease of calculation) h = Potenti
al Ene gy o  Head v2/2g = Kinetic Ene gy z = Catch-all te m Containing Ene gy Lo
sses due to F iction, Tu bulence, Heat Loss h = distance, in. v = velocity, in/s
ec g = accele ation of g avity, 384 in / sec2 P = P essu e, lbs / in2 ρ = Density,
lbs / in3 Ideally the catch-all te m z is equal to ze o. Howeve  it will become
clea  f om homewo k elated to labo ato y expe imentation that it is a ve y sig
nificant item indeed. Be noulli’s Law states that ene gy is conse ved along a line
of flow, so that at any two points: E1 = E2
39
and the efo e h1 + v12/2g + P1/ρ = h2 + v22/2g + P2/ρ In gating systems in sand mold
s the dependent va iables of velocity, v, and p essu e, P, a e c itical pa amete
s which a e impo tant to cont ol in filling a mold cavity quickly and cleanly.
Examples of how velocity and p essu e calculations can be utilized in gating des
ign a e given below. Velocity at the Efflux Point The velocity of flow within a
gating system will dete mine the time equi ed to fill a mold cavity. Using Be n
oulli’s Law at points 1 and 3 gives: h1 + v12/2g + P1/ρ = h3 + v32/2g + P3/ρ. Using th
e convention that the head is measu ed elative to the Efflux point, then h3 = 0
. Assuming that the system is ope ating in no mal conditions of 1 atmosphe e, th
en the f ee su faces at points 1 and 3 equi e that P1 = P3 = 14.7 lbs /in2. Fin
ally the assumption is always made that the pou ing basin emains full so that a
t point 1, v1 = 0 in / sec. The efo e Be noulli’s Law educes fo  points 1 and 3 t
o: v3 = (2gh)1/2 o  v3 = 27.1 (h)1/2 This velocity would also ep esent the velo
city at the ingate in a so-called “p essu ized” gating system, a system in which the
smallest c oss sectional a ea (the choke) occu s at the ingate. In this situati
on, then, the above velocity equation can be used to estimate mold cavity fillin
g time, tF. tF = (Volume of Casting) / (vi Ai) A typical gating system contains
a pou ing basin, a downsp ue, a sp ue well, a unne  (usually in the d ag), and
ingates (usually in the cope on the pa ting line of the casting). This system is
illust ated below fo  a ise less casting togethe  with a calculation which use
s the above velocity elationship to estimate casting filling time. Pou ing Basi
n Downsp ue
9”
COPE
Ingate(A ea, Ai) AS : AR : Ai = 1 in2 : 2 in2 : 0.5 in2 P oblem: Assuming Be nou
lli’s Law holds with no losses due to f iction,etc., compute the filling time of t
he casting given. Solution: Because the ingate ep esents the smallest c oss sec
tional a ea of the system, and because the ingate is always at atmosphe ic p ess
u e, the velocity at the ingate is constant and given by: vi = 27.71 (9)1/2 o  v
i = 83.13 in/sec The time equi ed to fill the casting is then tF = Casting Volu
me / vi Ai tF = 96 /( 83.13 x 0.5) = 2.31 sec
DRAG Sp ue Base Sp ue Well (A ea, AS)
Mold Cavity (Enti ely in D ag) 6 in. x 8 in. x 2 in.
D ag Runne  (A ea, AR)
The above atio of sp ue base a ea to unne  c oss sectional a ea to ingate a ea
is called the gating atio, a common way to quantitatively desc ibe gating syst
ems. Filling times fo  just such a cast-
40
ing has been expe imentally measu ed at Michigan Tech fo  a numbe  of yea s in w
hich the head (Distance f om top of pou ing basin to the pa ting line) and the i
ngate c oss sectional a ea we e independently va ied to cont ol flow ates.These
data will be int oduced in homewo k to follow. P essu e at Inte mediate Point i
n Gating System It is impo tant to keep the actual p essu e within a flowing liq
uid in a sand mold above atmosphe ic p essu e. If the p essu e in the molten met
al d ops below 1 atmosphe e then ai  can be d aw in o  “aspi ated” into the metal st
eam, the eby inc easing the oppo tunity fo  defects within the casting. These d
efects could include the fo mation of metal oxides o  gas po osity, a pa ticula 
ly t oublesome p oblem in aluminum alloy castings which abso b hyd ogen so eadi
ly in the liquid state. Conside  the situation in the simple pou ing basin sketc
h on page 39. Let us assume that the downsp ue has the same c oss sectional a ea
at points 2 and 3. F om the law of continuity then v2 = v3. W iting Be noulli’s L
aw at points 2 and 3 gives: h2 + v22/2g + P2/ρ = h3 + v32/2g + P3/ρ. Solving fo  P2
subject to the st aight-sided sp ue const aint gives: P2 = P3 - h2ρ . Thus it can
be seen that the p essu e at point 2 is less than 1 atmosphe e; gas aspi ation w
ill occu  at this point in the system. P oblem: It will be left to the student t
o show that elief of gas aspi ation in the downsp ue can be achieved by buildin
g a tape  into the sp ue. Students in an expe iment conducted in the MY423 labo 
ato y in the fall of 1994 (te m ve sion of MY 4130) measu ed filling times in 2
x 6 x 8 inch Y-block castings (The enti e casting was in the d ag simila  to the
schematic shown on page 28) pou ed unde  conditions in which head and ingate a 
ea we e va ied independently. The esults of that expe iment a e tabulated below
41
: Table 5: Filling Time Data, Fall 1998 - 01 (MY423 - MY 4130)
Ingate A ea in2 0.049 0.11 0.11 0.196 0.196 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.196 0.196 0.049 0.0
49 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.196 0.196 11
Measu ed Casting Measu ed Rise 
Casting Numbe 
Head, h in.
Filling Time tF (sec) 47 15 24 12 17 17.7 19 17 18 15 47 38 21 21 49 16.9
Filling Time tF (sec) 91.7 19.6 79 12 33 19.3 20 17 46 32 85 46
Casting Numbe 
Head, h in.
Ingate A ea in2 0.049 0.049 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.196 0.196 0.11 0.11 0.11
Measu ed Casting
Measu ed Rise 
Filling Time tF (sec) 27 32.9 15 21 28 26 11.5 23 15 20.5
Filling Time tF (sec) 34.4 42.8 15.5 21 51 29 24 42 31 42
1 - 98 2 3 4 5 6 7 - 99 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 - 00 16 17 18
4 9 4 9 4 9 4 9 4 6.25 4 6.25 6.25 9 4 9 4 6.25
19 20 21 22 23 - 01 24 25 26 27 28 29 - 02 30 31
9 6.25 9 9 4 4 6.25 6.25 9 6.25
22 66 18 27 12
32 33 34 35 36
Homewo k P oblem Using the data in the above table, compute the ideal filling ti
me of the casting, assuming no f iction o  tu bulence losses in the gating syste
m. Plot measu ed and ideal calculated filling times (o dinate) vs. the independe
nt pa amete  (h)1/2(Ai) on the abscissa. Include best lines th ough the data. Es
timate f om fluid flow p inciples the eal velocity p ofile ac oss the ingate a 
ea. Discuss the magnitude of the diffe ence obse ved between measu ed and calcul
ated filling times.
42
Numbe  of Gates in System The numbe  of gates needed to fill a casting cavity in
an acceptable time is dete mined by the size of the casting as well as the cast
ing complexity, Side both facto s which a e dealt with using expe ience and a ce
tain amount of common sense. Conside  a plate casting (30 in. x 20 in. x 4 in.)
which needs to be filled unifo mly and quickly. The simplest gating configu ati
on is shown , in which one gate is POOR attached to a sho t unne  leading f om
the sp ue well.While this method would seem to be the most st aightfo wa d way t
o fill the mold, it becomes clea  when conside ing the basics of heat t ansfe  t
hat the metal that is equi ed to pass the length of the plate could conceivably
solidify befo e the end of the plate is eached. In fact it is likely that this
Top casting would contain some cold shuts, defects in BETTER which the metal do
es in fact solidify followed by ST mo e liquid the eby leaving an inte face betw
een successive volumes of metal.This is illust ated above by the dashed lines on
the sketch. In fact many cold shuts may appea  within one casting. The solution
to this p oblem is one in which a gating system is const ucted so that the meta
l ente s the cavity at the same time f om seve al gates located at convenient pl
aces a ound the plate . A bette  gating sceA3 A2 A1 na io is illust ated above (
See gates A1, A2, and A3 in the sketch) in which seve al gates a e positioned ST
on eithe  side of the plate casting. The dimensions of these gates a e adjusted
so that metal flow ate f om each is nea ly equivalent, so that no oppo tunitie
s a ise to allow the development of the cold shuts which occu ed in the poo  ga
ting configu ation. Unifo m metal flow will equi e that A1 > A2 > A3 because of
momentum effects of the molten metal ushing down the unne  (It would just as
soon continue in a st aight line if possible). The gating system above also cont
ains sand t aps (ST) at the ends of the long unne s which would be the place to
which the fi st metal in the unne s would be found. This fi st metal would mos
t likely contain loose sand f om the molding p ocess in addition to being the co
ldest metal into the system. The emaining metal will have the benefit of t avel
ing th ough a gating system in which heat has al eady been added to the molding
sand and the efo e will not be expected to cool down as much. Many othe  design
featu es a e possible to add to gating systems to accomplish the goal of delive 
ing molten metal in a timely way, f ee f om ent apped sand, slag o  othe  fo eig
n mate ial supplied eithe  by the mold, by the metal, o  even c eated du ing the
pou ing ope ation. Details of these featu es can be found in texts dealing spec
ifically with gating design, i.e. f om the Ame ican Found ymen’s Society (AFS).
43
Fluidity of Molten Metals
The fluidity of molten metals is p ope ty which desc ibes the ease with which mo
lten metal can fill a mold cavity. It is a p ope ty which depends upon the f eez
ing ange of the molten alloy in question, ∆T, and the deg ee of supe heat (TP - T
L, pou ing tempe atu e - liquidus tempe atu e) of the metal when it ente s the m
old. In a qualitiative sense, the highe  the fluidity the smalle  the section si
ze that can be successfully filled befo e solidification occu s. The common way
to measu e a given cast metal’s fluidity is by casting a fluidity spi al tube, a 6
0” long spi al molded into sand into which the metal is pou ed with a constant hea
d of 4 inches. The length to which the metal penet ates the spi al is a measu e
of the fluidity of the molten mate ial. Fo  details see the text “P inciples of Me
tal Casting” by Heine, Lope , and Rosenthal. A schematic of fluidity vs supe heat
and alloy content is given in the figu e below.
60 Fluidity (Inches)
Me tal s
Eutec
tics
Pu e
40 20 0
∆ i ng eas nc  I
T
0
Supe heat, TP - TL
It can be seen in this figu e that the fluidity of pu e metals and eutectics, wi
th a f eezing fange of ze o, is the g eatest. Alloys with la ge f eezing anges
have educed fluidities. The above figu e shows that all metals and alloys will
have inc easing fluidity with inc easing supe heat. G ay cast i on is one of the
most fluid casting alloys. Empi ical fluidity spi al data f om many expe iments
on g ay cast i on gives the exp ession Fluidity (in.) = 14.9 x CF + 0.05T - 155
whe e T is the pou ing tempe atu e in oF, and CF is the composion of the i on a
nd is equal to CF = %C + 1/4 x % Si + 1/2 x % P. Thus fo  a eutectic i on of com
position 3.5 % C, 2.4 % Si, 0.04 %P, the fluidity is given by Fluidity = 14.9 x
4.12 + 0.05 (2600) - 155 = 36.39 in. As the pou ing tempe atu e inc eases the fl
uidity inc eases (at 2700 the fluidity is 41.39 in.) and as the composition dec 
eases (inc easing the tempe atu e ange ove  which solidification occu s) to a h
ypoeutectic value (say 3.2% C, 2.1% Si, 0.04 %P) the fluidity dec eases to ~ 30.
8 in. Again details about the fluidity of g ay cast i ons can be found in Heine,
Lope  and Rosenthal. Clea ly the fluidity needed to fill a mold cavity will dep
end upon the section size of the casting being p oduced. Thin sections will natu
ally equi e highe  fluidities to successfully be filled befo e solidification,
and the efo e highe  supe heat tempe atu es. Conve sely chunky castings will e
qui e less fluidity and the efo e less supe heat fo  successful filling.
44
VI. Solidification, P ocessing of Metal Castings
Int insic and Ext insic Facto s
The p ocess of solidification, the change of liquid to solid metal afte  pou ing
into the mold, is the defining event in the life cycle of a casting. The times
involved in this activity may be as sho t as seconds o  as long as hou s dependi
ng upon the casting p ocess and the size of the casting. The chemical compositio
n of the metal being cast, the manne  in which solidification occu s, and the su
bsequent solid state t eatment dete mines the ultimate mic ost uctu e and the ef
o e p ope ties (mechanical and physical) of the casting. It is the duty of the m
etal casting enginee  to cont ol the solidification event to the best of his/he 
ability so that the mic ost uctu e of the final p oaduct can be cont olled to o
ptimize the p ope ties desi ed. The ultimate physical and mechanical p ope ties
of the cast metal will depend upon both int insic and ext insic facto s p esent
in each casting event and in the p ocessing events subsequent to casting. These
te ms and what they mean fo  the casting and its p ope ties a e defined in the a
ccompanying Table 6 below. Table 6: Int insic Facto s - Chemical Composition - C
ooling Rate Du ing Solidification - Heat and Mechanical T eatment afte  Solidifi
cation - Metal cleanliness - Additives fo  Mic ost uctu e Cont ol - Casting Desi
gn - Rise  and Gating Design - Solidification Rate Cont ol - Tempe atu e Cont ol
Subsequent to Solidification These facto s dete mine the ultimate mic ost uctu 
e and p ope ties of the casting These facto s ep esent an attempt by designe s,
metal casting enginee s and othe  p ocessing enginee s to cont ol the p ocesses
to attain the ultimate p ope ties p omised by the int insic facto s
Ext insic Facto s
Illust ation of the significance of int insic and ext insic facto s in dete mini
ng the tensile p ope ties of a casting (Ultimate Tensile St ength and Pe cent El
ongation) is shown below:
Ultimate Tensile St ength
(Homogeneous and Unifo m Mat ix) Reduction in tensile p ope ties due to b eaks i
n the homogeneous and unifo m mat ix mic ost uctu e (defects) esulting f om lac
k of cont ol of the Ext insic facto s in p ocessing.
0
Int insic
*
0
Pe cent Elongation
45
It can be seen in this schematic illust ation that the ultimate goal is to p odu
ce a casting with a mat ix mic ost uctu e which is homogeneous and unifo m th ou
ghout. Depa tu e f om homogeneity and unifo mity esults in educed st ength and
ductility. Achievement of the optimum goal is difficult because of the natu e o
f solidification on a mic oscale and because of the complexity of cont olling th
e manne  of solidification on a mac oscale. F om an enginee ing point of view, o
ptimization of mic ost uctu e and p ope ties of a casting is mo e p actically ac
hieved by concent ation on cont olling the manne  of solidification on a mac osc
ale in addition to cont olling solidification on a mic oscale and subsequent hea
t t eatment.
Mic oscale - Dend itic Solidification
Most metals and alloys will solidify by the fo mation and g owth of dend ites of
one phase in which alloy seg egation occu s within the dend ite and second phas
e g owth occu s exte nal to the dend itic st uctu e. This subject has been t eat
ed in g eat detail in many texts published on the solidification of liquid metal
s and will not be t eated extensively in this wo k. As indicated above, most sol
idification events involve the p oduction of dend ites followed by the p ecipita
tion of a second phase o  phases in between dend ite a ms. The easons why dend 
ites fo m is defined by the kinetic and the modynamic facto s which allow atom 
ea angement in a convenient way in an acceptable pe iod of time. The st uctu e
and chemical makeup of typical dend ites du ing solidification is shown schemati
cally below. The exact dist ibution of alloy elements seg egated into and exte n
al to the dend ites, and the magnitude of the SDAS (seconda y dend ite a m spaci
ng) is dete mined p ecisely by the alloy composition and the ate at which the h
eat is emoved f om the solidifying volume. Once the alloy composition and the s
ize of the casting and mold mate ial is selected, the solidifying mate ial p odu
ce a dend itic base into which othe  phases o  eaction p oducts may be inte spe
sed (eutectics, pe itectics, inclusions, po osity, etc.).
Seg egation of Alloy Elements Between A ms Seg egation o  Co ing Within Dend ite
A ms
Po osity (Gas, Sh inkage)
Seconda y A ms
P ima y Dend ite A m
SDAS
Inclusion (Slag, Sand)
Solidification on a Mac oscale - Defect P oduction
P oduction of a homogeneously solidified dend itic st uctu e without casting def
ects equi es cont ol of the p actical manne  in which molten metal is b ought i
nto the casting cavity
46
and into which heat is emoved. Lack of di ectional cont ol of heat and metal fl
ow esponding to sh inkage du ing solidification, o  insufficient attention to m
etal cleanmliness o  mold design can esult in typical defects shown schematical
ly above. Design facto s such as casting shape, ise  design, and gating design
a e used by the enginee ing team to minimize defects. This text is la gely about
p esenting mate ial impo tant in helping to make info med enginee ing decisions
about the ext insic facto s used to cont ol mac oscale solidification events.
Cont olled The mal o  Mechanical T eatment Afte  Casting
Many castings a e used in the as-cast condition, so that the p ocess selected by
the design team and casting enginee s dete mines the casting’s final p ope ties.
Howeve , as mechanical and physical equi ements become mo e st ingent fo  cast
p oducts, mo e castings will be subjected to heat t eatment, su face chemical mo
dification, mechanical defo mation, o  combinations of these t eatments (HIPping
, o  the momechanical p ocessing). In gene al, the mal t eatment can only alte 
the mic ost uctu e of the mat ix mate ial; i.e. it is an int insic facto . The m
al t eatment cannot eliminate, educe o  othe wise change the defects p oduced d
u ing casting. Thus a educed ductility as a esult of negative ext insic facto 
s du ing casting will esult in a educed ductility in the heat t eated conditio
n. Heat t eatment cannot ove come the negative effect of defects int oduced du i
ng casting. In ecent yea s hot isostatic p essing (HIPping, a the momechanical
t eatment) of some cast p oducts has been used to educe the negative effects of
sh inkage po osity, a p ocess in which a combination of high tempe atu e and p 
essu e a e effective in closing and the efo e eliminating sh inkage po osity in
castings. This elimination of voids in the casting can d amatically inc ease the
ductility and fatigue esistance of castings.
Latent Heat of Solidification and Cooling Cu ves in a Pu e Metal
Conside  a pu e metal which is slowly cooled f om the liquid state to its meltin
g point, Tm. At Tm the solid begins to fo m eleasing the latent heat of solidif
ication. This latent heat is, the modynamically, an enthalpy te m, which is a co
nsequence of ent opy change accompanying the t ansition f om liquid to solid. Th
is elationship will be de ived f om fi st p inciples below. Define Gl, Hl, and
Sl as the Gibbs F ee Ene gy, Enthalpy, and Ent opy espectively of the liquid. S
imila ly, let Gs, Hs, and Ss be the same quantities fo  the solid. By Definition
: Gl = Hl - TSl and Gs = Hs - T Ss These a e shown g aphically as follows:
G lo G so Gs Gl To Tm Tempe atu e ->
Assume that the H and S val ues a e constants fo  both solid and liquid
47
The slopes of each line ep esents the ent opies of each phase. Note that the en
t opy of the diso de ed liquid is g eate  than the ent opy of the o de ly c ysta
l st uctu e of the solid. At the melting point, Tm , the solid and liquid a e in
equilib ium and the efo e: Gs = Gl, and Hs - TmSs = Hl - TmSl, and Hs - Hl = Tm
(Ss - Sl) = Latent Heat of Solidification. Notice that fo  T > Tm, Gl < Gs and t
he efo e the liquid is the stable state. Notice that fo  T < Tm, Gs < Gl and the
efo e the solid is the stable state. Suppose that the liquid is supe cooled to
To. At this tempe atu e the e will be a d iving fo ce,(Gso - Glo), which favo s
the nucleation and g owth of the solid. In most eal systems the solid will nucl
eate hete ogeneously at a tempe atu e close to Tm and then g owth will p oceed a
t Tm until the liquid is exhausted. A the mocouple placed into such a system wil
l expe ience a cooling cu ve simila  to the one shown schematically below:
Recallescence Tm Unde cooling tS Time ->
Unde cooling necessa y to p ovide d iving fo ce fo  the nucleation event. Recall
escence esulting f om input of latent heat of solidi• cation tS = Solidi• cation Ti
me
Steady State Heat T ansfe  P ocesses - Ficks Fi st Law
Du ing a casting event heat must be ext acted th ough the mold walls befo e soli
dification is complete. The ate of heat t ansfe  and the efo e solidification t
ime, tS, will depend upon the the mal p ope ties of the mold mate ial and of the
inte face. Conside , fi st, a simple one - dimensional steady state p ocess. Th
e diag am below illust ates this with a ef acto y wall (30 cm thick) which has
constant tempe atu es of 1400 and 300oC on opposite sides.
WALL 1400 oC
300 oC
30 cm x
48
Assume a steady state condition, that is, at any distance x f om the wall the te
mpe atu e emains constant with time. Heat will flow f om the high tempe atu e s
ide to the low tempe atu e side of the wall at a ate dependent upon the followi
ng: 1. The mal conductivity, K 2. Tempe atu e G adient, ∆T/∆x 3. A ea of Wall, A 4.
Time, t The Total Heat Flow = AKt (∆T/∆x) Flux of Heat = Total Heat Flow/A ea.Time =
J = K(∆T/∆x) FICK’S FIRST LAW Example P oblem: Assume K = 1 W m-1 oC-1 Assume K is te
mpe atu e independent The efo e J = 1x1100 / 0.3 = 3666.7 (Watts / m2) Obviously
heat flow in a mold following a casting event is not a steady state p ocess and
the efo e Fick’s Fi st Law alone is not adequate to desc ibe the situation. Howev
e , ecall that at any given point, at any time in any situation FFL will define
the flux, J, at that point in time. This knowledge will be used to define the f
lux at the mold-metal inte face, a changing flux which can then be integ ated to
dete mine tS in a given casting.
VII. Heat T ansfe  and Solidification in Insulating Molds
Chvo inov’s Rule
At some time, t, afte  pou ing a pu e metal into an insulating mold (sand o  ce 
amic) at some pou ing tempe atu e TP, the tempe atu e along a line pe pendicula 
to the mold - metal inte face would be expected to look like the diag am below:
Metal (High K) TP Tm Sand Mold (Low K) Fick’ s Second Law desc  ibing heat t ansfe
 
in the mold: δT/δt = α M ( δ 2T/δx 2) where α M = therm l if fusivity of mol = K M / ρ M
The mal Conductivity Density T0 <- - x 0 Distance F om Inte face + x -> Heat Ca
pacity
49
In this situation, the high the mal conductivity of the metal esults in the tem
pe atu e of the metal at the inte face d opping to Tm instantly upon pou ing and
staying the e until solidification is complete. Of cou se, intimate contact bet
ween the metal and mold means that the mold at the inte face will also emain at
Tm until solidification is complete. The solution to the above equation subject
to the bounda y conditions that T = Tm at x = 0 and T = T0 at x = oo fo  small
t gives:
x T ( x, t ) = T 0 +( T m –T 0 ) 1 – e f ----------------- 2 αM t
This equ tion c n be use to pre ict the soli ific tion  time, tS. The flux of he
t t the interf ce t time t is given by J = -KM ( T/ x)|x=0
 
T ---- x
 
x = ( T m – T 0 ) ----- 1 – erf ----------------- x 2 α M t x=0
x=0

Exp n ing the erf function in the form:
2 u u u erf ( u ) = ------ u – -------- + -------- – -------- + 3.1! 5.2! 7.3! π
and differentiating gives at x = 0, the interface,
K J = M
(T
m
−T )
0
πα
M
t
The tot l he t, Q, through the interf ce of re A :(the tot l surf ce re of t
he c sting) up to the time , t, is given by: t 2AK ( T m – T 0 ) 0.5

Q = A J t = ----------------------------------- t πα M
0
∫
50
  
The tot l he t liber te befofe soli ific tion is sum of the superhe t, QS, n
l tent he t of soli ific tion, QF, where: QF = ρMetal∆HFVMetal, QS = ρMetalVMetal(TP
- Tm)CMetal, whe e TP is the pou ing tempe atu e. The time necessa y fo  this a
mount of heat to pass th ough the inte face would co espond to the solidificati
on time, tS, and the efo e:
2A K Q +Q = S F Πα M M
(T
m
−T )t
0
0.5 S
and therefore:
πα t S
=

2 2 2 ρ ∆H + C (T − T ) V F Me ta l m M Me tal M e ta l 2 2 2 4A K (T − T ) M m 0

For a given metal and mold oured at a temeratureT we can searate a mold cons
tant BS and the V/A ratio to give Chvorinov’s Rule, tS = BS (V/A)2
51
The Constants needed to utilize Chvorinov’s Equation for a variety of materials ar
e given below: Table 7: Thermal Conduct. Density Heat of Fusion Melt Tem Exans
ion Coeff. (68F) Solidif. Volume Change
Secific Heat
Material
K Wm
1 oC 1
ρ g cm-3 (mg cm-3 o -1 C ) 2.32(bulk) 1.6 (Mold) 2.385 9-.280 2.7 7.015 (-.883)
C J kg-1 oC-1
∆HF J kg-1
Tm
oC
α 10-6 oC-1
%

S n (SiO2) Al (liq) Al (sol) 20C Fe (liq) Fe (sol) 20C Cu (Liq) Cu(Sol)20C Note
s
1.5 94.03 238
1117 1080 917 795 456 495 386 J = Joules kg = kilogr m 211812 1085 272090 1536 3
95995 660
 
22.2 -6.5 23.9 -3.5 11.7 -4.2 16.5 Assume Temp In epen ent
78.2 165.6 397 W = W tts m = meter
7.87 8.0 (-0.801) 8.96 mg = milligr ms
  
Problem 1.Using Chvorinov’s
 Rule etermine
 the soli ifiction times of s n c stin
gs of Al, Cu, n Fe poure into mol s with mol c vity imensions of 10 cm x 10
cm x 10 cm n then of 20 cm x 20 cm x 2.5 cm, with superhe ts of 10, 100, n
200 Co. 2. Discuss the pr ctic l implic tions of the results in 1. bove. Any su
rprises?
52
VIII. Shrink ge,
 Riser Design
 
Risers re use in the pro uction
 of c stings for the purpose
 of proviing molte
n met l for the soli ifying n shrinking c sting. Riser esign in s n c stings
requires, t minimum, th t the riser soli ify fter thec sting. A c sting n
riser
 re shown schem
 tic lly in s n mol below. The esire situ tion fte
rsoli ific tion woul result in ll the shrink ge within the riser s illustr t
e .
COPE
Shrink ge P rting Line
CASTING
RISER DRAG

Shrink ge in Met ls DuringSoli ific tion  
The shrink ge th t occurs uring soli ific tion of met ls (th t i e lly ll en s
up in the shrink ge c vity in the riser
 shown bove) results from three istinc
t contributions
 which re illustr te below for n lloy in eutectic
 systemwhi
ch soli ifies over temper ture r nge (most lloys o not soli ify t one tempe
r ture).
TP TL
 TS 
Soli us (Eutectic) Temper ture Pouring Temper ture Liqui us Temper ture
SHRINKAGE COMPONENTS I. Therm l Contr ction of L from TP to TL
  
II. Therml Contr ction of Liqui n Soli from TL toT S III. Ch nge in St te f
rom Liqui to Soli from TL to TS n t TS
Wt. Pct Alloy Element
  
The tot l mount of shrink ge experience uring soli ifiction m y be quite l r
ge, especi lly for luminum lloys, which c n shrink 6.5% uring the ch nge in s
tte (See the t ble
 on pg. 52
 for more inform tion bout shrink ge for Al, Cu,
n Fe in the soli n liqui ). Problems: 1.Estim te the tot  l percent ge ch ng
e in volume for soli ific tion of Al, Cu, n Fe, e ch poure with 200 Co superh
e t. Notefor pure met ls th t there
 is no contribution from
 component
 II. (Hint
; You nee to use the v rition in ensities in the liqui s ( efine s mg cm-3
oC-1in p renthesis in the ensity column in the t ble on pg. 52)). 2. Plot Tot l
Volume Percent ge Ch nge vs. Superhe t Temper ture from 0 to 200 Co superhe t f
or ll three met ls in problem #1 bove. Any surprises?
53
 
Soli ific tion Shrink ge Types  
Shrink ge porosity c n ppe r within c sting in number of w ys epen ing upo
n the soli ific tion temper ture r nge (TL - TS) n the effectiveness
 of riseri
ng. The type of shrink ge observe
 in c stings c n be bro ly
 sep r te into two
cl sses, mcroshrink
  ge n microshrink
 ge. M croshrink ge efects c n be seen
by the un i e eye n microshrink ge efects require microscope to observe. T
here
 re two types of shrink ge within e ch cl ss, shrink ge which c n be observ
e extern lly on the c sting surf ce n shrink ge which  is observe intern lly
fter sectioning. Schem tic ex mples of e ch of these efects is shown below:
Extern l M croshrink Intern l M croshrink
C sting
C sting

Intern l Microshrink Between Den rite Arms
 
C sting Surf ce Prim ry Den rite Extern l Microshrink Reve ling Den rites on Sur
f ce Prim ry Den rite

Eutectic Pro uct

Eutectic Pro uct
 
These i gr ms illustr te the n ture of shrink ge porosity which  is observe wit
hin c stings.
 I e lly,of course, effective
 riser esign woul be ble to elimin
te orre uce the inci ence of these  efects within the c sting. Usu lly proper
riser esign will prevent the inci ence of the m croshrink ge cl ss, but it is p
ossible th t no mount of risering will elimin te microshrink ge. Shrink ge poro
sity within the c sting results inlower  strengths
  bec use the effective cross s
ection
 l re of the c sting
 is re uce , n re uce uctility bec use of the in
ci ence of preexisting voi s.Un erst n ing the re son why these types of shrink 
ge occur is helpful to the esigner in elimin ting or minimizing this egr tio
n c use to mech nic l n physicl properties.  The presence of e ch of thesety

pes of shrink
 ge c n be un erstoo by consi ering the process th t is involve
uring
 soli ific tion, process
 which inclu es the  following list of events.
 Sol
i ific tion Begins by Den rite Nucle tion on Mol W ll Shrink ge Associ te With
Liq -> Sol Results in Loc l V cuum
54
  
A Loc l V cuum
 Tr nsl tes to Pressure
 Gr ient Between Exterior
 n Interior P
ressure Gr ient Results in Liqui Flow Within C sting Tow r Soli ifying Zone

M croshrink ge Poor Riser Design - Riser Soli ifies Before Csting
Atmospheric Pressure = P Shrink
 ge (V cuum) P rtly Soli i• e V cuum Pressure = P
0 = 0 Completely Soli i• e Shrink ge (V cuum)
P0 
Liqui
P0 P
P

Soli
  
Intern l M croshrink ge results when
 the riser
 oes not equ tely
 fee the c st
ing, but the c sting
 h s estblishe soli shell g inst  the mol w ll which
 is
ble to resist eform tion ue to the stresses gener te by the pressure if fe
rence . The result is the retention of l r ge m croshrink ge within the c stin
g.
P  
Shrink ge (V cuum) P rtly Soli i• e
P  
Completely Soli i• e
P0  
Liqui Soli 
Extern l M croshrink ge resultswhen the soli shell
 is not strong enough to res
ist the she r stresses gener te by the pressure if ference.
 The result is the
surf ce coll
 pses into the v cuum cre te by the ensity if ferences resulting
from soli i• c tion.
P
 
Microshrink ge Presence of Den rites M kes  Flui Flow Difficult
Intern
 l microshrink
  ge is very  common
 efect in c stings  where there  is n b
un nceof en rites, where the en rite  rms re long n intertwine . Un er th
ese con itions the bility of the flui to flow  into
 these volumes to t ke up sh 
rink ge s it  is occurring is signific ntly re uce . This problem is ex gger te
s the soli ific tion temper ture r nge, TL - TS, incre ses, n it is lso usu
lly more prev lent in c stings which soli ify more slowly. In these situ  tions
where the en ritic structure m kes p rticul rly tortuous p ths  for flui flow,

even
 proper risering will not elimin te the microshrink ge voi s between the en
rite rms. Extern l microshrink ge is quite often observe in those situ
 tions
where soli
 ific tion is occurring  r ther uniformly throughout the soli ifying me
t l, n where signific nt flui flow is still possible between the
55
    
en rite rms. In these situ tions ( goo  ex mple re pow ers forme by  tomiz
tion in w ter or ir), the pressure
 gr ient gener te between the
 insi e of the

soli
 ifying pow er p
 rticle n the surf ce results in the liqui between
  the
enrites being sucke into the center of the p rticle le ving the en ritesexpo 
se on the surf ce. In those situ tions where microporosity c n not be voi e i
n the c st st te, the integrity
 of the c sting c n by incre se by HIPping (Hot
Isost tic Pressing),
 proce ure where the c sting is subjecte to  high pressure
t n elev te temper ture to physic lly squeeze the pores close . This is n e
xpensive proce ure which is use only in those situ tions where processing cost
is of minor concern.
Riser Design   
Riser esign in s n mol c stings requires, s minimum, th t the riser soli i
fy fter the c sting, i.e.: tS(Riser) > tS(C sting) Thus by Chvorinov’s Rule, BS(R
){V/A}R2
 > BS(C){V/A}C2 where BS(R)  n BS(C) re the mol const nts for the ris
er n c sting respectively,
 n (V/A)R n (V/A)C re the
 volume to re r tios
of the riser n c sting respectively. Itis useful to efine  the r tio (V/A)
s the mo ulus, M, so th t, (V/A)R = MR (Moulus of Riser), n (V/A)C = MC (Mo u
lus of C sting) Thus for successful riser esign, BS(R) (MR)2 > BS(C)  (MC)2 It i
s cle r on stu ying
  this
 equ tion th t ny of the terms present coul , in princi
ple, be v rie in epen ently to insure  th t tS(R )> tS(C). However,
  there re tw
o most likely situ
 tions encountere in pr ctice, situ tions efine below: I. B
S(R) = BS(C), n then MR > MC becomes the criterion th t must be met to insure
th t the risersoli ify fter the c sting. This is by f r the most  common situ t
ion encountere
  in pr ctice, the situ tion in which the riser n the c sting r
e mol e into the s me s n . In pr ctice  it h s been
 observe th t MR > 1.1 MC i
s usu lly sufficient
 to effectively fee the soli ifying c sting.This situ tion
is illustr te below:
COPE B S (C) CASTING RISER DRAG B S (R) P rting Line
B S (R) = B S (C)
56
 
II. BS(R) > BS(C), such th t MR < MC n still the inequ lity tS(R)>tS(C) is o
beye . This is the situ tion when n insul ting riser sleeve is  mol e roun th
e riser c vity.This llows much sm  ller riser to be utilize thereby incre si
ng csting yiel (see p ge 59 for efinition of c sting yiel ). This is illust
r te below:
COPE B S (C) CASTING RISER DRAG B S (R) > B S (C) Riser Sleeve (Insul tor) B S (
R) P rting Line
 
C lcul tion of Mo ulus of Riser n C sting
 
A given
 c sting mo ulus c n be etermine by me suring the volume n surf ce  r
e in epen ently. For simple sh pes this is rel tively str ightforw r s in ic
te by the ex mples below:
V= 3 A = 6 2
CUBE
M = /6
L BAR t w V = Lwt A = 2L(w + t) + 2wt M = Lwt / [2L(w + t) + 2wt]
  
A b r is efine s sh pe in which the length,
 L, is much gre ter th n the wi
th, w, or thickness, t. i.e. L>>w, L >> t, n w = t.

Bec use of the l rge inequ lities
 in the b r mo ulus, the term
 2wt is insignific
nt comp re to 2L(w + t), n thus n estim te of the b r mo ulus becomes: M =
wt / 2(w + t) = Cross
 Section l Are of the B r / Perimeter
  of the B r 
A pl te is e• ne s sh pe in which the lengt,L, n wi th, W, re simil r n
much gre ter th n the thickness, t. i.e. L = W > > t Using logic simil r to b r
bove, bec use LW >> Lt + Wt, we c n neglect l tter. Thus n estim te of Pl te M
o ulus is M=t/2
L PLATE t W V = LWt A = 2(L W + Wt + Lt) M = LWt / 2(L W + Lt + Wt)
57
 
Loc tion of Riser, Size n Sh pe of Riser 
A riser or risers
 will be ppropri tely tt che to the section of c sting with
the l rgest mo ulus. An ex mple of step b r is shown below:
12” 1/4” 4” A
1/2”
T S C 4” 1”
B
4”
 
This c sting is represente by 3 pl tes with mo uli MA = 0.25 / 2= 0.125 in. MB
= 0.5 / 2 = 0.25 in. MC = 1.0 / 2 = 0.5 in. Since MB > 1.1  MA n MC > 1.1 MB,
then the B section of the c sting cts s riser for A n thus the C section w
ill ct s riser for B. There fore riser will be nee e only tosuccessfully
fee the he viest section
 of the c sting, section C. Choices
 inclu e top rise
r t point T or si e riser t point S on the l rge en of the  step b  Both c
r.
hoices will be effective fee ers, the ctu l one chosen
 being
 etermine by nu
mber of other pr ctic l f ctors. More often the si e mounte riser is chosen for
e se of remov l. Riser Sh peThe most efficient sh pe for riser is sphere,
sh pe which minimizesthe surf ce re to volume r tio  thereby m ximizing V/A.
However, pr ctic l mol ing consi er tions f vor cylin ric  l sh pes with height
pproxim tely
 2 times the i meter (h
 = 2 ).For this h/
  r tio it c n be shown
th t (A goo stu ent  exercise)
 the mo uli of the top n si e mounte risers re
: Top Riser, MR = 2 / 9 Si e Riser, MR = / 5
58
   
Thus si e riser on the step b r requires riser with mo ulus MR = /5 = 1.1
MC = 0.55 in.   
A schem tic si e view of the c sting woul look like this. 2.75” h 5.5”
A
B C Riser Connection

This is n equ te size riser for this c sting. However  it is import
 nt to m ke
sure the riser connection is l rge enough so th t it oes not soli ify before t
he c sting. Bec use of the complexity  of the he t trnsfer situ tion ne r the g
te connection, they
 re often
 rrive t by tri l n error. The
 effectiveness o 
f riser is lso etermine
 by whether the riser is consi ere “hot” or “col ”. Hot n
col risers re efine in terms  of their rel tionship to the g ting system of
the csting.This is illustr te in the top view of system cont ining both h
ot n col riser.
AllMolten Met l Entering The C sting P sses Through the “HOT” Riser Thereby He ting
n M king It More Ef fective Runner B se of Down Sprue C sting Riser 1 “HOT” P th 
of Met
 l Flow Riser 2 “COLD” The Molten Met l th t Enters The “COLD” Riser H s Alre y P
sse
 Through the Csting, is only portion of the Met l Entering the C sting
n is therefore Col er
  
Cle rly from fun ment l he t tr nsfer point  of view the col riser nee s to b
e l rger th n the hot riser to ccomplish
 fee ing equiv lent c sting section
 siz
es. Risers re lso cl ssifie s blin or open, these v rieties being efine i
n the sketch below:   
OPEN RISER (Open to Atmosphere) BLIND RISER (Surroun e by S n )
59
     
Number of RisersThe numberof risers
 nee e to effectively
 fee c sting epen

s upon c sting geometry n fee ing ist nce require . This c n be illustr te b
y consi ering the two b r c stings shown below:
t = 4”, w = 4”
R 16”
t = 4”, w = 4”
oooooooooooooo
R RE
ooooooooooooo
EE
100”

The mo ulus of both b rs is given by the estim te, MC = Cross Section l Are (4x
4) / Perimeter
 (16) = 4x4 / 16 = 1 The minimum requirement is th t one riser wit
h mo ulus, MR = 1.1 woul be sufficient.Using the top riser  formul for  ris
er with h = 2 , MR  = 2 / 9, gives cylin ric l riser with = 4.95” n h = 9.9”.
Common
 sense woul
 tell one th t the best position for the
 riser in e ch c se wo
ul be in the mi le of e ch br t the positions  m
 rke R on the sketch. Thus t
he riser on the short b r woul be require to fee ll
 of the shrink
 ge in
 the
16 inch b r, while the s me riser on the long b r woul be require to fee 100
inches. While this m y be s tisf ctory for theshort b r, common sense g in tel
ls us th t it is likely th t the long b r woul cont in some shrink  ge long the
centerline  of the b r,
 perh  ps not ne r the riser or t the en s of the b r but
in the mi regions in icte on the sketch with o’s. In f ct, sectioning the b r
long the centerline woul reve  l situ tion  simil r to the sketch for the long 
b r. App rently e ch riser n e ch b r en is effective t promoting soun (
NO VOIDS)
 c sting imme i tely j cent to either the b r en or the riser. The s
oun ist nce from the  riser long  the b r is s i tobe the Riser Effect,  RE sh
own onthe sketch, n the soun ist nce from the en of the b r is s i to be
the en effect, EE, both of which re shown on the  bove sketch of the 100” b r. W
ork on steel b
  r c stings h s shown th t the gr ient in temper ture long the c
enterline, T/ x, is critic l p r meter in rel ting to whether voi s form or n
ot. It w s shown from steel b rs which
60
  
were instrumente
  with thermocouples long the centerline th t voi s were likely
when T/ x fell below cert in mount.. This is shown schem tic lly below:
AT SOME TIME, t, AFTER POURING Riser

Instrumente Centerline
     
( T/ x) 2 ( T/ x) 1 ( T/ x) 3
  
Itc n be seen in the bove figure th t thegr ient, T/ x, is gre test t the
en of the b r in cont ct with the col mol n t the riser  in cont ct with th
e hot reservoir of molten met l. It w s observe  th t when T/ x t ny time  w s
less th n critic l minimum v lue, ( T/  x)C, th t shrink ge voi
 s forme tth
e centerline. Of course, thelonger the ist nce between the en of theb r n t
he riser, themore likelihoo of voi s. This then expl ins in more rigorous w
y why the voi s show  up in the long  b r on the previous p ge n not in the shor
t
 b r. Thus e ch en of the b r n e ch riser isresponsible
 for pro ucing soun
 m teri l. Selection of the number  of risers nee e then requires
 th t the RE
n EE for e ch m teri l be known n then the risers positione so th t the RE
n EE overlp, or t le st butttogether. For steel b r type c stings it h s bee
n etermine th t RE = 1.5 t n EE = 2 t. Thus for b r with t = 4”, the  RE = 6”
n the EE = 8”, n then the f rthest ist  nce th t
 riser  c n be pl ce from the
en of b r n still result  in soun b r woul be the ist nce RE + EE = 14”.
 The contribution to soun
 b r c stings
 from e ch riser woul then be the riser
i meter
 plus 2RE(fee ing in both irections). For the 4” b r bove, then, the m
ximum ist nce fe  for e ch riser is 4.95  + 12 = 16.95”. Determin tion of the numb
er of risers nee e for the 100” b r is etermine s follows: No. of Risers = (10
0 - 2EE) / (2RE + ) = 4.96, or 5 risers istribute uniformly long the length
with the en risers 14 inches from the en of the b r.

C sting Yiel    
The c sting  yiel is efine s the r tio  : C sting Yiel (CY) = Weight of C sti
ngs Shippe x 100% Weight  of Met l Poure It is obvious th t the go l for met
l c sting pl nt woul be to mke c sting yiel s high s possible. It is lso o
bvious
 th t the riser size n number of risers h s big imp ct on the c sting
yiel
 . It is common pr  ctice for met l c sting pl nts  to h ve over llc sting yi
el s of between
 40 n 80%. M ximiz tion of the yiel will involve re ucing the
number n size of the risers s n
61
 
import nt contributor. Of course, re ucing the  size of the g ting system will l
so h ve signific
 nt effect
 on c sting yiel . Two of the most common w ys to in
cre se yiel re (1) to insul
 ting riser
 sleeves so th t BS(R)c nbe incre
se (see e rlier iscussion)
  n (2) to “chills”
 to the mol to in uce stronger

therm
 l gr ients ( T/ x) thereby exten ing the en effect, or to ctu lly e
n effects in between risers.  This effect  of ”chills”, usu lly blocks of iron or oth
er met l set into the mol , is illustr te below:
EE + t
RE
RE + EE
RE + EE
RE
EE
“CHILLS”
  
IX. He t Tr nsfer n Soli ific tion in Perm nent Mol s
 
The ctu l incre se in length of soun c sting ue to chills  v ries from one m t
eri l to the next, but for steel b rs chill on the  en of the b r will incre
 s
e the EE by the b r thickness,t,
 while chills pl ce between risers will t
le st n EE in either irection.
    
He t tr nsfer between liqui met l n perm nent mol c n lso be escribe m
them
 tic lly inmuch the s me w y s w s one for he t tr nsfer in insul ting mo
l s. The
 m jor ifference  here
 is th t themol m teri l h s much l rger therm
l con uctivity th n s n , n so the soli ific tionwill be much more r pi . In
the insul ting mol
 the r te of tr nsfer in the s n w s the r te limiting step
. Inpermnent mol s the r te limiting step is t theinterf ce between  the met
l n mol  , where
 he t is tr nsfere between
 the soli
 ifying met l n theperm
nent mol , mol which is usu llyco te with mol w sh or m y quickly evelo 
p n ir g p. The p r meter which efines the tr nsfer of he t between met l n
mol in these c ses is c lle the he t tr nsfer coefficient, h. The mo el escr
ibing this event is illustr te below:
Molten Met l

Perm nent Mol
 
He t Flow R te Across Interf ce Q = - Ah[T m - T0] t x-
0
+x Dist nce
  
Notice in this schem tic th t the temper ture rops iscontinuously
 t the mol
- c sting interf ce. He t flow within
 the c sting n in the mol is very r pi
(High Therm l Con uctivity) comp re
62
to therel tively slowtr nsfer crossthe interf ce. Thus the r te of he t remo
v l n therefore soli ific tion r te epen s on the he t tr nsfer coefficient,
h, cross the interf ce. The tot l he t flow in time t is then given by integr t
ing the bove expression, giving:
Q
= − Ah [ T
m
−
T
0
]t
and therefore for the solidification time,tS:
Q S
= −A h T
m
− T
t 0 S
Using the relationshis for Latent Heat and Suerheat given earlier, and solving
for tS gives:
ρ Metal [ ∆H + C V F Metal ( T p – T m ) ] - Metal t S = ------------------------------
------------------------------------- ---------------- h ( Tm – T0 ) A Metal
W iting an exp ession which is a simila  to Chvo inov gives: tS = BS(V/A), whe e
BS is a mold constant and V/A is the modulus of the casting.It should be noted
that, as opposed to solidification in a sand mold in which tS va ies as the squa
e of the casting modulus, solidification in a pe manent mold va ies linea ly wi
th the casting modulus.
Finite Element Analysis of Solidification in a Pe manent Mold - Die Casting
Solidification of castings is a p ocess which is quite complicated because of th
e many va iables which affect the flow of heat du ing solidification. Some of th
ese va iables include: • • • • • • • Position of Gates and Rise s Manne  in which the Molte
etal Ente s the Mold Cavity Mold Cavity Tempe atu e and Unifo mity of Tempe atu 
e Fluid Movement du ing Solidification Pou ing Tempe atu e and Time of Pou ing M
old Mate ial, Inte face Mate ial Deg ee of Sepa ation Between Mold and Metal Du 
ing Solidification etc.
Analytic solutions to solidification in complex shaped castings becomes nea ly i
mpossible because of the va ied cont ibutions f om all of the above va iables. T
he efo e enginee s a e elying on the finite element analysis (FEA) app oach to
solve these p oblems with the help of the powe ful compute s that a e now availa
ble. The discussion to follow makes an attempt to develop
63
the logic used in FEA to desc ibe a simple solidification p oblem involving a mo
lten aluminum cube in a steel mold.Conside  the following simple casting:
Ai  Steel Mold At t = 0 time TAl = 704 oC (1300 oF) T St = 149 oC (300 oF) TAi 
= 22 oC (72 oF)
4 cm
Aluminum Casting
h Al-St = 2300 BTU / h  ft 2 o F = 13058 joule / sec m 2 oC h St-Ai  = 1.75 BTU
/ h  ft 2 o F = 9.93 joule / sec m 2 oC Steel mold = 2 cm thick
4 cm
Using the above simplified equation fo  solidification time in a pe manent mold
and constants given in Table 7 gives: tS = 2.385(g/cm3) {[395.995 + 1.080(704-66
0)](joule / g) / 1.3058 joule / sec cm2 oC / (660-149) (oC)} ( 0.666 cm)=1.055 s
ec Of cou se, this esult eflects the assumption that the mold does not change
tempe atu e and the e is no indication of when solidification is complete in va 
ious places within the casting. A mo e ealistic ep esentation would involve de
te mining tempe atu e va iations within the steel and aluminum and measu ing sol
idification times in va ious places within the casting. This will be done by usi
ng the FEA method to fi st, divide the aluminum and steel into “nodes”, and second t
o dete mine the ate of heat t ansfe  between nodes in disc ete time inte vals.
This method is, of cou se, amenable to doing by compute  ite ations f om one dis
c ete time inte val to the next. Conside  the following Two Dimensional Nodal Ma
p of the aluminum and steel at time t = 0. This map shows only one qua te  of th
e casting and mold because symmet y conditions dictates that the emaining th ee
qua te s will behave in exactly the same manne  as the one qua te .
Al 1 (704) 3 (704) 9 (149) 10 (149) 2 (704) 4 (704) 11 (149) 12 (149) 5 (149) 7
(149) 13 (149) 14 (149) 6 (149) 8 (149) 15 (149) 16 (149) Steel
Initial T = 149 oC Initial T = 704 oC ASSUME: 1. Tempe atu e within each Node is
unifo m and 2. Tempe atu e changes by conduction between nodes of simila  mate 
ial, whe e dQ/dt = KA (T n1 - Tn2) / x. 3. Tempe atu e changes by inte facial t 
ansfe  between nodes of dissimila  mate ial. dQ/dt = hA (T n1 - Tn2) 4. Heat • ows
pe pendicula  to the node walls. 5. Heat does not • ow in o  out of the page.
Ai  = (22)
64
In the above equations, Q is heat in joules, K is the app op iate the mal conduc
tivity of the metallic mate ials (eithe  Al o  Steel), the Tn’s a e the tempe atu 
es of the nodes, A is the c oss sectional a ea of each node face (1cm2), x is th
e distance between node cente s (1 cm), and h is the heat t ansfe  coefficient t
hat applies.Integ ating the above equations ove  the time step ∆t gives the elati
onships shown below fo  heat flow due to conduction and inte face t ansfe . The
final tempe atu e of a node, Tf, esulting f om the sum,ΣQ, of the heat components
into or out of a node during the time interval ∆t is also given below, whe e Ti i
s the initial tempe atu e, V is the volume of the node, ρ is the density of the no
de mate ial, and C is the heat capacity of the node mate ial.
Q = [ KA ( T n1 – T n2 ) ( ( ∆t ) ⁄ x ) ] and Q = hA ( T n1 – T n2 )∆t
T
f
=
T
+ i
ΣQ Vρ C
The app op iate constants fo  computation of the Q’s and Tf fo  each node afte  ea
ch time inc ement can be obtained f om the above numbe s fo  heat t ansfe  coeff
icients on page 63 and the data in Table 7 on page 50 of these notes.
Initial Time Inc ement, ∆t = 0.1 sec
Nodes 1 and 13 do not change tempe atu e du ing the fi st inc ement of time beca
use the su ounding nodes have identical tempe atu es. Only those nodes in conta
ct with a diffe ent mate ial espond with heat flow in the fi st 0.1 sec time in
te val. Conside  nodes 2 and 5 , shown schematically below.
2 (704) 5 (149) Q Q = h Al-St A(T 2 - T5)∆t Q = 13058 . (0.01) 2 . (704 - 149) . 0
.1 Q = 72.21 joules
In the fi st time inc ement ∆t = 0.1 sec, 72.21 joules of heat flows ac oss the no
de bounda y, leaving the liquid Al and ente ing the solid steel mold. This is th
e only heat flow fo  eithe  nodes 2 o  5 in the fi st time inc ement because the
e a e no othe  tempe atu e g adients to which these nodes can espond.(Recall t
hat this is only two dimensional heat flow. We a e not allowing heat flow into o
 out of the page fo  simplicity.) Clea ly then afte  0.1 sec the tempe atu e of
node 2 dec eases and the tempe atu e of node 5 inc eases by an amount dete mine
d by the heat capacity (specific heat) of each unit and the mass of the unit. Re
moving 72.21 joules f om node 2 esults in a tempe atu e dec ease afte  0.1 sec
f om T2 = 704 to :
65
T2 = 704 - 72.21/[13 (2.385) (1.117)} = 704 - 27.1 = 676.9 oC Adding 72.21 joule
s of heat to node 5 esults in a tempe atu e inc ease f om 149 to: T5 = 149 + 72
.21 / [13 (7.87) (0.456)] = 149 + 20.12 = 169.12 oC By symmet y, nodes 3 and 9 a
e identical to nodes 2 and 5. Nodes 4, 7, and 11 expe ience change in the fi st
0.1 sec as follows. Heat will flow f om 4 to 7, and 4 to 11 in the same manne 
as f om 2 to 5 above. Thus nodes 7 and 11 will have the same tempe atu e inc eas
e as node 5, f om 149 to 169.12oC. Howeve  node 4 will have twice as much heat e
xt acted as node 2 and so the tempe atu e will be lowe  than in node 2.
Supe heat and Latent Heat to be emoved befo e Solidification is complete.
At this point it is necessa y to ask the question: How much heat must be ext act
ed f om a molten Al node befo e the melting point is eached, and then befo e th
e latent heat is ext acted? Supe heat in 1 cm3 Al at 704 = CρV∆T = (1.085) (2.385) (
1) (44)= 113.86 joules Latent Heat in 1 cm3 of Al = ∆HFρV = (395.995) (2.385) (1) =
944.45 joule Thus a total of 1058.31 joules of heat needs to be emoved f om a n
ode of pu e Al at 704 oC befo e solidification is complete in that node. Because
node 4 has twice as much heat emoved than node 2 in the same time inc ement, 1
44.42 joules, node 2 will al eady have begun to solidify because mo e heat than
the supe heat has al eady been emoved. An estimate can be made of the f action
of solid p esent by the atio: (144.42 - 113.86) / 944.45 = 0.032, o  3.2% of th
e Al in node 4 has solidified. Thus the tempe atu e of node 4 is 660oC, and will
emain the e until the solidification is complete; i.e. until the emaining 914
joules of latent heat have been emoved. The steel nodes bo de ing the ai  at 2
2oC, nodes 6,8, 10,12, 14, 15, and16 will also unde go a eduction in tempe atu 
e by the amount: T6 = 149 - (0.000993) (1) (127) (0.1) = 149 - 0.0126 = 148.9874
Obviously because of the ve y small heat t ansfe  coefficient between steel and
ai , the tempe atu e dec eases only a ve y small amount fo  those nodes on the
outside of the steel mold. Thus the
66
tempe atu es ( ounded off to the nea est deg ee) in the 16 nodes afte  the fi st
0.1 sec of the FEA is given below:
AFTER TIME 0.1 SEC Al 1 (704) 3 (677) 9 (169) 10 (149) 2 (677) 4 (660) 11 (169)
12 (149) 5 (169) 7 (169) 13 (149) 14 (149) 6 (149) 8 (149) 15 (149) 16 (149) Ai 
(22) Initial T = 704 oC Steel Initial T = 149 oC ed, ~ 3.2%
Notes: 1. Node 4 has pa tially solidi• Shown as da k shaded a ea.
The Second Time Inc ement, ∆t = 0.1 sec (Total Time = 0.2 sec)
The next ite ation in the FEA involves mo e of the nodes in the system because o
f the tempe atu e changes esulting in the fi st time inc ement. Conside  node 1
, which now has the mal g adients between itself and nodes 2 and3.
(704) 1 3 (677) (677) 2 The net heat change in node 1 is given by: ΣQ = Q 1->2 + Q
1->3 ΣQ = + (0.9403) (1) (677 - 704) (0.1) + (0.9403) (1) (677 - 704) (0.1) =5.07
76 joules Thus the temperature of node 1 after 0.2 sec is T1 = 704 -5.0776 / [1
3(2.385)1.1 17)]
Consider node 2 once again. Node 2 has three inputs to heat flow in the second t
ime increment, illustrated below:
Thus the net heat change in node 2 is given by: ΣQ = Q 1->2 + Q 2->5 + Q 2->4 ΣQ = +
(0.9403) (1) (704 - 677) (0.1) / (1) 4 +(1.3058) (1) (169 - 677) (0.1) +(0.9403
) (1) ( 660 - 677) (0.1) / (1) =2.539 - 66.334 - 1.598 = - 65.394 joules From kn
owledge of heat content of Al, only 41.65 joules of superheat remain in node 2,
therefore node 2 will begin to solidify in time increment 2, having a fraction o
f: (65.39 - 41.65) / 944.45 = 2.5% solid, the temperature decreasing to and rema
ining at 660 1 2 5
o
C.
67
A similar calculation for node 4 gives: ΣQ = + 2{(0.9403) (1) (677 - 660) (0.1) /
(1)} + 2{(1.3058) (1) (169 - 660) (0.1)} ΣQ = + 3.197 - 128.229 = - 125.03 joules
This extraction of heat from node 4 removes latent heat only, and so the tempera
ture of node 4 remains at 660oC. The total fraction of solid after increment 2 i
n node 4 is given by the ratio of: 155.6 / 944.42 = 0.1647 or 16.47 % solid. im
ilarly it can be shown by summing the heat flows for the steel nodes that the te
mperatures will increase in the amounts shown below. Nodes 5 & 9: ΣQ = 1.3058 (1)
(667 - 169) (0.1) + [0.782 (1) (149 - 169) (0.1) / (1)] = 64.77 joule Tf = 169 +
64.77 / [ (1) (7.87) (0.456)] = 187.05 Nodes 7 & 11: ΣQ = 1.3058 (1) (660 - 169)
(0.1) + 2[0.782 (1) (149 - 169) (0.1) / (1)] = 60.99 joule Tf = 169 + 60.987 / [
(1) (7.87) (0.456)] = 185.99 Node 13: ΣQ = 2[(0.782) (1) (169 - 149) (0.1) / (1)]
= 3.128 joules Tf = 149 + o.87 = 149.87 Nodes 6, 8, 10, and 12: ΣQ = (0.78) (1) (
169 - 149) (0.1) / (1) + (0.00099) (1) (22 - 149) (0.1) = 1.55 joule Tf = 149 +
1.552 / [(1) (7.87) (0.456)] = 149.432 Nodes 14, 15, & 16 lose only 0.012 joules
, thereby changing only a fraction of a degree (no change).
68
The temperature distribution (rounded off to the nearest degree) after 2 increme
nts of 0.1 sec time is illustrated below:
AFTER TIME 0.2 EC Al 1 (702) 3 (660) 9 (187) 10 (149) 2 (660) 4 (660) 11 (186)
12 (149) 5 (187) 7 (186) 13 (150) 14 (149) 6 (149) 8 (149) 15 (149) 16 (149) Air
(22) Initial T = 704 oC Notes: 1. Node 4 has partially solidi• ed, ~ 16.5% ed, ~2
.5% teel Initial T = 149 oC
2. Nodes 2 and 3 have partially solidi•

olidi• ed part shown as dark shaded area.

Thus solidification and the temperature distribution in the entire casting - mol
d configuration can be observed by systematically: I umming the Heat Flows into
Each Node During Each Time Increment II. Computing the Change in Nodal Temperat
ure As a Result of That Heat Flow Problem: Continue the heat flow scenario descr
ibed above until solidification is complete in node 1. Report your results at cr
itical periods in the process by: a. Including distributions like the above show
ing the progress of solidification b. Including cooling and heating curves for n
odes 1,2,4,5,7,13, and 16 on one graph. Clearly the best way to do this work wou
ld require a computer program to carry our your iterations. IT WILL BE ACCEPTABL
E FOR GROUP  OF UP TO THREE PEOPLE TO TURN IN ONE PAPER.
X. Continuous and emicontinuous Casting
Continuous Casting of teel
The objective of continuous casting is to produce large, simple shapes for subse
quent forming operations, a process which has been carried to great lengths with
the continuous casting of steel slabs and bars. Prior to the mid 1960s, all of
the steel produced in the United tates was done by casting into large ingot mol
ds (usually cast iron) followed by ingot breakdown in the hot rolling mills, a r
elatively inefficient process both thermally (ingots would have to cool signific
antly for handling, and then be heated again prior to breakdown) and from a cast
ing yield standpoint (approximately 80% of the ingot is usable for the productio
n of semi-finished products). According to the 10th edition of “Making, haping, a
nd Heat Treating of teel”, continuous casting of steel has had the greatest impac
t (of all technologies developed and applied in the steel industry) on improving
the efficiency of material utilization, the yield increasing from 80% in
69
ingot casting to 95% in continuous casting. The growth of continuous casting of
steel in the United tates as well as the demise of ingot casting is shown in th
e Figure below:
United tates teel Production
Data From “Making, haping, and Heat Treating of teel”, 10th Ed. & 1995 AI I tatis
tical Report
100 80 60 40 20 0 1960
Continuous Ingot
1968
1976
Year
1984
1992
2000
The continuous casting process is illustrated below together with a schematic of
a conventional ingot mold.
Tundish Water Cooled Mold Water pray Liquid teel ump olid teel aw or hear
Conventional Ingot
The process of continuous casting involves supplying a tundish (storage and tran
sfer vessel) with molten steel and then metering that steel into a water-cooled
mold whose bottom is the steel billet or slab. This slab or billet is bent as it
moves and large conveniently sized pieces are cut or sheared for further proces
sing. It should be noted that the liquid sump can extend a significant distance
down into the casting. The operators must be careful so that remelting doesn’t occ
ur and cause a runout. Other advantages over conventional ingot casting in addit
ion to increased efficiency include higher production rates, and finer microstru
ctures (smaller dendrite arm spacings) due to water cooling the smaller cross-se
ction castings. The finer dendrite arm spacing is a structure which is more easi
ly deformed and less likely to fail during that mechanical processing. In additi
on, the larger section ingot castings are more likely to be plagued by macrosegr
egation, in which segregation due to gravity differences produce significant cha
nge in chemical composition from one point to another on a macroscale.
70
emi - Continuous casting of Aluminum Alloys, Free machining brass
Tundish Water Cooled Mold Water pray Liquid ump
olid Casting Base Block
Continuous casting is clearly the most efficient way to produce stock for furthe
r mechanical processing of metals. However the casting of non-ferrous alloys bas
ed on aluminum or copper is most often done in a semi-continuous mode, a schemat
ic of which is indicated in the above figure. Initially the base block is snug u
p against the water-cooled mold. Casting commences by pouring directly onto the
base block and then moving the base block downward as solidification progresses.
There is no attempt to bend the casting. Rather the casting extends down into a
well, typically 20 to 30 feet deep. When the base block reaches the bottom of t
he well the casting process is over. Most aluminum alloys produced for wrought a
pplications are made this way, producing ingots about 20 feet long by 3-4 feet w
ide by 1.5-2 feet thick. Free machining brasses (Cu35Zn-3Pb) are produced in a s
imilar way with three cylindrical “logs” produced simultaneously with dimensions of
about 12 inches by 20 - 30 feet long. Advantages of this technique over static c
ast ingots are the same as given above for the continuous cast steel. Continuous
casting of some non-ferrous products does occur but the relative proportion is
quite small.
71
Microstructure of Continuous and emi-continuous Castings
The microstructure of castings produced in this way is illustrated below:
Q
Chill Zone - Equiaxed, Fine Grained tructure on surface of casting (many nuclei
) Columnar Zone -Elongated Grains extending from Chill Zone toward Center of Bil
let (originate as favorably oriented chill zone grains) Equiaxed Zone - Equiaxed
, Large Grains which form in the last part of the billet to solidify.
Q
Weakness
Plane of
Q
Q = Heat Q
Typical Continuous Cast Billet Grain tructur e, As- olidi• ed
This schematic illustrates the basic process of grain (dendrite) nucleation and
growth in a continuous cast billet. The above cross section illustrates the thre
e common grain structures observed in these types of castings. The outer “chill” lay
er is made up of a very fine equiaxed grain structure which has nucleated as a r
esult of the large undercooling present at the surface. This quickly changes to
a columnar structure which extends from the chill layer in towards the center of
the casting, the columnar (long and narrow) grains (dendrites) being extensions
of chill grains (in favorably oriented [100] directions) which grow parallel to
the direction of heat flow. During the columnar growth time, nucleation of new
grains (dendrites) occurs in the remaining liquid volume in the center of the bi
llet, grains which grow in an equiaxed manner into the remaining liquid. olidif
ication is complete when the columnar grains encounter the growing equiaxed grai
ns. It is thought that the nuclei which ultimately end up as the equiaxed grains
in the center come from the growing columnar dendrites, where secondary arms ha
ve broken off of the columnar dendrites (as a result of chemical, mechanical or
thermal instabilities in the melt) and have been swept out into the liquid. Thes
e nuclei then either survive and grow giving the equiaxed grains, or are remelte
d in the remaining liquid allowing the columnar grains to grow to the center of
the casting. The occurrence of the columnar zone is not a favorable structure fo
r hot working processes, the contact area between columnar zones at right angles
to each other being a dumping ground for segregants, porosity, inclusions, etc.
which become effectively planes of weakness (see the above schematic) in the ca
sting. It is therefore desirable to produce castings which have no columnar zone
, a situation which is favored by reducing the superheat (increasing the chances
of nuclei survival in the center), or by stirring the liquid thereby mechanical
ly removing some dendrite arms for transport to the central part of the casting.
tirring can be accomplished in certain instances
72
electromagnetically, and in other cases by shaking or moving the casting to gene
rate shock waves which affect the arms of the growing dendrites. The idea of che
mical, thermal, or mechanical forces dislodging dendrite arms to send them into
other parts of the solidifying casting can be better understood when the physica
l shape of these dendrite arms is considered.This reality is described in the sc
hematic below: Photographs of dendrites in real crystals inevitably reveal situa
tions which look remarkably like the above sketch. There is no direct proof that
these “released” arms are in fact the source of the equiaxed grains in the center o
f the castings, but the circumstantial evidence is almost overwhelming.
XI. olidification, Binary ystem
Equilibrium olidification
Equilibrium solidification in a binary system assumes that diffusion occurs with
in the solid and adequate mixing occurs in the liquid so that the compositions d
escribed by the phase diagram are Liquid, L obeyed. The attached schematic phase

diagram is TL used in the description

of both equilibrium and T0 L+β non-equili r
ium solidific tion. During equili α+L α TE rium solidific tion the first ph se to p
pe r is the termin
l solid solution
α of composition kCo t the temper ture TL, wh
ere k is the
equili rium
distriα+β ution coefficient nd Co is the lloy compositio
n.The equili rium distri ution coefficient is defined s the r tio of the compos
ition of the solid CE Co CM to
th t of the liquid t given temper ture, v lu
e kCo Wt. Pct Solute which c n e determined from the ph se di gr m. Solidific t
ion is complete
t temper ture T0 nd the composition of solid re ches Co. The l
ever rule c n e used to compute the weight percent ge of the ph ses α & β present i
n the temper ture r nge TL to T0.


Non Equili rium Solidific tion


In re l situ tions involving solidific tion, the l rgest dep rture from equili r
ium

results from the f ct th t diffusion in solids usu lly c nnot
m int in equil
i rium in the solid st te
during solidific tion. In lloys
with su stitution l s
olute toms which diffuse y v c ncy mech nism, the num er of v c ncies nd th
e st tistic l n ture in
which they move preclude the solid ph se
m int ining the
composition required y the ph se di gr m during the time v il le to the soli
difying
c sting. Only those

solutes which re interstiti l nd h ve mostly empty
neigh oring sites (c r on in iron for ex
mple) c n even hope to keep up with th
e dict tes of the ph se di gr m. In the ove figure, then, the composition kCo
of the initi l solid

to form rem ins t or ne r th t v
lue during nd fter c st
ing.

With cooling elow TLthe new solid to form will o ey the ph se di gr m nd
e richer in solute th n the first to form. The net result of this is th t when
the temper ture T0 is re ched THE AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE SOLID α IS LESS THAN
Co
nd there is still some liquid left; the c sting must go to lower temper ture
s efore solidific tion is
73
Temper ture


complete. In eutectic systems
like the one shown ove, the fin l temper ture of
solidific tion will in f ct e the eutectic temper ture, TE. The pr ctic l resu
lt of this situ tion is th t re l c stings re not homogeneous in composition th
roughout, with lloy segreg tion occurring on microscopic sc le.
The Scheil Equ tion

The simplest w y to illustr te this non-equili rium situ tion is to consider the
one dimension l solidific tion of n lloy of composition Co under the conditio
ns where NO SOLID STATE DIFFUSION OCCURS
nd WHERE COMPLETE MIXING IN THE LIQUID
OCCURS; i.e. the liquid m int ins equili rium with the solid interf

ce during c
ooling nd the solid interf
ce will ch nge
composition in equili rium with the h
omogeneous liquid. This c n e visu lized y considering the following schem tic
ONE DIMENSIONAL solidific tion process where the solid liquid interf

ce will mo
ve s pl n r interf ce from right to left in response to the he t eing extr c
ted to the left. Liquid (Complete Mixing) Solid Solid Solid (No Solid St te Diff
usion) t=0 T = TL t = t1 t = t2 t = t3 T = TE
Q Q Q Q
Solute Composition (Weight %)
CE
Liquid Composition Solid Composition
CM Co kCo 0 Fr ction Solid, f 1



In the ove sketch it c n e seen th t the solid composition st rts t kCo on t
he left nd then gr du lly incre ses in non-line r f shion

s solidific tion p
rogresses to the right incre sing until the m ximum solu ility of solute in α is r
e ched , CM t TE. At the s me time the liquid composition incre ses over ll unt
il the eutectic composition is re ched t the eutectic temper ture. At this poin


t the rem ining liquid will undergo eutectic re ction forming α + β. It c n e sho
wn
74


th t the equ tion descri ing the non-line r solid

composition, CS, from left to
right is known s the Scheil equ
tion, given elow: CS = kCo {1/(1- f)}1-k This
v
ri tion in composition descri es qu ntit tively the segreg tion of solute in
in ry lloy which h s solidified under these one dimension l conditions of pl
n r interf ce movement. Of course most re l solidific tion events involve the fo
rm tion nd growth of dendrites, which is not pl n r solidific

tion event on
m crosc le. However on microsc le during solidific tion etween dendrite rms
, the pl n r front description is f irly
ccur te represent

tion of dendrite
rm f ttening fter the dendrite h s lre dy een est lished. This is shown in t
he following schem tic represent tion of dendritic growth.
d, Dendrite Arm Sp cing Cored Solid Eutectic Liquid Cored Solid Dendrite Arm F t
tening Coring (No SSD, Complete Mixing in Liquid)
Solute Composition
CE CM Co kCo
Dendrite Arm Lengthening
Scheil Equ tion Rel tionship in solid dendrite illustr ting MICROSEGREGATION OF
SOLUTE (Copper in Al)



It c n e seen in the ove sketch th t the f ttening of dendrite rms mirrors o
n microsc le the one dimension l growth pictured on p ge 74. Even though the c
onditions of solidific tion on m crosc le is definitely not pl n r front solid
ific tion (dendritic growth is quite the opposite of pl n r front solidific tion
in which the dendrite rms r ce out into the liquid in response to composition
l nd therm l fluctu
tions t the solid - liquid interf ce) the conditions for g
rowth (f ttening) in etween dendrite rms pproxim te the conditions of no soli
d st te diffusion nd
complete mixing in the liquid required to develop the Sche
il Equ tion. This is ec use the dendrite rm sp cing is quite sm ll, on the ord
er of 10 to 100 microns (0.01 to 0.1 millimeters), nd
liquid st te diffusion is
r pid enough to ccomplish mixing in the microvolume etween dendrite rms. Typ
ic lly liquid st te diffusion coefficients

re on the order of 10-6 cm2 / sec. U
sing the time tested rel tionship etween the dist nce n tom c n move x, nd t
he diffusion

coefficient D, nd time t, [x = (Dt)1/2] , gives x = 0.1 mm for r
e son le solidific tion time of 100 seconds. This me ns th t
tomic diffusion o
f solute within the liquid is sufficient to m int

in re son ly uniform compos
ition in those microvolumes. In the schem tic ove the fin l product consists o
f
75
dendrite rms (the center of which represents the first to freeze (FTF) p rt of
the c sting) with gr dient of solute

perpendicul r to the dendrite rm (coring
) nd volume of eutectic product etween the dendrite rms representing the l
st to freeze (LTF) p rt of the c sting. This is very common configur tion in c
ommerci l c st microstructures. Of course

most commerci l c st m teri ls re mul
ticomponent lloys in which there m y e sever l
m jor solute
species dded for
one re son or nother. Those solutes with equili rium distri ution

coefficients,
k,
less th n 1 (Cu in Al) will segreg te in the m nner

shown ove,

solutes des
cri ed s positive segreg nts. Solutes with n equili rium distri ution coeffici
ent gre ter th n 1 (Ni in Fe) will segregreg te in the opposite w y, with decre
sing solute content s the dendrite f ttens. These solutes re s id to segreg te
neg tively.
XII. Aluminum Alloys


Aluminum is very import nt met l ec use of its low density nd excellent
mech
nic l properties, properties which stem l rgely from its f ce centered cu ic cr
yst l structure. It is lloyed with elements

like Mg, Si, Cu, Mn, Fe, etc. to pr
oduce v riety of wrought products
from ever ge c ns to ircr ft structur

l p
rts, to c st

products like engine locks nd steering knuckles for utomo iles.
The figure elow illustr tes the mounts of prim
ry nd second ry luminum produ
ced nd the mount shipped in the ye r 1989 for ever ge c n nd c sting product
ion:
U.S. Production of Al
Prim ry Aluminum 4.03 Second ry Aluminum 2.05 New 1.04 Old 1.01
P rti l U.S. Consumption of Al
Bever ge C ns 1.37
C stings
Perm nent & SemiS nd Perm nent Die 0.690 0.196 0.112
Wrought & C st Products


Num ers in Million Metric Tons (1989 D t )
Aluminum St tistic l Review for 1990; The Aluminum Associ tion



It c n e seen th t the ulk of the luminum produced in the U.S. goes into the
production of wrought products.

An ex mple of the l rgest single product tonn ge
-wise
is the production of ever ge c ns; more luminum is used in the productio
n of ever ge c ns in given ye r th n is used in the production of c stings fo
r ll pplic tions. Another signific nt industri l f ct is th t l rge fr ction

of the second ry luminum production comes s result of the recycling of eve
r76



ge c ns; out 60 percent of the m teri l used to produce ever ge c ns in 1989
were recycled through the second ry m rket, good source of m teri l for c sti
ng production.
Aluminum C sting Alloys

The most import nt luminum c sting lloys, on tonn
ge sis, re those which
depend upon the eutectic re ction to improve c
st ility, to lower energy input
nd pouring temper ture, nd to produce desir le c st microstructures. These l
uminum
lloys cont in prim rily Si, Mg, nd Cu. The det ils of
the ph se di gr m
s for in ry
nd tern ry lloys cont ining these elements c n e found in the p
propri te h nd ooks. Det ils of luminum

foundry products nd c st luminum prop
erties re given in the Met ls H nd ook, ninth edition, p ges 140 - 179; the stu
dent is encour ged to re d those sections.


Processing nd Microstructure of Sever l Selected Al - se Si Alloys
Alloy 356.2 (Nomin l Composition

7 Si, 0.1 Cu, 0.35 Mg, 0.05 Mn, 0.12 m x Fe) Th
is hypoeutectic Al - Si se lloy represents n import nt luminum c sting llo
y, n lloy utilized for higher strength nd ductility utomotive nd ircr ft
pplic tions. The function of the lloy elements present

re s follows: Si - Low
ers solidific
tion temper ture, promotes good c st ility, improves we r resist
nce. Mg - Com ines with Si during he t tre tment to produce

Mg2Si precipit tes i
n the luminum rich m trix. Cu - Strengthens m trix y solid solution strength
ening nd through precipit tion h rdening Fe - minimum mount reduces neg tive e
ffect of pl telets of Fe2Si2Al9. Solidific tion of 356.2 Solidific tion of this
m teri
l involves the production first of proeutectic luminum rich α dendrites fo
llowed y the form tion of the eutectic product cont ining prim rily luminum n
d pl telets
of silicon. A schem tic cooling curve for such solidific tion even
t is given elow:
660.4 0C
Liquid, L
Proeutectic α
α+ L α 1.65 α+β 7
577 0C
12.6
L +β
Eutectic α + β Time
Weight Percent Si
77


Schem tic microstructures simil r to this lloy re shown in the first l or tor
y h ndout. The presence of Mg nd Fe in this lloy gives n opportunity for the
form tion of chinese-script eutectic of α + Mg2Si nd pl telets of Fe2Si2Al9 in
ddition to the Si pl telets. These pl te-sh ped ph ses produced in typic l
s nd
c stings provide e sy cr ck nucle tion sites nd prop g tion p ths , there y re
sulting in rel tively low strengths nd ductility. Modific tion of 356.2 In ppl
ic tions where strength nd ductility re not import nt, the
s nd c stings with
the pl tesh ped second ph se morphology

is considered

ccept le. However, highe
r strengths nd ductilities c n e re lized y the ddition of sm ll mounts of
N or Sr to the melt ( process c lled modific tion) just prior to pouring the c
stings (See section on dditives in these notes). This
dditives effectively ch
nges the sh pe of the silicon from pl tes to rods there y reducing the cr ck nu
cle tion

nd prop g tion potenti l. See the schem tic modified microstructure

in
the l or tory h ndout #1. This

process h s the potenti l to dou le the ductili
ty nd incre se the strength y 25
%. Age H rdening 356.2
Following solidific ti
on, the 356.2 lloy c stings c n e further strengthened y precipit tion of the
Mg2Si s fine coherent p rticles within the m trix.
[The student is urged to
consult n ppropri te physic l met llurgy text for sic description of the f
und ment ls of precipit

tion h rdening.] The he t
tre tment schedule needed for
this process is given elow together with qu si in ry ph se di gr m for the l
uminum - Mg2Si system:
660 0 C α
L
Typic l He t Tre tment Schedule
Solution Tre t 12 hour 13
α +L
1.85
595 0C
520 - 530
W ter Quench α + Mg 2Si 65 - 100 0C
150 - 155
Aging Tre tment 3 - 5 hours
Wt Pct Mg 2 Si
Time
The solution tre tment time of 12 hours t 525 OC is designed to dissolve the eu
tectic Mg2Si p rticles in the solution (which formed

s result of segreg tio
n, coring, during solidific tion) nd to redistri ute the Mg
nd Si uniformly th
roughout.

It is known th t up to 1.85 wt. pct. Mg2Si (see ove ph se di gr m) i
s solu le in the m trix t 595 OC.
If it is ssumed th t ll of the Mg which i
s present in the lloy (0.35 %) c n e t ken into solution, this gives ~ 0.52 wt
. pct.
Mg2Si s potenti l precipit tes on ging. Quenching into hot w ter is fol
lowed y ging t 155 for 3 - 5 hours during which time the coherent tiny streng
thening precipit tes of Mg2Si re formed in the
78
solid solution.The
effect of ging time on the tensile properties of A 356.2 ll
oys is illustr ted elow:
45 40 35 30 25 0 2 4 6 8 Aging Time (Hours) 10 12 Yield Strength Percent Elong t
ion D t From Shivkum r , Keller & Apeli n AFS Tr ns ctions Volume 97, Pg 905 -
91 1 1990 10 8 6 4 2 0
Alloy 319.1 (Nomin l Composition 6 Si, 3.5 Cu, 0.1 M x Mg, 1.0 M x Fe, 0.1 M x N
i) This is n import nt
lloy used to produce c stings in perm nent molds,
hyp
oeutectic lloy which, ec use of the presence of Cu, is lso ge h rden le. Th
e m jor elements, Si nd Cu, re present in n
mount so th t solidific tion pro
ceeds in simil r w y
to lloy 356.2, n mely y the production

of proeutectic d
endrites of α followed y eutectic re ction in which oth Si nd Al2Cu c n form
in eutectic products surrounding
the dendrites of α. A microstructure of this llo
y could look like the schem tic elow: Fe - Cont ining Pl telets Fe2Si2Al9 Eutec
tic α Section Through Proeutectic Dendrite Arm Al2Cu Si (β)
SDAS Composition Cu Si Dist nce Segreg tion of Cu nd Si within dendrite due to “C
oring”
79
In

this schem tic microgr ph the position of

the proeutectic

α dendrites re shown
y d shed lines to indic te the im gin ry ound ry etween dendritic α nd eutect
ic α. The eutectic Si (β) is shown s pl telets, the eutectic Al2Cu s individu l p
rticles, nd the Fe-rich pl telets ll sh re the interdendritic volume with the
eutectic α. In ddition the segreg tion of Cu nd Si within the dendrites ( s re
sult of solidific

tion) is shown s positive segreg tion event; i.e. the compo
sition of oth Si nd Cu incre ses with incre sing dist nce from the center of t
he dendrite. Like the 356.2 lloy, tt ining the optimum in mech nic l
propertie
s will involve precipit tion h rdening tre
tment, solutionizing t out 500 0
C (put the Al2Cu
into solution nd redistri ute the Cu uniformly in the dendrite
rms) followed y hot w ter quenching nd n ging tre tment in the r nge 130 -
190 0C. Mech nic l properties
re in the s me

r nge s lloy 356.2. Further ref
inement of this m teri l c
n e ccomplished y modifying the eutectic with N o
r Sr, like lloy 356.2, or y the ddition of gr in refining gent such s TiB
; the TiB dditive is effective t providing more nucle tion sites for the dendr
itic α product. Alloy KS 281 (Germ n ) [Nomin l 18
Si, 1.2 Cu, 1.1Mg, <1.3 Ni, <0.
7Fe, <0.3 Mn, < 0.2 Ti] This hypereutectic Al - Si se
lloy represents moder
n m teri l used for the production of utomotive pistons y perm nent molding


technique, n pplic tion which requires good we r resist nce nd re son le hig
h temper ture strength. In this lloy, the high silicon content ensures the form
tion of the h rd, we r resist nt proeutectic β (see the p rti l ph se di gr m on
p ge 58) prior to the eutectic re ction in which the rem ining liquid tr nsforms
to the Si nd Al2Cu ph ses in
the eutectic α m trix. The s - c st microstructure
is illustr ted schem tic lly elow:
Proeutectic Si (β)
Eutectic α
Eutectic Al2Cu
Eutectic Si (β)


The domin nt fe ture of this microstructure

re the locky proeutectic Si - rich
p rticles,

the rem ining structure eing composed of the eutectic products ment
ioned ove. Processing KS 281 Processing this m teri l
involves speci l effor
t to refine the proeutectic

product; finesc le

distri ution of the proeutectic


product is more desir le th n co rse distri ution. This is ccomplished y t
he ddition of 60 - 80 ppm (p rts per million) of phosphorous, dded to the melt
80
in the form of Cu - P lloy fter the deg ssing oper tion (Deg ssing
is n imp
ort nt step in the production of Al lloy c stings, process descri ed elsewher
e in these notes).The ddition of the phosphorous cre tes conditions for more nu
cle tion of the proeutectic

β during cooling of the c sting. Strengthening of

this
m teri l is ccomplished y the s me precipit tion h rdening process descri ed
for lloys 356.2 nd 319.1. The det ils of this he t tre tment include solutio
nizing step of ~ 1 hour t 510 0C, hot w ter quench (70 0C for 8 minutes), nd
5 hour ging tre tment t 230 0C.
XIII. Additives To Molten Met l
A. Ch rging
Molten met l processing often involves procedure where dditives re introduce
d to the

molten met l t some st ge in the sequence of oper tions shown schem ti
c lly elow: B. T pping
C. Mold Pouring Mold
Furn ce
L dle
D. In-Mold Points of ddition in the sequence include during ch rging, t pping,
mold

pouring,
nd in the mold.The

re sons for dditions re m ny nd v ried, n
um er of these eing listed
elow: A. Alloying dditions for
control of chemic l
composition - these c n e m de in the furn ce ch rge (A ove) or t some poin
t fter the met l is molten. Amounts from 0 to sever l % re typic lly dded. Th
e choice of t wh t st ge the lloy is dded depends prim rily upon the e se wit
h which the lloy melts or goes into solution. B. Additions for the purpose of p
roviding nucle tion sites for ph se or ph ses these re
usu lly m de t some p
oint

fter ch rging. Amounts re usu lly sm ll, nd m y e s sm ll s 0.02 % to
e effective. A cl ssic ex mple of this type of ddition is the inocul tion pro
cess in gr y nd ductile c st irons. This process, where ferrosilicon lloy is
dded for the purpose of nucle ting gr phite, v ries from pl nt to pl
nt nd fr
om c sting to c sting. Most pl nts
inocul te t the t pping st ge (B ove) when
the met l
flows into the l dle, ut m y dd “insur nce” inocul nt when the mold is
poured (C ove) or they m y ctu lly put sm
ll mount of inocul nt into
the g
ting system (The so-c lled In-Mold St ge D ove). In this process it h s een
shown th t the l ter the ddition point the more effective is the inocul nt. It
is lso true th t the l ter the ddition
the more expensive the process;
it cost
s

nothing extr to deliver p per g filled with inocul nt t point B ut m y
e quite expensive to deliver controlled mount t points C nd D. This cl ss
will experience the rel tive complexity of inocul tion in the g ting experiment
on gr y c st iron, in which we will ttempt to deliver controlled mount using
Hickm n - Willi m’s commerci l unit (The Post Inocul nt Feeder PIF). The f ct th
t l teness is import nt for effective inocul tion implies th t time in the met l
is detriment l to the form tion of nuclei. The inocul nt is s id to “f
de” with tim
e. Most processing requirements, for ex mple, specify th t the c sting e poured
no l ter th n 10 minutes fter inocul tion if inocul tion occurs t point B. If
the time is exceeded then the molten met l is usu lly “pigged” to
81
 void pouring c stings of uncert in qu lity. The
det iled effects of inocul nt
dditions of processing in gr y c st irons will e covered l ter on in these note
s. C. Additions for the purpose
of ch nging the sh pe of

the ph ses th t form du
ring solidific tion - these c n e m de t ll of the ove points in processing
, depending upon the m teri l nd the go l of processing. Amounts g in re quit
e sm ll, usu lly on the order of 0.01 to 0.05 wt.%. Good ex mples of this proces
sing re I.,the ddition of sodium (N ) or strontium (Sr) to luminum - silicon
lloys to force ch nge in sh pe of the eutectic silicon from pl te-sh pe to ro
d-sh pe nd II., the ddition of m gnesium (Mg) to c st iron liquid to ccompl
ish sh pe ch nge from pl te-like to spheroid l. The ddition of N to luminum
-silicon lloys is termed “modific tion” nd the ddition of Mg to c st iron is term
ed “tre tment”. Both of these dditions result in signific nt enough microstructur l
ch nge th t mech nic l properties re imp cted gre tly. This is especi lly true
for c st iron where the ductility ch nges from essenti lly zero for the fl ke-s
h ped eutectic gr phite (Gr y Iron) to v lues in the r nge 0 to 20 % Elong tion
for the spheroid l sh ped
gr phitic iron (Ductile Iron).The det ils of processin
g ductile c st iron will e discussed t l ter pl ce in these notes. D. Additi
ons for the purpose of refining gr in size during solidific tion or for limiting
gr in growth in the solid st te fter solidific tion is complete. These dditio
ns re usu lly m de in the ch rge or on t pping the furn ce into the l dle, nd
g in the mounts dded re
often quite sm ll, in the r nge of 0.01 to 0.04 %. A
n ex mple cited here would e th t of dding tit nium to luminum lloy semi-con
tinuous c stings, where the tit nium is often wire-fed
into the tundish feeding
the l rge vertic lly

descending ingots. The mech nism y which the refinement oc
curs is thought

to e result of the
form tion of tit nium oxides which then hi
nder gr in ound ry movement during su sequent nne ling oper tions. E. Addition

s for the purpose

of removing g seous impurities
in melt. These dditions m y
e m de either y purging melt with g s or y dding compounds which will re
ct chemic lly with the impurity, forming n oxide or some solid compound which
then goes into the sl g nd is removed. The most common
ex mple of the former is
the deg ssing of luminum lloys (removing

hydrogen) y
purging with rgon cont
ining SF6, s demonstr ted in the l or tory nd descri ed e rlier in these not
es. Of course, since this oper tion requires signific nt mount of time to c r
ry to completion, it is necess rily completed in the melting or holding furn ces
. An ex mple of the l tter is the deg ssing oper tion (removing oxygen) in coppe
r lloys where compound cont ining phosphorous (often CuP3) is dded nd the p
hosphorous re cts with the oxygen ndthe resulting compound goes into the sl g.
A simil r deoxidizing step is used in the production of steel, where elements

li
ke silicon, luminum, or m gnesium re used to form oxides which then
c n e rem
oved in the sl g. All of these dditives with the exception of A ove result in
microstructur l ch nge to degree which is out of proportion to the mount
of
the dditive used. It is useful to point out th t the dditives re inv ri ly f
irly ctive elements chemic lly, elements for ex mple th t oxidize re dily in c
omp rison to the other elements present. These re import nt “control rods” which th
e m teri ls engineer h d t his/her dispos l to ensure th t qu lity product is
produced consistently from one d y to the next. Even though the qu ntity of the
dditive is very sm ll, the presence of these ctive elements within the melt
t the critic l time of solidific tion is sufficient to ffect nd direct either
the nucle tion event nd/or the growth events in the solidific tion process. For
ex m-
82


ple it is thought th t inocul tion in c st iron results y the form tion nd gro
wth of nuclei within the melt, nuclei which provide cryst llogr phic lly conveni
ent sites for nucle tion of the gr phite. In the c se of modific tion of Al - Si
lloys nd tre tment of c st irons, the presence

of the ctive elements t the
growing ph se interf ces is likely responsi le for ltering the cryst llogr phic
m nner in which growth occurs.
XIV. C st Iron


C st iron is useful engineering m teri l which h s een known in some form for
sever l thous

nd ye rs. The c st irons th
t we use tod y re prim rily lloys o
f iron, c r on nd silicon in which the c r on is present in either

gr phitic fo
rm (pure C, hex gon
l structure) or s n intermet llic
iron c r ide compound (t
he most common one eing

cementite or Fe3C, n orthorhom ic cryst l structure).
C st irons represent y f r the l rgest tonn ge of c st-to-sh pe products produc
ed in the

world. (Of course the l rgest tonn ge of c st m teri l is steel whic
h is su sequently mech nic lly
formed into wrought products.) The r nges of comp
ositions nd the respective c r on forms nd
distinctive

microstructur l fe ture
s for the common c st irons re given in T le 8: T le 8: C st
Iron Composition
nd Microstructures Type of Iron Gr y Iron Ductile Iron M lle le Iron White Ir
on Comp cted Iron R nge of C Weight % 2.5-4.0 3.0-4.0 2.0-2.6 1.8-3.6 3.0-4.0 R
nge of Si Weight

% 1.0-3.0 1.8-2.8 1.1-1.6 0.5-1.9 1.8-2.8 Eutectic Product Gr p
hite vs. C r ide Gr phite Gr phite Cementite, Fe3C Cementite, Fe3C Gr phite Rods
Gr phite Sh pe Pl telets Spheres Popcorn



It is gener

lly ccepted th t the composition

of these m teri ls e descri

ed in
terms of oth
the composition of c r on nd silicon. Thus
the term c r on equiv


lent, CE, h s een dopted where: CE = %C + 1/3 %Si The ove rel tionship etw
een CE = 4.3, C, Surf ce of Tern ry nd Si represents the equ tion of the eutect
ic v lley on the Fe - C - Si tern ry ph se di gr m Fe - C - Si Ph se Di
gr m 4.3
= %C + 1/3%Si shown. Alloys whose CE is gre ter th n 4.3 re s id
to e hypereu
tectic nd lloys whose Eutectic CE is less th n 4.3 re s id to e hypereutecti
c. V lley Most gr y c st irons re hypoeutectic nd most ductile c st irons re
hypereutectic for re sons which

re ssoci ted with the c st Hypo Hyper (Gr phit
e) microstructure predicted y this di gr m.In

(Pro - Austenite) Fe the hypoeute
ctic gr y c st irons the proeutecWt Pct C r on 4.3 tic ustenite dendrites re t
he first constituent to form. On the other h nd gr phite spheroids
Wt Pct Sil ico n
83


re the first constituent to form in ductile
c st irons. White irons nd m lle
le irons re lw ys hypoeutectic. In m lle le irons gr phite spheroids (so - c
lled popcorn sh pe) form from the eutectic cementite during solid st te he t t
re tment. This m teri
l h s simil r properties to ductile

iron in its

he t tre t
ed st te. Ph se Equili ri in C st Iron Systems, St le nd Met st le Di gr ms
The microstructure of c st 3. irons depends upon the composition, Liquid, L proc
essing nd therm l history of the m teri l. The st rting point for γ+L understandi
n the basics of cast iron metallury requires a workin L + Gr γ knowlede of the
phase diaram or 1. phase diarams that apply to the specific cast iron. Most c
ast irons are relγ + Gr atively complex (like most commercial materials), with in α+γ
2. excess of 3 components. However α + γ + Gr the elementscarbon and  silicon determ
ineto a lare deree the α microstructure of the c st pro uct imme i tely fter s
oli ific
 tion. The α + Gr t ble on the
 previous p ge, however, shows th t there is
wi
 e r nge of ccept ble c rbon n silicon v lues sp nning the types of iron
s n even 4.3 C rbon Equiv lent, CE  4.0within
one type. Common
 lloy eleγ = aust
enite (fcc) α = ferrite (bcc) ments e in ition inclu e m nRe ctions: g nese
(Mn), copper (Cu), nickel 1. Eutectic Re ction. L -> γ + Gr (Ni), molybdenum  (Mo)
, and chro2. Eutectoid Reaction γ -> α + Gr mium (Cr). These elements re e 3. P
eritectic Re ction L + α -> γ primarily as a means of controllin the matrix microst
ructure, havin only a small effect upon the solidification microstructure. The
material to follow is an attempt to utilize a basic understandin of phase diar
ams to help sort out some of the possible alternatives durin solidification. A
schematic vertical section throuh the stable Fe - C - Si phase diaram (isoplet
h) is iven above. This diaram represents a vertical section throuh the sketch
on the previous pae at a fixed amount of silicon, i.e. a section parallel to t
he Fe - C axis. It can be seen that the eutectic point is at a composition, CE =
4.3 and that hypoeutectic alloys obviously have proeutectic austenite formin a
nd hypereutectic alloys have proeutectic raphite. Unlike the situation with bin
ary alloys, reactions like eutectics and eutectoids can occur over a temperature
rane. This is indicated for the eutectoid reaction where a three phase α + γ + Gr
reion exists. The three phase reion γ + Gr + L also exists at the eutectic tempe
rature but the temperature rane is quite small and will not be shown here to av
oid difficulties in interpretin the metastable diarams to follow. Consider the
solidification of an alloy with a CE = 4.0 as shown above. The first material t
o solidify are dendrites of proeutectic austenite, dendrites which row into the
liquid enrichin it in carbon until the eutectic reaction temperature is reache
d. The equilibrium reaction, L -> γ + Gr, requires sinificant undercoolin before
nucleation takes place. Temperature
84
Assumin that this equilibrium reaction does indeed occur, then when solidificat
ion is complete the structure will consist of austenite dendrites surrounded by
a eutectic product of austenite plus raphite. In reality, however, this eutecti
c reaction may not occur dependin upon the coolin rate (section size), and pro
cessin history, the system instead preferrin to solidify by another mechanism
completely. This other possibility for solidification exists because of the pres
ence of a metastable phase diaram as well as a stable phase diaram. The metast
able phase diaram (dashed lines illustrated alon with the stable phase diaram
in the fiure below) represents metastable equilibrium between the phases α, γ, L a
nd cementite,Fe3C, instead of the stable raphite. Liquid, L Coolin Curve ∆Τ L + Gr
L + Fe3C G C
γ+L γ
emperature
L

α+γ α
γ + Gr (γ + Fe3C)
(α + γ + Fe3C)
α + γ + Gr
Solidification Complete L = γ Liquidus G = Graphite Eutectic
α + Gr (α + Fe3C)
4.0 C rbon Equiv lent, CE 4.3
Fe3C

TC = C rbi e Eutectic
Time
 
Given enough time for re ctions thest ble ph se i gr m will lw ys be obeye .
However, re lity willoften interce e with the result th t the system will obey 
the met
 st ble phse i gr m just to complete the tr nsform tions in the time i
ct te by the mol . It is import nt to notice th t the met st ble i gr m is ess
enti lly shifte to lower temper tures th n the st ble i gr m. The extent of th
e shift is proportion l to the mount of silicon. For ex mple in bin ry Fe - C
lloys the temper ture ifference between st ble n met st ble eutectics, ∆T, is a
pp oximately 4 Co. In a te na y alloy with 2% silicon, ∆T is app oximately 30 Co.
Simila  effects a e eco ded in the eutectoid eaction ange. These ∆s a e exagge 
ated in the above figu e fo  illust ation pu poses.
G ay Cast I on
The p esence of the stable and metastable phase diag ams p ovides an oppo tunity
fo  eve y heat of i on to choose between stable and metastable t ansfo mations
du ing the solidification event, and even afte  solidification du ing the solid
state eactions in the eutectoid ange. Thus the mic ost uctu es obse ved can be
ext emely complex. The mal analysis offe s an excellent way to monito  the t an
sfo mations du ing the solidification and cooling of cast i on . The -
85
mal analysis is most often accomplished using a small chemically bonded sand con
tainee  which has a the mocouple t ave sing the cavity of the cup. A sketch of s
uch a device is shown below. Molten Metal Sand Cup (Chemically Bonded) Qua tz P 
otection Tube ~2.5 in. The mocouple Wi es
To Data Analyze 
A schematic cooling cu ve fo  the 4.0 CE alloy is shown togethe  with the above
phase diag am which is typical of a mate ial solidifying as g ay cast i on. The
fi st a est at TL co esponds to the fo mation of austenite dend ites and the s
econd the fo mation of the eutectic (γ + raphite) at G. Note that there is sini
ficant undercoolin below G before recallescence (heatin back up to G due to
the latent heat of the eutectic reaction) occurs. An actual coolin curve from a
2 inch diameter cylinder of ray cast iron is shown below.
Gray Cast Iron (2 Inch Diameter bar)
1300
Austenite Liquidus
1200 1100 1000
Gray Iron Eutectic
Austenite -> Pearlite
900 800 700 600 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 ime (Seconds)
86
 he actual coolin curve shows two thermal arrests at temperatures exceedin 110
0oC. he first one represents the formation of austenite dendrites from the liqu
id. he second arrest (with undercoolin) represents the eutectic reaction, liqu
id -> austenite + raphite. he third arrest in the temperature rane 720 - 730
oC represents the solid state reaction of austenite transformin to pearlite. h
is transformation will be discussed later in this set of notes. Undercoolin of
the eutectic liquid below the ray iron eutectic temperature, G results because
the enery requirements of nucleation of the raphite + austenite eutectic are
lare. It is understood that nucleation of the raphite phase is required first,
followed by nucleation and rowth of austenite with the raphite phase. Unfortu
nately if the raphite nucleation event does not occur before the temperature of
the melt reaches the iron carbide eutectic, C, then the melt will solidify as t
he so-called “white iron” eutectic, the metastable austenite + cementite product. h
us the solidification microstructure will be very sensitive to the coolin rate
of the castin and thus to the section size. Small section sizes will have a re
ater tendency to solidify white than the larer section sizes. his tendency is
illustrated with the “chill” wede and associated coolin curves below:
“ Gray Iron” (Gray, Graphite, Fracture) “ Chill Wede”
Nucleation of Austenite Dendrites L
3 1 2 Nucleation of Graphite
*
*
emperature

3
2
G C
hermocouples at these locations Fracture Plane

*
1
Nucleation of Iron Carbide
“ White Iron” (White, Carbide, Fracture)
ime

If thermocouples were placed within the chill wede at locations as shown, the c
oolin curves resultin could have the appearance iven. hermocouple #3 recorde
d a coolin rate so fast that the equilibrium raphite eutectic product did not
have time enouh to nucleate and row. he result was that when the undercoolin
liquid reached the white iron eutectic, C, the metastable eutectic reaction to
ok place. In contrast to the lare enery requirement of raphite nucleation, th
e enery requirement to form Fe3C is small and so little undercoolin is require
d below C to form the metastable product. In fact, coolin curves in white iron
do not exhibit a noticeable undercoolin whereas undercoolin in ray iron alwa
ys occurs (see curves 2 and 3 above). In positions 2 and 3 in the wede there is
sufficient time (heavier sections cool more slowly) to nucleate the raphite eu
tectic product which is then followed by recalescence as the latent heat of the
solidifyin γ + raphite is released. he reality of the possibility of white iron
formin in the fast coolin parts of ray iron castins is cause for much conce
rn for the foundry producin the castins because of the neative effects of the
 iron carbide. Iron carbide is very hard and brittle, and does not machine readi
ly. One of the advantaes of ray cast iron is its excellent machinability due t
o the presence of the raphite, but if iron carbide is present it will rapidly c
ause cuttin tools to dull
87
or to fracture. It is thus necessary to do everythin possible to ensure that th
e white iron does not form at any point in the ray iron castin. he steps that
can be taken to prevent the formation of iron carbide (or “chill”) within ray cast
iron are listed below: 1. Chane the castin desin to eliminate any sections w
hich would cool rapidly enouh to form eutectic iron carbide. his is not usuall
y a practical solution because of the hih cost of toolin (pattern makin, mold
makin, atin desin, etc.). 2. Increase the ∆T between the stable and metastabl
e eutectics. This would equi e significantly inc easing the silicon content of
the alloy, a p actice which would not be p actical because of the potentially ne
gative effects on mechanical p ope ties. An inc ease in silicon will esult in a
tendency to fo m fe ite in the final p oduct athe  than pea lite, which will
dec ease the st ength and ha dness of the g ay i on. 3. Make an addition to the
melt to p ovide hete ogeneoous nucleation sites fo  the g aphite, so that the ex
tent of the unde cooling equi ed to fo m g aphite is not as g eat. This is the
p actice known as inoculation, which was desc ibed ea lie  in these notes. Inocu
lants usually contain silicon, which will obviously inc ease ∆T, but the amount is
usually too small to have a significant effect in this way. Rathe , the inocula
nt p ovides nuclei fo  g aphite which has an effect all out of p opo tion to the
amount added. The most di ect esult of this p ocess can be seen in the effect
of the inoculant on the chill wedge and on the esponse of the cooling cu ves as
shown below.
Chill Wedge Cu ve 1 Chill Wedge Cu ve 2
Nucleation of Austenite Dend ites
TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
Nucleation of Austenite Dend ites TL TG
2
TL TG
1
Nucleation of G aphite
TUC
Nucleation of G aphite 2I
1I
TC
Nucleation of I on Ca bide
TC
Cu ves 1I and 2I ep esent the inoculated cooling cu ves at points 1 and2. No In
oculation
TIME
TIME
Inoculation *
3
*
3
*
2
*
2
CD
*
1
White at position 1
G ay at position 1
1
* CD
88
It can be seen f om the schematic above that inoculation has educed the chill d
epth in the wedge, CD, and educed the magnitude of the unde cooling, TUC, below
the g aphite eutectic TG. It is useful to conside  in detail what has happened
at both the mocouple positions 1 and 2 as a esult of inoculation. The mocouple
Position 1. The cooling ate at position 1 in the uninoculated i on was apid en
ough that the e was not time enough fo  the nucleation of the g aphite to take p
lace. Thus the cooling continued with the esult that the metastable eutectic wh
ite i on fo med. Howeve , in the inoculated i on enough nuclei fo  g aphite we e
p oduced so that, even though the cooling ate did not change as a esult of in
oculation, the time available between TG and TC was sufficient fo  the g ay i on
eutectic to fo m and g ow. This esult is equivalent to insu ing that thinne  s
ection sized castings could be made succesfully g ay with effective inoculation.
The mocouple Position 2. The cooling ate at position 2 in the uninoculated i o
n was slow enough that the e was enough time fo  the nucleation of g aphite to t
ake place. Howeve  the unde cooling below the g aphite eutectic, TUC, was quite
la ge and the e was a la ge ecallescence obse ved. This implies that the numbe 
of nuclei p oducing eutectic cells (the two phase austenite + g aphite eutectic
) was quite small, a esult which p oduces a g aphite st uctu e which is not alw
ays desi able. This point will be emphasized late  in this discussion. Howeve ,
inoculation was effective at educing TUC ve y significantly as shown in the fig
u e and the eutectic eaction occu ed at a much highe  tempe atu e than in the
case of no inoculation. This obse ved behavio  occu ed because the numbe  of nu
clei p esent in the melt was much highe  due to the inoculation event, p omoting
g owth of mo e eutectic cells soone  thus avoiding the seve e unde cooling obse
ved in the situation with no inoculation. The highe  eutectic eaction tempe at
u e p omotes a mo e desi able g aphitic st uctu e, and the efo e a highe  qualit
y i on. The conside ation above illust ates the point that effective inoculation
will do two ve y impo tant things to the st uctu e and the efo e p ope ties of
g ay cast i on; Fi st the likelihood of “chill” occu ing will be g eatly diminished
and Second, the g aphitic st uctu e that is p oduced will be much supe io  fo 
most applications. Unde standing this latte  point equi es unde standing that t
he ate of the eutectic eaction is p opo tional to the deg ee of unde cooling.
G eate  unde cooling esults in faste  g owth of the eutectic. Faste  g owth eq
ui es mo e apid diffusion and the efo e smalle  and mo e nume ous eutectic g ap
hite pa ticles. This type of st uctu e is cha acte istic of the highly unde cool
ed uninoculated i on. On the othe  hand the inoculated i on solidifies with ve y
little unde cooling, thus each eutectic cell g ows elatively slowly esulting
in athe  la ge g aphite flakes spaced much fa the  apa t. Howeve , both st uctu
es will solidify in the same pe iod of time as dictated by the mold. The slow g
owing mo e nume ous eutectic cells in the inoculated i on will complete the sol
idification in the same time as the apidly g owing spa sely populated eutectic
cells in the uninoculated i on. This esult can be bette  app e-
89
ciated by unde standing the schematic eutectic cells which follow. La ge G aphit
e Flakes Small G aphite Flakes in Eutectic Cell in Eutectic Cell
Slow G owing Small Unde cooling
Fast G owing La ge Unde cooling
Relative amounts and sizes of eutectic cells in equivalent volumes of inoculated
and uninoculated Liquid Liquid
0.3 mm
1.0 mm
Uninoculated I on afte  1 minute Inoculated I on afte  1 minute 60 Pe cent Solid
ified 60 Pe cent solidified 3 Nuclei -> 3 Eutectic Cells 27 Nuclei -> 27 Eutecti
c Cells Cell Radii = 0.5 mm -> G owth Rate Cell Radii = 0.15 mm -> G owth Rate o
f 0.15 mm / min of 0.5 mm / min The efo e fatte  and fewe  flakes The efo e smal
le  and mo e nume ous flakes Low g aphite su face a ea pe  unit volume. High g a
phite su face a ea pe  unit volume. Highe  numbe  of cells Smalle  numbe  of cel
ls i ons a e shown at equivalent times into the solidification event. In additio
n, not shown in the above figu e a e the austenite dend ites which would have so
lidified befo e the eutectic cells and the efo e the cells would have had to g o
w a ound the dend ites. Mat ix Mic ost uctu es in G ay Cast I ons Mat ix mic ost
uctu es of g ay cast i on depend in a complex way upon the g aphite size and sh
ape, the ca bon equivalent, the section size, the p ocessing histo y, and the al
loy content. It can be seen f om the stable and metastable phase diag ams on pag
e 85 that a 4.0 CE i on will have a mat ix mic ost uctu e of austenite ove  a te
mpe atu e ange f om the eutectic tempe atu e down until the tempe atu e ange w
he e the austenite will begin to t ansfo m to eithe  the stable fe ite + g aphi
te o  the metastable fe ite + cementite (pea lite). Acco ding to this phase dia
g am the cooling alloy fi st encounte s the stable phase field in which fe ite
can fi st appea . It is possible fo  the fe ite to nucleate on g aphite, a conv
enient place to deposit the ca bon f om the austenite that cannot be abso bed by
the bcc fe ite (which has only a solubility of about 0.01 % C). This type of
90
phase change is shown schematically below: Austenite G ains Austenite G ains Coo
ling
G aphite Flake
G aphite Flake
Fe ite
If the casting cools slowly enough the fe ite nuclei shown can continue to g ow
into the austenite, the excess ca bon diffusing th ough the fe ite into the wa
iting a ms of the g aphite flake. We e this to occu  to completion the final st 
uctu e would be fe ite and g aphite, the equilib ium mic ost uctu e p edicted b
y the stable phase diag am. If on the othe  hand, the casting was cooling quite
apidly, o  if the e we e significant amounts of alloy, the austenite may find i
t easie  to t ansfo m the emainde  of the austenite to pea lite (α + Fe3C).This s
cen rio is shown schem tic lly below: Austenite Gr ins Cooling Ferrite
Gr phite Fl ke
Pe rlite

F ctors which
 f vor the form tion of ferrite inclu e: Fine gr phite structures, 
un ercoole
 gr phite, high gr phite surf ce to volume r tio, thereby provi ing
high ensity of nucle tion sites for ferrite. High  silicon content- r ises the
tr nsform tion temper ture from γ -> α, m king iffusion e sier n therefore  the g
rowth of ferrite e sier. Slower cooling r tes - nne ling is use topro uce fer
ritic structures. F ctors which f vor the form tion of pe rlite woul be the opp 
osite of the bove. In ition cert in lloy elements other th nsilicon woul
kinetic lly f vor pe rlite by lowering the equilibrium ph se boun ries n movi
ng the nose of the CCT i gr m for the form tion of ferrite to longer times. The
cooling curve shown on p ge 86 illustr tes the therm l rrest  where  ustenite t
r nsforms to pe rlite. If signific nt mount of ferrite h forme the cooling
curve woul h ve nother rrest t bout 800 oC. This is shown schem tic lly on
p ge 94. Mech nic l Properties of Gr y C st Iron The mech nic l properties of g
r y c st iron re sensitive
 function of the gr phite structure (fl ke size, fl
ke length,
 cell
 size) n of the m trix microstructure.
 Properties mostoften s
pecifie inclu e tensile
 strength n Brinell h r
 ness. (The Brinell h r ness te
st h s been escribe in the l bor tory. The lo ministere to the 10 mm b ll
for ferrous m teri ls is
91
Ultim te Tensile Strength (ksi)

3000kg.)
 Gr y c st irons h ve rel tively low tensile strengths  n lmost nonexi
stent uctilities. This combin tion of tensile properties is ue prim rily to th
e ne rly continuous n ture ofthe gr phite fl kes. Since ll of the gr phite in
given cell is interconnecte
 , the only bre k in this continuity comes t the e
utectic cell boun ry. Since gr phite is very soft n we k m teri l, tensile
stresses will e sily cle ve the gr phite pl tes intern lly or will sep r te the
gr phite from the j cent m trix. Once  cr ck nucle tes in this inherently bri
ttle m teri
 l, it will
 prop g te re ily through the cell structure, cut cross
cell boun ries n result in f ilure. The ssoci tion of the fr cture surf ce w
ith the gr phite fl kes is responsible for the n me,  gr y iron. The ppe r nce o
f fr cture is gr y color  bec use of the expose gr phite on the interf ce. S
imil rly white iron is n me bec use of the white ppe ring fr cture, fr cture
in which there is no gr phite, only the white- ppe ring eutectic  c rbi
 e. Tensi
le fr cture stresses in gr y c st irons  r nge from 15 to 70 ksi epen ing upon m
trix microstructure,
 lloy content
 n c rbon equiv
 lent. The n ture of these e
ffects n their rel tive m gnitu es re escribe in the m teri l to follow. Ef
fect of C rbon equiv lent. The c rbon equiv lence of c st iron is n import nt
contributor to the strength of those irons primrily  bec use of its irect effe
ct upon the mount of the proeutectic   ustenite en rites present. This
 rel tion
ship (with sketch illustr ting en rite n the eutectic cell) n “b llp rk” es
tim tes of tensile strength re given in the figure  below. The tensile strength
of eutectic iron (4.3 CE) is typic  lly roun 20 ksi. As the mount of the pro
eutectic ustenite incre ses with ecre singCEthe tensile strength incre ses i
n the m nner shown. It is surmise
 th t the en rites Tensile  Stress Incre sing
Proeutectic 80 Austenite Den rite Fr ction Austenite Den rite 60 Ausferrite M tr
ix Fr cture P th Fr cture P th Eutectic Cell (Austenite + Gr phite) 40 Pe rlite
M trix 20 Ferrite M trix 0
3.8
3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 C rbon Equiv lent

ct s strengthening entitiesin muchthe
 s me m nner s ing stiffeners in

composite; i.e. siliconc rbi e is e to luminum to incre se strength n st
iffness
  (the elstic mo ulus). It c n be seen from the bove sketch lso th t th
e en rite woul effectively “bre k” or interrupt the e sy fr cture p th long the g
r phite thereby incre sing the fr cture stress. Effect of M trix Microstructure
The m trix microstructure pl ys m jor role in etermining the strength of gr y
c st irons. Ferritic irons h ve rel tively low strengths, where if the m trix i
s pe rlite the strength
92
 
incre ses r m tic lly. This c n be seen in the bove figure, where the effect o
f the pe rlite / ferrite r tio is illustr te . Cle rly the strength of the pe rl
itic irons is
 gre ter bec use of the  presence of  the fine pl tes of iron c rbi e
, whichimpe e cr ck prop g tion n loc l yiel ing. In recent  ye rs it hs been
le rne th t the tensile strength of gr y irons c n be m rke ly incre se by th
e ustempering process, he t tre tment in which the iron is isotherm lly re ct
e t temper ture in the r nge 300 - 400 oC fter ustenitizing. This he t tre
tment pro uces m trix of ustenite with fine ferrite l ths, the so-c lle us
ferrite structure. Incre se strengths
 bove the pe rlitic m trix results s sho
wn bove. This process will be iscusse for uctile c st irons t l ter point
in this set of notes. Effect of Alloy Elements Alloy elements re e to gr y
c st irons
 for the purpose of incre sing the strength of the irons. This is cc
omplishe by the effect those lloy elements h ve on the m trix microstructure. 
Two import nt mech nisms contribute to strengthening in the s-c st gr es of gr
y c st iron,
 pe rlite refinement (pe rlite sp cing gets sm ller s  result  of
the lloy epressing the pe rlite re ction to lower temper  tures) n soli solu
tion strengthening of the ferrite. As n ex mple, n ition of 0.5 % Mo to gr
y c st iron will incre se the tensile  strength
 by bout 5 - 7 ksi for ll c rbon
equiv lent irons. Cooling Curves n Soli St te Rections During Cooling fter
C sting The
 tr nsform tions to pe rlite or ferrite uring cooling   fter c sting

is observe with cooling
 curves in much the s me w y s is one uring soli ifi
c tion.
 In the soli st te therm l rrest resulting from the l tent he t given
off uring the tr nsform tion of ustenite  is shown below for gr y iron with
CE = 4.0. In this schem tic the she cooling curve represents the therm l re
sponse to
 the nucle
 tion n growth of the equilibrium ferrite ph se on the gr p
hite, n the soli cooling curve  represents the result when the ustenite tr ns
forms to the met st ble c rbi e-cont ining pe rlite microconstituent (seep ge 8
6 for n ctu l cooling curve). In those situ tions where both ferrite n pe rl
ite ppe r in the c sting, the cooling curve will lie somewhere
93
 
between the two curves shown. Liqui , L Cooling Curve ∆Τ L G C
Eutectic Austenite Plus Graphite Proeutectic Austenite Dendrites L = γ Liquidus
G = Graphite Eutectic C = Carbide Eutectic
γ+L γ
emperature
α+γ α
γ + Gr (γ + Fe3C)
(α + γ + Fe3C)
Equilibrium
(Eutectoid Ferrite)
α + Gr (α + Fe3C)
4.0 C rbon Equiv lent, CE 4.3
Met st ble Equilibrium

(Eutectoi Pe rlite)
Time
  
Cl sses of Gr y C st Irons n Brinell H r ness Gr y irons re often specifie b
y their minimum tensile strength, i.e. cl ss 20 iron h s minimum tensile str
ength of 20 ksi, cl ss 30 iron h s minimum tensile strength  of 30 ksi, etc.
In most inst ncesthe chemic lcomposition is not specifie ; r ther it is the te
nsile strength n Brinell h r ness which re  written into specific  tions
 for ce
rt in pplic
 tions. For ex mple, utomotive isc br ke rotors n br ke rums r
epro uce from gr y c st iron.In this inst nce cl ss 30 gr y iron is specifi
e , together with Brinell h r ness r nge of from 179 - 229kg  / mm2. It is usu
lly true th t lloy elements re not specifie , only s nee e to meet the mini
mum tensile specific tions n the Brinell r nge. More et ils on  cl sses of gr
y irons n specific tions c n be foun in  the Iron C stings H n book (1981, Iro
n C stings Society) or in Heine, Loper n Rosenth  l’s
 text, Principles of Met l C
sting. The Brinell h r ness of gr y c st irons epen s lmost entirely upon the
microstructure ofthe m trix m teri l. Typic  l m trix microstructures in s-c s
t gr y irons inclu e pe  rlite, ferrite, n combin
 tions of pe rlite  n ferrite

. Since pe rlite is m e up of ferrite (soft) n cementite (h r ), the h r ness
will incre se s the mount of pe rlite incre ses. Most  specific tions
 of m tri
x microstructures in gr y irons
 c ll for pe rlite,
 n it is highly esir ble fo
r the pe rlite to be pro uce in the s-c st con ition.  A schem tic represent ti
on of the rel tionship between Brinell h r ness n the volume percent of pe rli
te is given in the figure below for n or in ry cl ss 30
94
    
iron which h been he t tre te to pro uce v rious combin tions of pe rlite n
ferrite. 300

D t g there in the course of l bor tory  experiment
 in MY 423
 using n iron w
ith CE = 4.0. The irons were ustenitize n then coole t ifferent r tes t
o pro uce the v rious ferrite - pe rlite combin tions. Origin l t in files.
250 200 150 100 50 0
 
80 20 40 60 100 VolumePercent Pe rlite It shoul be pointe out th t higher h r
nesses c n be obt ine in irons which re ustempere (in the r nge 250 - 350 B
HN), result which pro uces the higher tensile strengths
 shown schemtic lly b
ove. It is gener lly true th t s the Brinell h r ness incre ses, so oes the te
nsile strength. In f ct there
 is f irly consistent rel tionship between UTS n
BHN. This
  is illustr te in the t shown below
 for r nge of gr yc st iron
s pro uce  t MTU.
 It shoul be note in this t th t the ustempere irons r
e much h r er n therefore much stronger th n the s-c st v riety.
Ductile C st Iron  
Ductile c st iron, or no ul r c st iron, ( lso known s spheroi l gr phite iron
,SG iron in Europe) is rel tive newcomer  to the list of commerci l c st irons.
Discovere
 simult
 neously
 in the Unite St tes (by Keith Millis t INCO L bs)
n in the Unite King om (by H.Morrogh of the British C st Iron Rese rch Associ
tion) in the l te 1940s, it h s grown in import
 nce r pi ly in the intervening y
e rs s the technology w s perfecte to pro uce the m teri l consistently inthe
foun ry. In the time perio 1982 - 1995, while the tonn ge of gr y iron pro uce
in the U.S.
 ecre se from bout 12 million tons to bout 4 million tons,the t
onn ge of uctile iron h s incre se from  bout 1.5 M tons to bout 3 M tons. Th
e re son for its phenomenol growth is ue to the microstructur l f ct th t the g
r phite in uctile iron is spheroi l inste of fl kelike, thereby m king the m
trix iron-rich constituent the continuous ph se orph ses. Thus cr cks h ve no
convenient we k pth through which to prop g te, n the m teri l t kes on the p
roperties of the uctile m trix, thus giving the n me.

Brinell H r ness (kg/mm2)
95
Gr y C st Iron 65 60 55 50 45 40 As C st 35 30 25 150 200 250 BHN (kg/mm 300
2 Previous Work t MTU

Austempere
350
400
)
  
Pro uction of Ductile Iron Pro uction of uctile  iron lmost univers lly utilize
s process by which themolten iron is “tre te ” with m gnesium just prior to pouri
ng the c stings, followe
 by inocul tion with ferrosilicon lloy in much the s
me w y s for the pro uction of gr y c st iron. In this process, the m gnesium
(whose boiling point
  is t lower temper ture th n the melting point of c st ir
on) is usu lly e tothe melt in the form  of m ster lloy cont ining bout
5 % m gnesium. This is one prim rily to re uce the violence of the re ction th
t occurs when the molten iron cont cts the m gnesium. Bec use of the high v por 
pressure
 of m gnesium, its presence in the molten iron b th is very  short live ,
n since the grphite requires the presence of Mg to form s no ules the c sti
ngs must be poure within short time fter tre tment, usu lly less th n10 min
utes. The process utilize for tre tment in the MTU foun ry is  illustr te below
: The pouring oper tion uring tre tment t kes bout 30 secon  s to one minute to
complete. During this time the Mg re ction involves the pro uction of bubbles o
f m gnesium v por which procee to rise up through the molten iron b th which is
now covering the pockets in the ch mber.
 Successful
 tre tment results when si
gnific nt portion
 of the m gnesium is
 issolve into the molten iron, so th t th
e correct con itions for gr phite no ule form tion  re met in the soli ifying me
lt. Typic l “recoveries” of m gnesium for the Tun ish tre tment f cility shown re i
n the r nge 50 - 60 percent. Successful no ul riz tion requires composition of
bout 0.03 to 0.05 weight percent element l m gnesium in the iron. It is necess
ry th t sulfur content be kept below 0.01% for successful tre tment,  bec use of
the bility of the sulfur to re ct with the Mg  (forming Mg2S) n  remove elemen
t l Mg from the melt. Often times the melt nee s to be  esulfurize before tre t
ment c n progress, process which usu lly involves itions of C (c lcium) to
combine with
 the sulfur. The c lcium sulfi e will then rise to the sl g l yer
n be skimme .
96
Furn ce
   
Tun ish Molten iron t ~ 2800oF is t ppe into the tun ish which is cl mpe to t
he top of the tre tment ch mber. The iron rops through hole in the tun ish fi
lling n empty
 pocket in the front of the ch mber. Eventu lly the iron spills ov
er the m n covers the Mgcont ining m teri l in the re r pocket, t which poi
nt the Mg-re ction begins. D m
Tre tment Ch mber
Pocket Cont ining MgFeSi
   
There re m ny metho s tht h ve been evelope to the m gnesium to the melt 
. More
  recently
 m ny foun ries re using processes in which pure m gnesium is
e inste of the m ster lloys  cont ining silicon n iron. The v nt ge of t
his metho lies in the re uce cost of the m gnesium units s well s cert in be
nefits
 resulting from the bility to h ve much more flexible chrgem keup. Th
is v ntge will become obvious when the m ss b l nces re consi ere for pro u
ction
 of
 uctile iron in our l bor tory. Composition ofDuctile Iron, M gnesium
F e n the Sh pe of Gr phite The b se composition of uctile cst irons usu ll
y is hypereutectic (seeT ble 8 on p ge 82), where the c rbon n silicon conten
ts re typic  lly 3.7 n 2.4 respectively (CE = 4.5). Thus the first constituent 
to ppe r uring soli ific tion re gr phite no ules, which nucle te n grow,
first
 without ny ustenite, but eventu  lly with ustenite enclosing the gr phit
e no ule. It is critic
 l in m
 king uctile iron th t the mount of m gnesium pre
sent in the melt uring soli ific tion be in the r nge 0.03 to 0.05 weight perce 
nt. M gnesium contents less th n this mount will result in gr phite  fl kes, n
mounts more th n this resultsin the  ppe r nce of soc lle explo e gr phites
. Either
  type contributes to egr tion in the uctility of the c st iron pro
uce . Bec use of the high v por pressure of Mg n the extreme  re ctivity with
oxygen, the m gnesium content  in the melt will r pi ly f
 e with time. Thus it i
s critic l th t the tre te  iron be poure into
 the mol s s quickly s possible
fter tre tment. This f ing of m gnesium n its
97
effect on the gr phite is shown schem tic lly below: 0 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02
0.01 0 4 Time After Tre tment, Minutes 8 12 16 20 24
M gnesium, Wt.%
Time Sp n For Spheres
 
Explo e

Spheroi l
Fl ke
  
The processing scheme utilize in the pro uction of uctile iron using  m gnesi
um ferrosilicon lloy (MgFeSi) involves the following  steps: 1. Buil ch rge f
rom scr p steel, returns (risers, g tes, etc.) n pig iron. 2. Melt ch  rge n s
uperhe t to 2800oF. 3. Pour into
 tre tment vessel, covering MgFeSi n re cting
Mg. 4. Tr nsfer into pouring l le, inocul ting with ferrosilicon. 5. Pour c sti
ngs A common MgFeSi tre tment lloy cont ins pproxim tely  5 wt %Mg,  bout 45 w
t % Si, with the b l nce
 Fe. About twice s much Mg nee s to be e uring tre
tment th n is require in thec sting (this represents 50 % recovery) bec use
of the losses from oxi tion uring the violent tre tment re ction. This presen
ts problem bec use of the l rge mount of Si lso present in the tre tment ll
oy, f ct which requires th t the Si content in the b se ch rge be kept quite l
ow, ~1.4 wt%, or bout 1 wt % lower th n the Si content in the fin l c sting. Th
is necess rily me ns th t the ch rge will h ve to cont in signific nt componen
t with  low Si content, requirement met  by both pig iron ( virgin bl st furn
ce pro uct with high c rbon,4.8 wt %, n low Si, 0.1 wt.%) n scr p steel  (ty
pic lly cont ining 0.2 wt % Si
 n 0.2 wt % C). Of course foun ry
 woul like t
o use ll of their returns n minimize the cost of their other itions. In  pr
evious ye rs this h s me nt m ximizing the use of inexpensive scr p steel n mi
nimizing the use of rel tively expensive
  pig iron. However in recent months the
supply of scr p steel h s tightene ue to the incre singrequirements
 of the st
eel minimills, which use the s me ch rge stock s gr y n uctile iron foun rie
s, thereby r ising the priceof scr p. The ch nge in silicon content  over the  pr
ocessing cycle is useful in efining the critic l processing steps escribe bo
ve. This is shown
98
Weight Percent Silicon
schem tic lly below: 3 2 1 0 Ch rge
Fin l C sting
  
Inocul tion (A FeSi to Nucle te Gr phite) Tre tment (A MgFeSi to No ul rize
Gr phite) 0 Time
 
The objectiveis to pro uce n iron within  the chemic l specific tions  n h vin
g the require mount of Mg to cre te no ules. A m ss b l nce  is use to etermi
ne the ch rge m keup s well s the mounts of tre tment n inocul nt . The che
mic l composition of ch rge m teri ls is given in T ble 9. T ble 9: Chemic l com
position of Ch rge Components M teri l Steel Scr p Ductile Returns Pig Iron M gn
esium Tre tment Inocul nt (Cont ins 1%C ) Ferrosilicon for ch rge Gr phite Wt %
C 0.2 3.7 4.2 0 0 0 100 Wt % Si 0.2 2.4 0.2 45 75 50 0 0 0* 0 5 0 0 0 Wt % Mg Wt
% Fe 99.6 93.9 95.6 50 25 50 0
 
* M gnesium  in returns
 is lost on melting Ex mple Problem: We esire to pro uce
200 poun he t of uctile iron in the MTU foun ry  with composition of 3.6 C,
2.4 Si, n 0.04 Mg. We h ve the bove ch rge n itive m teri ls v il ble.
We know th t the recovery of Mg uring tre tment in  the tun ish f cility is bo
ut 50%. We lso know th t effective inocul tion of uctile iron  requires n i
tion of bout  0.4% inocul nt.
 This is more th n is norm lly e to gr y iron b
ec use the  ition of Mg uring tre tment promotes the form tion of eutectic c
rbi e (Mg re uces the ∆T between g aphite and ca bide eutectics). Dete mine the p 
ope  cha ge makeup, the amount of t eatment and the amount of
99
inoculant needed to p oduce an i on with the co ect composition. Table 10: Step
s in p ocedu e Step 1.Dete mine the amount of inoculant needed. Step 2. Dete min
e the amount of t eatment mate ial needed. Logic and Calculations a. 200 pounds
x 0.004 = 0.8 pounds Inoculant a. Because of the loss of 50 % of the Mg added, i
t is necessa y to add twice as much. b. 200 pounds x 0.0008 = 0.16 pounds Mg c.
This is p ovided by 0.16 / 0.05 = 3.2 pounds MgFeSi a. A 200 pound heat with a f
inal Si content of 2.4 wt % equi es 200 x 0.024 = 4.8 pounds of Si. b. Steps 1
and 2 above give 0.8 x 0.75 (F om inoculant) + 3.2 x 0.5 (F om t eatment) = 0.6
+ 1.6 = 2.2 pounds Si c. Thus the initial cha ge needs 4.8 - 2.2 = 2.6 pounds Si
. d. Thus the Si composition of the cha ge is 2.60 / 196 x 100 = 1.326 wt % Si a
. Initially assume that the Si and C contents can be attained without using pig
i on. W ite th ee equations with th ee unknowns fo  the cha ge. Let X = weight o
f steel sc ap , R = weight of etu ns, and G = weight of g aphite (all in pounds
) added to the initial cha ge. 1. X + R + G = 196 (200 minus t eatment and inocu
lant) 2. X(0.002) + R(0.024) + G(0) = 2.652 (Si balance) 3. X(0.002) + R(0.037)
+ G(1) = 7.4 (C balance) b. Solve equations 1, 2, and 3 simultaneously This give
s : X = 89.56 pounds Sc ap Steel R = 103.06 pounds Retu ns G = 3.38 pounds G aph
ite
Step 3. Dete mine the amount of silicon needed in the cha ge befo e t eatment o 
inoculation.
Step 4. Dete mine the cha ge makeup using as much etu ns and sc ap steel as pos
sible. The advantage of using sc ap steel ove  pig i on is the cost. Usually sc 
ap steel is much less expensive than pig i on, which is a vi gin mate ial.
Homewo k P oblem: Develop a plan to specify the ongoing cha ge makeup at a minim
um cost fo  p oducing the above g ade of ductile cast i on subject to the follow
ing const aints: 1.You  found y has the enviable expe ience of having an ove all
casting yield of 70%. Thus,on ave age, only 30% of the i on units cha ged can c
ome f om etu ns. 2. Minimize the cost: The battle he e is between fluctuating u
nit costs fo  sc ap steel (X$), pig i on (P$), found y g ade fe osilicon (FS$),
and g aphite (G$). Obviously the unit cost fo  the etu ns is ze o. Cu ent cos
ts can sometimes be obtained f om the Metal Ma ket News at the MTU lib a y, o  f
om ope ating found ies. 3. Ca bon ecove y by g aphite additions is not 100%, b
ut may be as low as 70%. 4. Optional homewo k.Look on as Ext a C edit Goodie 5.
Due: End of te m by as many as th ee in a g oup. Fou  page limit, complete epo 
t.
100
Mic ost uctu es of Hype eutectic Ductile Cast I ons The mic ost uctu es that evo
lve du ing casting of magnesium t eated and p ope ly inoculated i ons with CE >
4.3 a e made up of g aphite nodules su ounded by austenite. The scena io of eve
nts is best desc ibed with efe ence to the phase diag ams (stable and metastabl
e) and a cooling cu ve which a e shown below: L Tempe atu e γ+L G A B Nucleation
of Austenite on Graphite Spheres and Simultaneous Nucleation and Growth of Auste
nite Dendrites Barely Noticeable Graphite Arrest Nucleation of Graphite Nuclei a
nd Growth of Graphite Spheroids
L+G
Fe3C Eutectic
4.3 4.5 Carbon Equivalent, CE
ime

he sequence of events which likely occurs durin the solidification of ductile

cast iron is described with reference to the above diaram: 1. Nucleation of pro
eutectic spheres of Graphite 2. Growth of spheres with liquid composition follow
in arrow A. 3. As the temperature drops below G, nucleation of austenite occur
s on the raphite and soon encloses the raphite in a shell of austenite. In add
ition conditions are ood for the nucleation of austenite dendrites, whose subse
quent rejection of carbon moves the liquidus composition alon arrow B. 4. Super
saturation of carbon in the liquid adjacent to the dendrites can provide conditi
ons to allow more nucleation of new raphite nodules, which in turn can row and
be enveloped in austenite. 5. Finally the solidification reaction is complete.
he sequence of events is illustrated schematically below:

1.
2.
3.
4.
Austenite Shell Austenite Dendrite
101
Because of the surroundin of the raphite nodules with the austenite shell, thi
s is not a typical eutectic reaction where both phases are simultaneously in con
tact with the liquid . herefore this is sometimes called a neoeutectic, where 
rowth of the raphite occurs by diffusion of carbon across the austenite shell i
nto the raphite. he final as cast microstructure, of course, depends upon the
combination of section size, alloy content, and processin history. Measurement
made on the plane of polish to characterize these materials include: 1. Nodule C
ount - No. of nodules per square cm 2. Nodularity - sphericity of nodules, descr
ibed by aspect ratio of nodules. 3. Matrix microstructure - ferrite, pearlite, a
usferrite, combinations 4. Extent of sereation and defects - carbides, inclusi
ons,shrinkae, etc. A typical as-cast microstructure consists of a bullseye stru
cture of ferrite surroundin raphite which in turn is surrounded by pearlite.
he development of this structure and relationship to a coolin curve is shown be
low: Graphite Liquidus Graphite nodules formin & rowin G
Austenite Grains
[Resultin from rain rowth to mask evidence of oriinal dendrites and austenit
e shells]
Neo-eutectic Reaction Graphite formin raphite &austenite
Ferrite Shell
Ferrite beins to form on raphite (carbon “sinks”) Reaction proresses by diffusion
of C throuh ferrite.
Ferrite Formation Upper Critical emp Pearlite Reaction emp
F P

Pearlite “Colonies”
Castin coolin rapidly enouh that diffusion of carbon throuh the ferrite shel
l cannot keep pace with the wishes of the phase diaram and so pearlite has an o
pportunity to nucleate and row into the remainin austenite. he “bullseye” structu
re is formed.
BULLSEYE S RUC URE
102
 he relative amount of ferrite present depends upon alloy content, nodule count,
and the rate at which the castin is cooled throuh the transformation where fe
rrite and pearlite can form and row, i.e. the same factors as those promotin f
errite in ray cast iron.
Alloyin of Cast Irons
he primary purpose of alloyin cast irons is to control the matrix microstructu
re, which usually means to control the identity of the austenite transformation
product. Addition of alloyin elements to cast irons (the Fe - C - Si system) ha
s a measurable effect upon both the thermodynamics of the system (i.e. the posit
ion of stable and metastable phase boundaries) and upon the kinetics of a transf
ormation (which usually has somethin to do with the rate at which carbon can mo
ve in the system). Austenite transformation products include;
Austenite (γ, fcc) ->
Continuous Coolin or Isothermal
Ferrite( α, bcc) + Gr phite Ferrite + Gr phite + Pe rlite( α + Fe 3C) Pe rlite Pe rl
ite + Ausferrite( γ + α ) Ausferrite Ausferrite + M rtensite( α’) M rtensite
    
The p rticul r ustenite tr nsform tion pro uct or pro ucts observe will epen
upon the section size ofthe c sting, the size of the gr phite fl kes
 (surf ce
re per unit volume), n the m nner in which the c sting w s coole (i.e. cont
inuously coole or isotherm lly re cte ) in ition to the mount n type of
lloying elements
 th t re present. The microstructur l results of continuous coo
ling re best escribe by the continuouscooling i gr m(CCT) for given c st
iron, schem tic of which is illustr te in the tt che figure below.
St ble Austenite + Gr phite
Upper Critic l Temper ture
Ferrite + Gr phite Pe rlite Unst ble Austenite
F+P M rtensite St rt
Ausferrite
M F+P +A
M rtensite
M rtensite Finish A+ M
Log Time (t) 
Schem tic CCT i gr m for c st iron illustr ting the presence of TPR of Ferrit
e, Pe rlite, Ausferrite, n M rtensite in T - t sp ce

Cooling curves p ssing through the specific tr nsform tion pro uct regions (TPR)
in temper ture
103
-time(T - t) sp ce in the bove figure illustr te v riety of microstructures
epen ing upon the cooling r te. The slowest cooling specimen (l rgest section
size) p sse through the TPR of Ferrite + Pe rlite (F + P). As the cooling r te
incre ses the tr nsform tion pro ucts ch nge s shown until the pro uct for the
highest cooling r te is 100% m rtensite (M).  The sh pe of the  v rious TPR n th
eir position in the CCT i gr m illustr te bove will epen most strongly upon
the chemic l composition of the ustenite which is tr nsforming. Of course, the
mtrix ustenite  c rboncontent is n import nt v ri ble which will in turn ep
en upon the i entity n mount of the other lloying elements  present. The pos
ition in temper ture - time sp ceof the TPR  within CCT i gr ms for the trnsfo
rm tion of ustenite in steel is etermine  prim
 rily by the composition n the
ustenite
 gr in size. Thus the so-c lle h r en bility of steels is prim rily
epen ent  upon the lloy content, the c rbon content n the ustenite gr in size 
. This epen ence of the TPR in T - t sp ce oncrbon content, lloy content n
ustenite gr in size is lso true for gr y n uctile c st irons. However  co
mplic ting f ctor for c st irons results from the presence of gr phite n the v
ri bility of m trix c rboncontent with temper ture in equilibrium with th t gr
phite. Thus very fine D n E type gr phites in gr  y c st irons ( n the high n
o ule count irons ch r cteristic of well inocul te uctile irons), with their m
uch higher
 surf ce re per unit volume on which nucle tion of ferrite c n occur
, woul be expecte to h ve more ferritepresent th n n iron in which the gr ph
ite were present s the l rger, more  r n om Atype  fl kes; i.e. the ferrite + gr
phite
 TPR in the bove figure woul be shifte to shorter
 times. The nucle tion
n growth of ferrite is the only tr nsform tion pro uct shown in which requires
thepresence of gr phite, the growing ferrite resulting  from rel tively  long r
nge iffusion of c rbon to gr phite fl kes. The other iffusion l pro ucts (P, A
) h ve the s me composition
 s the m trix ustenite n therefore require only s
hort r nge c rbon iffusion (interl mell r sp cings in pe rlite n thesm ll sp
ce between the cicul r pl tes of ferrite in usferrite)to grow,  epen ing for
nucle tion upon the presence
 of surf ces ( ustenite gr in boun ries,gr phite s
urf ces, ferrite boun ries, etc.). M rtensite form  tion requires no iffusion,
onlyrequiring surf ces upon which to nucle te. In ition to their effect  upon
h r en bility (position of the TPR in T-t sp ce) substitution l lloy itions
(Cu, Ni, Mo, Mn, Cr, etc) will h ve n import nt effect  upon the fin l mech nic
l properties s result of where they fin lly resi e within the c st microstru
cture. An overview of the et ils of the effects of lloying elements  in gr y c
st iron c n be foun in the liter ture (1 Angus, 2 Iron C stings H n book, 3 ASM
“C st Irons”). Mech nic l Properties ofDuctile C st Iron The mech nic l properties
of uctile c st iron re signific ntly ifferent th n th t of gr y iron bec  use
of the ifference in sh pe between the gr phites in these c st irons. In uctil
e irons the m trix is the continuous entity  so th t there re no e sy cr ck  p th
s to prop
 g te fr cture. As result, uctile c st irons h ve signific nt uctil
ity n toughness, properties which pl ce this uniquem teri l incompetition wi
th other ferrous m teri ls such s c st steels, forge steels, n even wrought
steels. Tensile Properties
 As result ofthe continuity of the m trix, the tens
ile properties of uctile c st iron epen lmost completely upon the microstruc
ture of the m trix, microstructure which c n be con-
104
  
trolle by he t tre tment. An overview of the tensile properties of uctile iron
is given below: 200 180 Ultim te Tensile Strength (ksi) 160 140 120 100 80 60 4
0 TM 120-90-2 P 100-70-3 P+F 80-55-6 F+P 65-45-12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Percent Elong
tion 14 16 F 60-40-18 18 20 1
 
4 ADI 3 ASTM Gr es of ADI (Gu r ntee Minimums)
2
 
TM = Tempere M rtensite P = Pe rlite F = Ferrite ADI = Austermpere Ductile Iro
n xx-yy-zz(Gr e)_ UTS YS %EL (Gu r ntee Minimums)
  
UTS v. % Elong tion -Summ ry of Common As-C st n Austempere Gr es of Ductile
Iron
    
As-C st n Quenche n Tempere Gr es of Ductile Iron The Ultim te Tensile St
rength vs. % Elong tion i grm bove illustr  tes the
 l rge r nge of properties 
v il ble inthe s - cst n quenche  n tempere con itions. These gr es r
e represente with soli circles n the series  of numbers representing the  UTS-
YS-%EL for e ch gr e. It cn be seen th t gr e 60-40-18, with the  most uctili
ty (highest %EL), correspon s to n iron with 100% ferritic (in ic te with n
F) m trix. As the mount of pe rlite  (in ic te with P) incre  ses, the streng
th
 incre ses with correspon  ing ecre se in %EL, until
 gr e 10070-3 is re che
which
 is 100% pe rlite. Gr es in between ferritic n pe rlitic h ve pe rlite
n ferrite
 present in ifferent proportions.  The four s-c st gr es shown
 re
utilize
 in  specific
 tions s minimums for
 esign purposes. The ctu l gr e c
hieve will epen upon lloy content n
105
   
section size. The  gr e 120-90-2 is he t tre te gr e in which the iron h s b
een ustenitize , T ble 11: Typic l Chemic l Compositions(Wt Percent), M trix Mi
cro,BHN Element  C rbon Silicon M ng nese Chromium Copper Microstructure Brinell
H rness Gr e 60-40-18 3.5 - 3.9 2.2 - 3.0 0.30 m x 0.06 m x Ferrite 130 - 170
Gr
 e 65-45-12 3.5 - 3.9 2.5 - 2.8 0.40 m x 0.10 m x Mostly Ferrite 150 - 220 G
r e 80-55-6  3.5 - 3.9 2.2 - 2.7 0.2 - 0.5 0.10 m x 0.2 - 0.4 Mostly Pe rlite 17
0 - 250 Gr e 100-70-3 3.5 - 3.8 2.2 - 2.7 0.6 m x 0.10 m x 0.2 - 0.5 Pe rlite2
41 - 300 Gr e 120-90-2 3.5 - 3.8 2.2 - 2.7 0.6 m x 0.10 m x 0.2 - 0.5 Tempere
M rtensite 270 - 550
  
quenche to m rtensite n tempere . Typic l chemic l compositions for these iro
ns
 re given in  T ble  11. There re no chemic lspecific tions for specific  gr
e. E ch foun ry n c sting pplic tion will etermine the combin tion nee e
to obt in the minimum mech nic l property  specific tions. It will be note in th
e bove
 t ble th t the ferritic gr es cont in minimum of the lloy elements C
u n Mn, both of which promote the  form tion of pe rllite when the c sting is c
ooling. On the other h n the gr es with pe rlite commonly h ve specific tion
with minimum of copper. The elementsMn n Cr come from the steel component
of the ch rge; these re both common n import nt  elements in the pro uction of
steel. M ny ferritic m trix c stings   re obt ine by nne  ling, he t tre tmen
t where the c sting is ustenitize n then slowly coole , giving l rge  moun
t of time for the form tion of  ferrite.  This he t tre tment,
 of
 course,  s sig
nific ntly
 to the cost of pro
 uction n is not usu lly esire . Low resi u ls o
f Mn n Cr c n be chieve by melting l rger qu ntities of pig iron, ch rge m
teri l which is usu lly more expensive th n scr p steel.

Austempere Ductile C st Iron   
All
 of the s-c st gr es of uctile  iron s well s the quenche n tempere  g
r e h ve the s me bo y centere cubic (bcc) m trix. The ifferences  in h r ness
n tensile  properties shown onthe figure on p ge 105 re ue to the ifferenc
es in the istribution, sh pe n size of the iron c rbi e p rticles within th t
m trix.Of course  the softest m trix (ferrite)h s no c rbi es, whilethe l mell
r c rbi es pro uce in pe  rlite contribute  to n ever incre sing h rness. The
h r est mtrix  is chieve
  by the tempere mrtensite where thec rbi es re ver
y tiny in ee . The sh e region which inclu es  the s-c st gr es represents
 th
e r nge of tensile properties tt in ble with uctileiron with bo y centere
cubic(ferrite)
 m trix. In recent ye  rs thegr e of  uctile iron known s uste
mpere uctile iron  (ADI)
 h s been evelope , gr e of iron in which he t tre
tment is utilize to pro uce met st ble f ce centere cubic m trix, ustenite,
which is st ble t room temper ture. It  c n be seen from the figure on p ge 105
th t the ASTM gr es of ADI re shifte to consi er bly higher strengths th n
106
  
the
 s-c st gr es, yet ret ining excellent uctility. The prim ry c use of this
r m tic improvement in mech nic l properties stemsfrom the presence of the f
ce centere
 cubic m trix together  with fine sc le ispersion offerrite. The A
STM gr es represent
 gu r ntee
 minimums in tensilestrength
 n uctility; the
cross
 h tche region loc te to higher strengths n uctilities from the ASTM g
r es represents more  typic l ADI. Cle rly
  ADI offers n entire new opportunity
for
 pplic tions of uctile c st iron. In ee ADI,  with comp
 r ble strengths n
 uctilities, is m king inro s into m rkets once  omin te by steel forgings n
steel c stings.The
 Met st ble Ph se Di gr m n St bilize Austenite
 The
 conc
ept of ustempere uctile iron with n ustenitic m trix c n beun erstoo with
reference to portion of the met st ble Fe - C - 2.4 Si ph se i gr m schem ti
c shown below:
γ α +γ emperature (Ko) α
M
γ + Graphite Τγ
ΤΑ
ar t en α + γ sit eS tar t, M
Metastable γ / α + γ Phase Boundary
α + Gr phite
Room Temper ture
S
0
0.8
Wt. Percent C rbon
2
3.6

This i gr m shows the low temper ture portion
 of the Fe - C - 2.4 Si isopleth.
The mount of 2.4 Si w s chosen to correspon to typic l uctile c st iron. No
te th t the met st ble Fe - Fe3C i gr m is not p rt of this i gr m but th t
other fe tures re present, inclu ing the m rtensite
 st rt temperture (th t tem

per ture below which ustenite must be quenche
 to obt in the h r , brittle, bo
y centere tetr gon l m rtensite ph se), n the met st ble extension of the α + γ /
γ phase boundary. These features are necessary to understand the presence of aust
enite at room temperature which is stable. Consider now the heat treatment which
is used to produce austempered ductile iron. 1. Castin is heated

into the aust
enite + raphite field and held at Tγ until fully austenitized. t this point the
structure
consists of austenite of 0.8 wt. % C and raphite nodules. 2. Cool rap
idly to T , the austemperin 

temperature and hold, allowin the reaction: γ (0.8 C
) -> α (0 C) + γ (2.0 C) [ USFERRITE]
107
This reaction usually requires about 1 - 2 hours

to complete and ives a structu


re shown schematically below. Before Reaction ustemperin 1 - 2 Hours
at T Gra
phite Nodules + γ (0.8 C) rains Graphite Nodules + α (0 C) + γ (2 C) fter Reaction
In a piece of steel heat treated the same way, the austenite would transform to
bainite, a two phase mixture of ferrite and iron carbide (Fe3C). However, in cas
t irons, the presence of silicon prevents the formation of carbides initially. T
he system takes the path of least resistance and obeys (once aain) the metastab
le phase diaram. 3. If iven enouh time the austenite will eventually transfor
m to bainite. However, before that happens the castin will be
cooled to room te
mperature, a move which will retain the structure created at T . The austemperin
 reaction is said to have “stabilized” the austenite. By virtue of the hih carbon
present in the ausferrite (reflectin the absence of carbon from the ferrite), t
he martensite start temperature has been reduced to near absolute zero derees K
elvin (see the diaram on pae 104). The martensite start temperature is a very
stron function of carbon content. Since the carbon must be retained in the mart
ensite in this diffusionless transformation and it tends to want to expand the l
attice, more drivin force (undercoolin) becomes necessary as carbon content in
creases. Therefore as the austenite becomes richer in carbon durin the ausferri
te reaction it becomes stabilized to the notion of transformin to martensite. T
his allows cast irons to be austenitic at room temperature, an accomplishment ma
de in commercial rades of steel only by  

addin lar e quantities of nickel or ma
n anese. Of course, this is what makes DI a unique material and what ives it t

he remarkable properties shown in the diaram 

on pa e 105. There are a number of
problems associated with the production of DI, problems which are concerned fi
rst with the production of a quality rade of ductile cast iron, and secondly wi
th the control of the heat treatment parameters necessary to convert austenite t
o ausferrite. It oes without sayin that
the heat treated product cannot overco
me basic deficiencies in the cast state. list of these “deficiencies” includes por
osity (shrinkae and as),
sla, sand, inclusions from impurities, low nodularit
y, low nodule count, etc. ll of these extrinsic deficiencies can be minimized b
y ood foundry practice and adherin to tiht processin schedules, i.e. control
of all temperatures in the sequence, establishin a riorous schedule for treat
ment, inoculation, and pourin the castins. Some “deficiencies” that cannot be over
come are intrinsic to the process of solidification, includin microsereation
in the castin and limitations in the nodule count that is attainable, a limitat
ion defined primarily by the coolin rate (section size) of the castin. It is t
rue that inoculation can increase nodule count, but not usually beyond a maximum
for the iven section size and mold type. Microsereation is in principle capa
ble of bein eliminated by a homoenization step, where the castin is brouht t
o a temperature close to its meltin point and soaked at the hih temperature un
til solid state diffusion has eliminated the problem. Unfortunately homoenizati
on processes are very expensive and while it is cost effective for some material
s it is
108
just not a practical thin to do with cast irons . It is then necessary to live
with the intrinsic deficiencies and adjust the
heat treatin parameters to accom
odate any problems that may arise as 

a result. ustemperin Ductile Iron and the
Isothermal Transformation Dia ram rasp of the important parameters definin
the process in heat treatin these materials requires a basic understandin of t

he 

isothermal transformation dia ram that describes what is necessary to produce
DI successfully,
and also what is necessary to avoid so that the desired struc
ture is attained. schematic ITT diaram is iven below for a ductile cast iron
which is
Tγ

ustenitize (1)

Cool to T (2)
Upper Critical Temperature Pearlite Nose
Pearlite (α + Fe3C) Temper ture
99% 1%

TA Hol t TA Austemper (3) Ausferrite (α + γ) Cool to Room Temperature (4) Time
Bainite (α + Fe3C)
Isotherm
 l Tr nsform tion Di gr
m for Hypothetic l Ductile Iron being ustenit
ize t Tγ and austempered at T . There are four steps in the heat treatment schem
e which are numbered on the ITT diaram.These four

steps and the considerations
associated with each are iven below: Step (1) - ustenitize for a time so that
the 

matrix is completely austenite with a fairly homo eneous carbon composition.
rule of thumb for time is one hour per inch of section, with allowance for he
at up time as well. The temperature selected will depend upon the alloy composit
on; it is necessary that the so-called upper critical temperature be exceeded, t
hat temperature below which ferrite is a stable phase. Step (2) - Cool to the au
stemperin temperature at a rate sufficient to “miss the Pearlite Nose” on the ITT d
iaram. This is most often accomplished in salt baths so that the rate of heat t
ransfer is maximized. In heavier section castins it is necessary to alloy them
quite heavily (usually with various combinations of Cu, Ni, and Mo); this has th
e effect of movin the entire ITT
109


diaram to reater times thereby allowin the coolin from

Tγ to T without enera
tin pearlite within the castin. Step (3) - Hold at the ustemperin Temperatur
e for a time until the ausferrite reaction [γ (0.8 C) -> α (0 C) + γ (2 C)] is complet
e, but not so lon a time  that the bainite reaction [ γ (2 C) -> α(0 C) + Fe3C] occ
urs. The time is selecte using combin tion of inform tion inclu  ing prim rily
lloy content
 n ustenitizing temper ture. Obviously
  it
 woul  be helpful to h
ve ITT i gr m inform tion for e ch lloy pro uce .The i gr m efines the begi
nning of the usferrite
 re ction with
 note in ic ting th t the re ction h s pr
ogresse
 1 %, n simil rly the en of the re ction with note t 99% tr nsform
e . Step (4) - Cool toroom temper ture for shipment to the  customer. It is not
necess ry to cool r pi ly; r ther the c stings re llowe to cool uniformly so
s to minimize ny resi u l stresses which coul rise were
 c stings to cool non
uniformly. It is import nt th t the bove steps be  c rrie
 out in consistent m
nner time fter time, so th t qu lity ADI is prouce time fter time.  Control
of Mech nic l Properties of ADI  The four ASTM gr es of ADI illustr te on p ge
102 c n in principle be cre te from the s me c st lloy.Them jor f ctor contr 
olling these  tensile properties
 in ADI which h s been pro uce from qu lity uct
ile iron n he t tre te in qu lity m nner is the choice  of the ustempering
temper ture. Thisp r meter is prim rily responsible for efiningthe sc le of t
he usferrite pro uct, where the term sc le refers to the size n number of the
ferrite p rticles in the ustenite m trix. It is gener lly true th t high uste
mpering temper
 tures give course microstructures
 with rel tively low strengths b
ut higher uctility. On the other h n low ustempering  temper tures give very f
ine microstructures with high strengths but lower uctility.  High ustempering t
emper tures re in the r nge 400 - 425 oC giving ASTM gr e 1 ADI,while  low ust
empering temper tures re in the r nge 275 -300oC giving ASTM gr e 4 ADI. Exm
ples of potenti l pplic  tions
 for ADI inclu e ge rs, utomotive cr nksh fts,  i
gger teeth for front en lo er pplic tions, utomotive c msh fts, r ilro c r
wheels,
 etc. M ny pplic tions require resist nce to sli ing we r, property e
nh nce by the presence of the ustenite which tr nsforms to m rtensite in servi
ce.
  
Comp cte Gr phite Irons, Pro uction n Properties 
Comp cte gr phite irons (CG) re the newest form of c st iron, recognize since
1965 (R. D. Schelleng, C st Iron (with vermicul r gr phite) US P tent 3,421,886
, M y 1965) s h ving
110
   
unique mech nic l n physic l properties
  etermine in l rge p rtby the sh pe
of the gr phite. These irons re pro uce in much thes me w y s uctile c st i
ron, except the objective is to h ve the molten iron issolve lesser mount of
Mg, usu lly ~ 0.01 - 0.015 Wt. %. This mount of Mg is enough  to gu r ntee th t
no fl kes re forme , yet not high enough to llow full no ul rity . A typic l
CGiron might cont in 25% no ul rity, the rest of the gr phite h ving twiste
ro sh pe structure. The mech nic l n physic l properties  of comp cte gr phit
e irons, for given m trix microstructure,
 will resi e in between the propertie
s of fl ke gr phite irons n spheroi l gr hite irons s shown schem tic  lly be
low. . High High Therm l Con uctivity D mping C p city Low 0 Percent No ul rity
80% 100
Ductility
M lleble Cst Iron
As in ic te previously, m lle ble c st iron is m teri l with
 lower
 c rbon (2.
0 - 2.6) n lower silicon (1.1 - 1.6) th n gr y c st iron, n soli ifies s wh
ite c st iron. These
 re hypoeutectic irons which soli ify by first forming ust
enite en rites n then the  eutectic
 ustenite + cementite (Fe3C). The c st str
ucture is then he t tre te to pro uce the popcorn-type  gr phitestructures th t
re ch r cteristic of m lle ble c st iron. The ph se i gr m n the cooling cu
rve
Strength
CG Irons
Ductile Irons
Low
111
 
ch r cteristic of white c st iron is given below: Liqui , L Cooling Curve (White
Iron) ∆Τ L + Gr SSG L + Fe3C G C Solidification Complete L = γ Liquidus G = Grap
hite Eutectic L
γ+L γ
emperature
γ + Gr (γ + Fe3C)
α + γ + Gr
α+γ α
(α + γ + Fe3C)
TUC
α + Gr (α + Fe3C)
2.8 C rbon Equiv lent, CE
Fe3C

TC = C rbi e Eutectic
Time

It c n be seen in the cooling curve  th t the temper ture h s re che TC before n
ucle tion
 of gr phite h s occurre thus resulting inthe eutectic ustenite plus
c rbi e form tion. The low silicon content, 1.5, n low c rbon, 2.3, results i
n sm ller ∆T than fo  g ay o  ductile cast i on thus p omoting the fo mation of
white i on. Afte  the casting has cooled to oom tempe atu e, the heat t eatment
to p oduce solid state fo mation of g aphite, and the efo e the popco n g aphit
e st uctu e of malleable i on begins and is illust ated below. The castings a e
heated slowly into the γ + Temperature TSSG
Soakin at TSSG allows Growth of Graphite Particles at Expense of Carbide TUC Sl
ow Heatin Nucleates Many Graphite Particles
Ferritic Malleable Pearlitic Malleable
TR
Time
24 hours
Fe3C two phase field to a temperature TSSG where it is soaked for as lon as 24
hours. Durin this soakin time raphite will nucleate on the eutectic carbide p
article surfaces and row at their expense. Eventually all of the carbide will b
e replaced by “popcorn” raphite and the structure left behind will be quite similar
to ductile cast iron except for the shape of the raphite. Like ductile cast ir
on the matrix is the continuous phase and so the final structure will have simil
ar properties to ductile cast iron, excellent strenth, ductility and touhness.
The strenth and ductility of malleable irons would overlap the as-cast propert
ies of ductile iron shown on pae 105.
112
Pearlitic malleable irons would be stroner but less ductile than ferritic malle
able cast irons for the same reasons as for ductile iron. The temperature - time
diaram on the previous pae illustrates the heat treatments responsible for th
e production of ferritic malleable iron (by slow coolin throuh the upper criti
cal temperature, TUC) and pearlitic malleable iron (by more rapid coolin, even
coolin in air) after the malleablizin treatment. Malleable cast iron has been
produced by human beins for thousands of yesrs, but it is slowly but surely bei
n replaced by ductile cast iron. Two important reasons why malleable iron is de
creasin in favor, is cost and limitations on section size that can be produced
in the malleable state. Clearly it is less costly to produce nodules in the as-c
ast condition than to require an additional lon time heat treatment step. In ad
dition ductile cast iron can be produced in very lare section sizes, while the
requirement to start with white iron limits malleable to practical section sizes
on the order of 1 - 2 inches. Malleable iron section sizes larer than this wil
l solidify

with raphite flakes and would therefore have severely reduced ductil
ity. comparison of the United States’ production of malleable, ductile, and ray
cast irons in the fiure below illustrates the unmistakable trends. Malleable i
ron is a dyin breed, and most of its former applications have been replaced by
ductile cast iron.
Production (Millions of Tons)
1.2 12 1.0 10 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 8 6 4 2 0 Gray & Ductile 1970
Ductile Iron Gray Iron Malleable Iron Projected
Malleable
Year
1980 Recession
1990
2000
Data from Modern Castin
The data in this plot shows scatter which is a result of fundamental chane (dec
reasin ray and malleable iron and increasin ductile iron production) as well
as a reflection on the economics of the times.It is interestin to note the dip
in production of all three of these materials in 1982, a recession which hit the
castin and manufacturin industry very hard. Indeed the production of steel in
the U.S. plummeted from ~ 140 million tons in 1980 to about 80 million tons in
1982.
113
XV. Defects in Cast Metals
Gases in Metals
Sources - Gases dissolved in liquid; Gases from mold or
core material

1. Gases d
issolved in the metal - Classic example of Hydroen in luminum lloys From the
schematic plot below there is a much reater solubility of H in the liquid than
the solid.
%H
solid

0.5 ml/100  l liquid

T mp Temperature
Thus, if the as is present in the liquid, hydroen will be evolved as H2 durin
solidification. This as may be trapped in the castin which results in porosit
y or “blows”. Sources of H : H2O in air, chare; H - containin compounds in combust
ion ases; contamination of the chare with oil,rease,etc. Remedy- Bubble a as
throuh the melt, like aron, nitroen, chlorine, sulfur hexafluoride. These a
ses cleanse the melt by action of Sievert’s Law and by providin a reactant with w
hich the hydroen can be chemically chaned and then removed. Sievert’s

Law- % H =
Kp(H2)0.5 In this expression H is the concentration in liquid l , K is the equ
ilibrium constant, and p(H2) is the partial pressure of H in equilibrium with a
as in contact with the melt. If new as with low p(H2) is continually added the
H will be extracted from the melt to establish equilibrium. Thus H will be elim
inated before pourin the castin. This mechanism will work well with an inert 
as like aron; however a more potent method will include usin a as containin
a reactive component like chlorine or SF6. In this situation the H reacts with t
he Cl or the SF6 and is removed as another aseous species, for example HCl . Un
fortunately this is a rather danerous product and most aluminum foundries are w
orkin hard to eliminate the use of Cl. The as used in our experimental foundry
is aron with about 5% SF6.
2. Gases from molds or cores
Binder systems for cores or molds create aseous combustion products when encoun
terin the heat from the castin operation. These ases must be vented from the
mold, otherwise “blows” can be produced in the castin. Ventin is accomplished by s
uitable holes bein placed in the
114
cores or molds. Gases that find their way into castins are often trapped under
the cope surface, but can actually be found anywhere within the castin dependin
 upon the situation. Remedy - Proper ventin, reduce binder content in core, ch
ane binder in core, increase sand permeability, control pourin temperature, et
c.
Controlled

Positive

Effects of Gas in Castins
1. l alloys - dd potatoes to the melt to increase the as content; finely divi
ded H2 porosity may be preferred to lare macroshrink porosity - this technique
is usually not recommended.
Hot Tears
Hot tears are defects which occur most often in materials with a lare rane of
solidification and with sinificant mold constraints. Hot tears are defects whic
h require the presence of a liquid. Consider the phase diaram and sand castin
below: Tensile Bar Shaped Castin
L
Temperature

T TE α
α+L
L+β
β
Hot Spots
α+β
0
cA c0
c1
1
Solidifying Met l Liquid Met l
Weight Fr ction B



Alloys with compositions etween 0 nd c0 wt. fr ction B nd etween c1 nd 1 wi
ll, on cooling from the liquid, p ss through the sh ded regions in the α + L nd L
+ β two ph se fields. Within these sh ded regions these lloys will experience
temper ture r nge over which more

th n 50 % solid is present. For ex mple n ll
oy of composition cA will h
ve out 50 % solid α
t TA, nd on cooling to TE this
solid mount will incre se y the lever rule to out 70 %. Thus it is nticip
ted th t solid continuity will exist throughout the surf ce volume of the piece
over temper ture r nge in which contr ction of th t solid due to cooling is oc
curring

in the presence of the liquid. Solid continuity

is expected long the su
rf ce ec use th t
is where solidific tion usu lly egins. If the contr
cting so
lid is constr ined y rigid or even n exp nding mold, stresses m y
uild up w
ithin the solid portion of the c sting which re ultim tely relieved y tensile
f ilure long some convenient dendrite - liquid interf ce. The c sting is liter
lly
torn p rt.

This f ilure is known s “hot te r”, n opening
which m y or m y n
ot e filled
y the liquid th t is present. Consider the tensile r sh ped c st
ing shown ove, s nd c sting with n lloy concentr tion of cA which in the s


ketch is shown s eing p rtly solidified in the temper ture r nge TA to
115


TE. The solidified met l is shown s eing continuous on the surf ce of the c st
ing, with rel tively thick solid l yers t the extern l corners (l rge mold volu
me to extr ct he t) nd thin solid l yers t the intern l corners (the so-c lled
hot-spots where there

is only sm ll mold volume to extr ct he t). The continu
ity of the solid com ined with the re lity of this continuity over the temper tu
re r nge TA - TE results in the we k solid skin w nting to contr
ct. At the s me
time the mold is he ting nd it w nts to exp nd. The cl sh etween the exp ndin
g mold nd the contr cting solid met l will gener te tensile stresses in the sol
id met l nd compressive stresses in the mold. It is pp rent th t something
wil
l h ve to give. If the mold rem ins rigid nd exp nding it is inevit le th t th
e solid skin of the c
sting will “te r” t the we kest points in the system, the hot
spots shown on the ove sketch.

These te rs often will extend to the surf ce r
esulting in wh t ppe rs to e
cr cks. The presence of the liquid during this ev
ent m y llow the hot te r to
e filled
s it is h ppening.
In this c se the int
egrity

of the c sting will not e lost ut it is possi le th t the liquid “filler” ,
ec use of segreg tion, could h ve signific ntly different composition th n t
he solid nd thus ct s we k point in the structure. If, on the other h nd, t
he liquid c nnot fill the exp nding te r, then the integrity of the c sting is l
ost. The likelihood of such n occurrence: 1. Incre ses
s the temper ture r nge
cont ining more th n 50% solid incre ses. Thus the pro lem is minimized for pur
e
elements nd eutectics. 2. Incre ses s s nd exp nsion incre ses. Thus coll ps
i le s nd molds re helpful to void the production of tensile stresses in c sti
ngs. Molding s nds with minim l therm l exp nsion will lso tend to minimize thi
s defect. 3. Incre ses in designs cont ining coring (p rticul rly with l rge cor
es) nd c sting designs
cont ining sh rp corners or l rge section size ch nges.
Remedies: 1. If possi le, st y w y from specifying
l rge freezing r nge lloys

for c stings. Of
course this is not lw ys possi le, nd so the
designer must
e
w re of the pro lem nd t ke other steps to minimize the pro lem. 2. If
possi
le, use generous fillets in design to void hot spots (see the ex mples elow)
nd minimize section size ch nges. Not This This



3. If possi le, m ke dditives (cere l, wood flour)
to s nd to
improve coll psi
ility. These dditives, which re p rt of the
inder, will com ust in service ne
r
the mold-met

l interf ce, destroying the ond nd m king the s nd more coll p
si le, there y relieving the compressive stresses in the s nd.
116


Other Signific nt Commerci l Are s where Hot Te ring is Potenti l Pro lem 1. B
r zing, soldering nd welding m teri ls where l rge nd r pid exp nsion-contr ct
ionsitu tions occur. The solution most often used in such situ tions is to selec
t eutectic or ne r eutectic m teri ls s filler met ls (which solidify over sm
ll temper ture r nge where there re
no opportunities for
continuous solids to
exist over

temper

ture r nge), there y minimizing the pro lem. 2. Continuously
c st sl s nd illets of steel which experience r pid ch nges
in cooling durin
g the c sting oper tion often gener te hot te rs which re su sequently filled i
n with liquid

experiencing m crosegreg tion. Unlike microsegreg tion, which is
loc l pro lem on the order of dendrite rm sp cing, m crosegreg tion c n resu
lt in l rge ch nges in composition from one point to nother in the c sting. Thu
s even though the hot te rs re filled in with liquid, the m crosegreg

ted liqui
d “te rs” result in pl nes of we kness which c n e sily f il in su sequent rolling o
per tions.
Residu l Stresses in C stings
Residu l stresses re el stic stresses rem ining in c sting which result from
v ri tions in cooling r te from point to point s the c sting cools to room temp
er ture. These stresses re developed in the solid st te nd h ve nothing to do
with solidific tion. If the developing stresses re l rge enough

nd exceed the
el stic limit, cr cking or w rping of the c sting c n occur

efore
the c sting r
e ches room temper ture. Consider, for ex mple, n utomo ile disc r ke rotor.
Rotors re usu lly gr y iron c stings which re typic lly cl ss 30 iron, with
pe
rlitic m trix s c st. A schem tic of rotor showing cross section is gi
ven elow together with

cooling curves from thermocouples pl
ced within the h t
(point 1) nd the in o rd we r pl te (Point 2). Stress distri utions within the
we r pl te re lso illustr ted for two times in the cooling
117


sequence. Solid St te Cooling Curves Tm TEMPERATURE In o rd We r Pl te (2) H t (
1) Pl stic Tm/2 tI TR tH El stic
H t 1


2 In o rd We
r Pl te We r Pl te Stresses Tensile - T ngenti

l Compressive -R di
l (Relieved y pl stic flow in the h t) At time t1 Out o rd We r Pl te
t0 Cooling Fin
t1 TIME
t2
DISC BRAKE ROTOR
We r Pl te Stresses

Compressive T ngenti l Tensile -R di l (Residu l El stic Str
ess Buildup in oth h t nd We r pl te) At time t2


Recryst lliz tion Temper ture, Pl stic - El stic Tr nsition In the ove sketch
it is import nt to note th t the “h t” section of the
rotor h s
l rger cross secti
on (typic lly 3/4 in. vs. 1/2 in.) th n either the
in o rd or out o rd we r pl t
es (The we r pl tes re the surf ces on which the r ke p ds ride.). The cooling
curves in the sketch reflect th t difference, the h t section cooling t much
slower r te th n the we r pl te. As result of the section size difference the
cooling curve for the h t section crosses the temper ture of one h lf of the me
lting point,Tm/2, t l ter time th n the we r pl te; i.e. tH > tI. One h lf of
the melting point is commonly used s n estim te of the recryst lliz tion temp
er ture of met l m teri l, the temper ture which sep r tes pl stic flow (where
dyn mic recryst lliz tion c n t ke pl ce) from the lower temper ture regime in
which signific nt el stic deform tion occurs. The result of these different p rt
s of this c sting cooling to room temper ure t different r tes fin lly gener te
s the residu l el stic compressive stresses
(t ngenti l) nd tensile stresses (r
di l) in the we r pl tes s shown
in the ove figure. The cooling curve - deve
loping stress scen

rio is outlined elow: 1. At time t0, just fter solidific ti
on is
complete, oth the h t nd the we r pl te sections re cooling nd contr c
ting, ut t different r tes. However the temper tures re high enough th t
118



ny stresses developing within e ch section

will e relieved y pl stic flow in
one section or the other. This occurs ec use the temper tures re much higher t
h n the point t which dyn mic recryst lliz tion c n occur (In c st irons this t
emper ture, Tm/2 = 350 oC). 2. At time t1, the we r pl te h s cooled into the el
stic r nge ( t tI) nd is still contr cting more r pidly th n the h t which is
still well within the pl stic zone. Contr
ction of the we r pl tes sets
up tensi
le t ngenti l stresses within itself nd, y virtue of the connection etween th
e two p rts, corresponding compressive stresses
in the h
t. Bec use the h t is s
till in the pl stic zone, these

stresses c n e relieved y pl stic flow within
the h t. Thus there is no pro lem yet. 3. At time t2, the we r pl tes re essent
i lly t room temper ture nd re therefore no longer contr cting. However the h
e vier section h t h s just entered the el stic zone t tH nd is continuing to c
ontr ct. The contr cting h t will then put the we r pl tes into residu l t ngent
i l compression ( nd r di l tension) s it tries to pull w y from the we r pl t
es, le ving itself in st te of tensile el stic stress. Cle rly the m gnitude o
f the stresses present will depend upon the differences in r te t which these s
ections
cool nd
the rel tive section sizes through which these residu l stresse
s c n e distri uted. Implic tions of Residu l Stresses 1. If the stresses re l
rge enough to c use yielding then sh pe ch nge (w rping) c n occur during
the
cool down period of the c sting. In some inst nces the stresses c n even e l r
ge enough to c use c t strophic f ilure, documented

result in l rge semi-conti
nuous c st luminum lloy ingots which h ve een left to cool fter c sting. 2.
A c sting cont ining signific nt residu l stress could f il or w rp during the m
chining oper tion
depending on the
n ture of m teri l removed during m chining.
For ex mple disc r ke rotors h ve een known to ch nge sh pe s m teri l is re
moved during m chining of the we r pl tes to their fin l configur tion. 3. A c s
ting cont ining
signific nt residu l
stress could f il in service. A cl ssic ex
mple of this pro lem is illustr ted
y r ilro d c r wheels which h ve exploded w
hen the full weight of the c r is rought to the
individu l wheel.
In some inst
nces the shr pnel resulting

w s enough to punch ig holes in uildings nd kill
people. Solutions to Pro lems 1. Control Cooling After Sh keout - The str ightfo
rw rd solution to excessive residu l stress
is to
control processing so th t ll
sections cool down uniformly. This could e done y sh king the c stings out of
their molds nd then putting them together in so king pit. This is especi lly
import nt for c stings with l rge section size differences, like the r ilro d c
r wheel. 2. Stress Relief Anne l - In those inst nces in which
the residu l str
esses re not l rge enough to ffect the s c st condition, ut re l rge enough
to ffect the p rt during m chining or in
service

(often promoting dimension l
ch nge nd/or w rping), the c stings m y e su
ject to stress relief nne
l. F
or ferrous c stings this involves he ting to out 1000 - 1100 oF followed y sl
owly

cooling, usu lly in ir. In ferrous c stings this temper ture r nge is well
elow the temper

ture where signific nt microstructur l ch nge c n t ke
pl ce;
i.e. it is well elow the lower critic l temper
ture where the ferrite egins to
tr nsform into ustenite. It is lso well elow the temper ture r nge where sig
nific nt spheroidiz tion of pe rlite c n occur.
119
For luminum
lloy c stings stress relief nne l, c lled the T5 tre tment ( ls
o c lled

st iliz tion tre tment), is c rried out in the r nge 400 - 500 oF
fo
llowed y n ir cool. In m ny c st luminum
lloys this tre tment lso contri u
tes to slight incre se in strengthening y ge h rdening in
ddition to the st
ress relief nne l. This is che p
w y to pick up strength, ec use solution
tre tment process norm lly required efore ge h rdening is not necess ry. App r
ently there is enough supers tur tion of portions of the m trix α dendrites s r
esult of cooling following c
sting to llow
precipit tion h rdening without the

solution

tre tment. This c n e understood y re lizing th t the coring descri e
d y the Scheil n lysis of microsegreg tion in dendrites results in rel tively
high lloy concentr tions in
the volumes immedi tely on the edges of the dendrit
es, volumes which c n then e co xed to precipit te the strengthening

p rticles
t 400 - 500 oF.
Residu l Stress Me surements There re num er of techniques w
hich re v
il le to me sure residu
l stresses in c stings, techniques which r
e utilized y m ny
comp nies to etter underst nd nd control their product. The
se techniques c n e pl ced into two c mps, destructive nd nondestructive. The
non-destructive c mp utilizes electrom gnetic r di tion to effectively me sure t
he interpl n r sp cings in m teri ls s function of position,

he t tre tment
nd service conditions.
The most common technique v il le is the x-r y diffr ct
ion technique, where e m of x-r ys of known w velength, λ, is scattered from ce
rtain definab e atomic p anes in the item of interest. These p anes wi  have a
spacing d, which can be measured using Bragg’s Law: d = λ / 2 sin θ where θ is the diffr
action ang e measured. The departure of the measured d from that of the materia 
not experiencing residua  e astic stress is used to compute that stress. This i
s a very common techniue to investigate surface residua  stresses in carburized
and induction hardened cases in stee . Unfortunate y residua  stress measuremen
ts by this method are imited to measurements on the surface of the samp e. Bu k
stresses are not measureab e un ess the interna  stresses are identica  to that
on the surface. It is possib e to remove materia  from the surface by etching t
echniues and then by this seria  techniue continue to measure stresses with de
pth into a materia . Of course, this then ceases to be non-destructive. Another
techniue avai ab e to do nondestructive testing invo ves the use of neutron sca
ttering, a techniue which does a ow examination of the stresses at depth. Unfo
rtunate y neutron scattering euipment is not common and measurements are uite
expensive. Destructive measurement are often the on y re iab e, re ative y uick
methods to eva uate the degree to which residua  stresses exist. These methods
can invo ve cutting and / or dri ing castings on which strain gages have been p
aced to record re ief of e astic compressive or tensi e stresses after the cutt
ing operation. These methods have been used at MTU to measure residua 
120
stresses in as - cast disc brake rotors. A brief synopsis of part of that work i
s indicated be ow: Qua itative Method - Radia  Cut Tangentia  Stresses A variety
of rotors were subjected to this ua itative test with the resu ts p otted be o
w as movement at A-A versus the weight of the casting.
B* A*
B * A *
0 -.01 -.02 -.03 -.04 12 16 24 20 Rotor Weight (Lb) 28
0 -3 -6 -9 -12 32
1. Mark points A-A & B-B 2. Measure distances A-A & B-B 3. Cut rotor a ong dark
ines and remove the wedge 4. Remeasure distances A-A & B-B 5. Distance change p
roportiona  to Residua  E astic Tangentia  Stress
The ua itative method above is made uantitative by adding strain gages to the
wedge which is removed. This gage, which measures both radia  and tangentia  str
esses is i ustrated in the above sketch. Rotor c osure occurred in a most a  c
ases, the extent of c osure proportiona  to the degree of tangentia  residua  co
mpressive stresses present. It can be seen that the magnitude of the residua  st
resses in the argest rotor (a so argest difference in section size between the
hat and the wear p ates) is on the order of 9000 psi, a significant fraction of
the nomina  30000 psi u timate. Radia  stresses were most y tensi e, but re ati
ve y sma , in the neighborhood of 1000 psi. It can easi y be seen that machinin
g cou d resu t in changes in shape as a resu t of the re ief of these stresses,
or changes in how the stresses are born by the rotor. In addition, it is a so c 
ear that the heating which resu ts from service conditions cou d resu t in stres
s re ief with eventua  warping, a condition which cou d promote brake judder, th
e experience of rapid and sometimes vio ent pu sating when the brakes are app ie
d. Another method common y used to measure residua  stresses in materia s is ca 
ed the “b ind ho e method”, a techniue where a specia  strain gage is g ued to the
piece in uestion. Then a sma , precise ho e is dri ed in the center of the g
age, and the re axation of the stresses is recorded at severa  ocations around
the ho e. The principa  stresses are computed from these data, which can then be
used to compute the residua  stresses. Because this is such a sma  ho e, this
test cou d be considered non-destructive. Unfortunate y it too is main y a surfa
ce stress method. Bu k stress measurements by this method are possib e but the d
egree of difficu ty is high and the errors in measurement are potentia y uite
arge.
121
Tangentia  Residua  Stress (ksi)
Change in A-A Distance (in.)
Strain Gage
XVI. Cast Stee 
The production of stee  castings has p ayed an important ro e in the transportat
ion and construction euipment industry for many years. Stee  castings, with the
ir exce ent combination of strength, toughness and ducti itity wi  continue to
fi  an important niche in these app ications and others. Stee  is usua y defi
ned as an Fe - C a oy with carbon compositions most y ess than 0.5 wt. %, carb
on amounts much ess than those generated in cast irons. Because of the ow carb
on and si icon content of most stee s, so idification of these materia s does no
t invo ve the production of graphite, even though graphite is the stab e phase i
n eui ibrium with austenite and ferrite. Stee s with carbon contents ess than
0.5 wt. % wi  so idify in a manner which inc udes a peritectic reaction. A port
ion of the Fe - C phase diagram which is pertinent to stee  casting and heat tre
atment is given be ow: 1600 1536 1500 1400 DELTA FERRITE (δ) bcc 0.1 0.16
1496 (Peritectic Temper ture) γ+L

0.54 USTENITE (γ) fcc

Temperature, oC
1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 0 Fe α+γ FERRITE (α) bcc 0.1 0.2 0.3 α + Fe3C 0.4 0.
5 0.6 0.7 γ + Fe3C 1.0 0.8 0.9 723 (Eutectoid Temperature) 2 % Maximum Carbon Solu
bility at 1148 oC
Weiht Percent Carbon

Consider a steel with a composition of 0.16 wt % carbon, the peritectic alloy.

peritectic reaction is one where liquid + solid -> new solid. In the case of pl
ain carbon steels, this reaction is described as: Liquid (0.54 Carbon) + δ Ferrite
(0.1 C rbon) -> Austenite (0.16 C rbon) The peritectic lloy, on c sting from

bout 1600oC, goes through
 the following
  ph se ch nges on soli ific tion in or er
: First,
 nucle tion n growth of δ en rites of composition
 0.025 C t 1525
 oC; S
econ , growth of δ en rites
 until 1496oC is re che t which point the en rites
of composition 0.1 C (the en rites h ve no trouble m int ining the equilibrium
c rbon composition
122
 
bec use of the very high iffusion r te of c rbon t these temper tures) re ct v
i the peritectic re ction with the rem ining liqui of composition 0.54 C tofo
rm ustenite of composition 0.16 c rbon. This re ction involves  long r nge if
fusion
 problem for the c rbon in the system; the c rbon must iffuse from the li
qui through the forming ustenite
 l yer to the interf ce between
 the ustenite

n the δ ferrite, illustr te on  the schem tic by points n b. : Liqui (0.54
C) δ (0.1 C) b δ (0.1 C) Liqui (0.54 C) γ (0.16 C)

t 1496, before Peritectic Reaction

t 1496, Durin Peritectic Reaction

Thus the austenite “layer” takes on the dendritic shape of the primary delta ferrite
, the interface of the product austenite rowin in both directions, into the li
quid and into the solid ferrite with the rate of the reaction overned by the ra
te at which diffusion of carbon can occur across the austenite layer and into th
e volume which is carbon poor. Fortunately the hih rate of carbon diffusion at
these temperatures allows the reaction to be completed very quickly; thus the li
quid and the primary delta is transformed to austenite. Further coolin of this
austenite to room temperature results in the solid state reactions to proeutecto
id ferrite (between 875 and 723 oC) and finally a sinificant amount of pearlite
(below

723oC) as dictated by the binary phase diaram on pae 74. Sereation o
f lloyin Elements Durin Solidification of Steel The product of the peritectic
reaction, the austenite phase, is quite homoeneous in carbon content because o
f the relatively hih diffusion rate of interstitial carbon in the austenite. Un
fortunately this is not the case for other substitutional alloy elements like ma
nanese, chromiun, nickel, copper, molybdenum, etc. These elements will initiall
y be sereated durin the nucleation and rowth of the primary delta ferrite, a
nd then will find a hue barrier awaitin them when the peritectic reaction occu
rs. Their diffusion rate in the austenite is slow enouh at the peritectic tempe
rature that a lare fraction is left behind in the liquid which is bein deplete
d by the rowin austenite interface. The final solid austenite product then con
tains reions of rossly different alloy composition (microsereation) which mi
rrors the oriinal delta dendritic appearance. Consider for example the element
mananese. The equilibrium Fe - Mn binary diaram predicts an equilibrium distri
bution coefficient of about 0.6 in the rane of compositions 0 to 5 weiht perce
nt mananese. This means that in the initial dendritic solidification of delta f
errite the new solid that forms will only contain about one half of the amount i
ncluded in the alloy. The remainder of the Mn will be left out in the liquid, wh
ere it will remain until the austenite beins to form in the peritectic reaction
. Fortunately the solubility of Mn in the austenite phase is quite lare, and so
the austenite interface advancin into the liquid can include those Mn atoms th
at it encounters in its sweep toward the completion of solidification. However,
the diffusion coefficient of the substitutional Mn atom is not rapid enouh to a
llow the oriinal Mn-poor delta volume to achieve equilibrium durin the time of
the peritectic reaction or even after solidification is complete. The diffusion
coefficient of Mn in austenite is iven by the relationship: DMn = 0.055 exp [-
29995 / T] (cm2/sec)
123
Mananese (Wt. %)
Where DMn is the diffusion coefficient of mananese and T is the absolute temper
ature in oK. Usin the simple approximation that the time required for diffusion
over a distance x, is iven by: t = x2 / 2DMn, and assumin that the distance r
equired for Mn atoms to move is on the order of 100 microns (10-2 cm), solvin f
or time required at the meltin point of ~ 1500oC (1777oK) ives : t = (10-2)2 /
2 (0.055 exp[- 29995 / 1777 ]) = (19476 Sec) or 325 min. Even with a very small
distance x, of 10 microns (10-3 cm), the time is on the order of 3 minutes, a m
uch loner time than what is usually available durin the coolin of the castin
. The net result is that sinificant mananese sereation will remain within th
e castin, sereation which has stron implications for the microstructures and
therefore mechanical properties that are attainable

in these materials. Conside
r a steel with a mananese concentration of 0.7 %.( typical cast steel will hav
e mananese concentrations in the rane 0.25 - 1.0 wt. percent.). The sketch bel
ow illustrates schematically the Mn concentration radients that could be expect
ed within a solidified microstructure and
therefore also at room temperature. Or
iinal Delta Ferrite Dendrite Solidified ustenite 2 kC0 = 0.6x0.7 = 0.42 1 C0=0
.7 Mn 0
0
x-> 1
Distance x 0 1 Microprobe Trace for Mananese Thus a solidified cast steel with
such a composition variation could be expected to reflect that variation in the
microstructure of the castin. Because of the effect that Mn has in movin the b
oundaries of the Fe - C phase diaram (increasin Mn reduces the carbon content
of the eutectoid and reduces the eutectoid temperature) the low Mn areas corresp
ondin to dendrite centers will be ferritic and the remainder pearlitic in slowl
y cooled cast steels. These concentration variations and therefore microstructur
al variations will also persist in rolled steels, a situation where the rollin
operation “strins out” the sereated dendrites so that “bands” of sereation result.
This, of course, results in bands (in the rollin direction) of different micros
tructural products which depends upon the subsequent heat treatment. This “bandin”
can lead to premature failure, or reduced mechanical properties in a direction p
erpendicular to the bands. See the schematic rep-
124
resentation below: Rollin Mill Ferrite “Bands” in a Pearlitic Matrix
“Ferrite” Dendrites in a Pearlitic Matrix
It is important to point out that most sinificant rollin occurs in the austeni
te rane, so that the structures shown here would appear after the rollin opera
tion.
Meltin and Refinin of Steel Meltin in modern steel foundries is most often ac
complished by the use of electric arc furnaces or electric induction furnaces. M
ost meltin is accomplished in relatively small furnaces (compared to those used
to produce continuous cast steel for bars and plates) and the chares are caref
ully blended to ive the correct composition at the finish of the meltin sequen
ce. In many instances the only extra processin needed is to deoxidize

the steel
just prior to pourin, a process accomplished by addin Si, Mn, or l. Each of
these elements will combine with the oxyen that is present and form oxides whic
h can then in principle be skimmed from the sla. In larer arc furnaces into wh
ich a variety of steel scrap (even that hih in carbon) is chared, a refinin s
tep may be added in which oxyen or mill scale (FeO) is added to provoke a carbo
n boil, an event in which the carbon reacts with the oxyen to form CO bubbles w
hich then leave the melt. This action reduces the
carbon to the desired rane af
ter which the deoxidation step (addin Si, Mn, or l) is taken to remove the det
rimental effect of hih oxyen content in the melt. Details on the thermodynamic
s of the processes can be obtained in a number of texts, includin “Makin, Shapin
, and Heat Treatin of Steel”, 10th edition. In recent years, steel foundries hav
e identified oxide inclusions as the most prominent defect in their castins, de
fects which can be macro-sized (lare enouh to see with the naked eye) or prese
nt as microinclusions. Interestinly many of these inclusions result from the in
ability of these oxide particles to be removed by the sla, particles which can
subsequently row when new oxyen is encountered that comes into contact with th
e molten metal. This “reoxidation” event is responsible for a lare fraction of the
inclusions observed in steel castins, inclusions which are currently the subjec
t of intense research to reduce or eliminate,

the so-called

clean steel initiati
ve pursued by the Steel Founders Society of merica (SFS ). The direction which
has born the most fruit in this effort has been to be much more careful in handl
in molten metal so that there is a minimum of new contact with oxyen. One inte
restin device in the forefront of
125
clean steel technolo

y is the use of the plasma ladle furnace, or PLF, a device
htly Sealed PROCESSING SCHEME Cover Graphite Electro
illustrated

below: r on Ti
de Plasma rc Molten Sla Bottom Pour

Stopper Rod
1. Molten Steel transferred from E F to PLF 2.Electrode

 strikes arc with molten
bath providin heat for refinin operation

 3. r on flowin throuh electrode for
ms and stabilizes the plasma arc 4. r on introduced throuh porous plu on the
bottom of the ladle to stir and remove oxyen from melt (Sievert’s Law) 5. Sulfur
is also removed durin this stirrin 6. Oxyen and sulfur levels < 10ppm 7. Bott
om pour direct from refinin vessel 8. Tihtly sealed cover and aron inflow kee
ps air contamination to minimum 9. Net result is cleaner steel
Molten Steel Refractory Linin


r on Gas Stirrin
Taken from Modern Castin articles by J. Svoboda and M. L. Philbin
Mechanical Properties of Cast Steel The mechanical properties of cast steel are
determined, like every other material, by the microstructure of the material and
by the extent to which defects or discontinuities are present. Clearly a steel
castin with all kinds of processin defects, i.e. shrinkae porosity, as poros
ity, sla inclusions, sand, oxide entrapment, and other detrimental inclusions w
ill not have optimum properties. However, because of the remarkable combination
of properties that are attainable by heat treatment and because of the relativel
y low cost of this material, steel castins will continue to play a major role i
n the development of modern society. No other material is quite so friendly when
it comes to fabrication that involves weldin. Few other materials can boast of
the reat combination of touhness and strenth that is attained in steel casti
n s. The biest competitor for steel’s markets are steel forins and ductile iro

n. Ductile iron has been very successful in replacin steel in many applications
, and austempered ductile iron will continue to put the pressure on steel castin
s. Because of the active competition with ductile cast iron the minimum tensile
prop-
126


erties attainable in STM rades of cast steel are plotted with the ductile iron
data below:
200 Ultimate Tensile

and Yield Strenth (ksi) 180 160 140 120 100 8
0 60 40 4 3 STM Grades of DI (Guaranteed Minimums,UTS) TM P P+F UTS F+P Yield
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Percent Elon ation 14 16 18 20 F
217
352 24

148 Quenched $ Tempered 148 Normalized

& Tempered Normalized & Tempered TM = T
emp Mart P = Pearlite F = Ferrite DI = ustem. Duct. Iron (Guaranteed Minimums)
DUCTILE IRONS
UTS
Yield
2

(Guaranteed Minimums) C ST STEEL, STM Grades

Yield UTS

1 148

UTS v. % Elonation -Summary of Common s-Cast and ustempered Grades of Ductile

Iron and Cast Steel
It can be seen in the above summary of tensile data that cast steels as a rule h
ave excellent ductility for a iven strenth, in eneral much hiher ductility t
han ductile cast irons. This is due to the lack of raphite nodules in steel, wh
ich serve as nucleation

sites for cracks and voids in ductile cast iron. It can
be seen that the DI 
rades are very competitive, however. It is important to em
phasize that for the STM rades of steel plotted above, the tensile data repres
ent minimum values uaranteed, and that maximum values of both ductility and str
enth can easily exceed the boundaries of the above scale. For example it is not
unusual for quality steel of lower strenth to have tensile ductilities in exce
ss of 40%, and tensile strenths up to and exceedin 300 ksi are within reach fo
r either hiher alloy rades or smaller section sizes of plain carbon rades whi
ch have been quenched and tempered at the appropriate temperatures. 
 

Quenchin an
d Temperin (Q & T) of steel involves the followin procedure: . ustenitize at
Tγ for a period of time to ensure that 100% austenite is produced. This time will
depend upon the section size of the castin  and whether or not the castin is p


ut into a hot furnace or a cold furnace. hot furnace
will accelerate heatin s
o that shorter austenitizin  times can be realized. ccordin to the Steel Casti

ns Handbook of the SFS , the most efficient austenitization schedule would invo
lve determinin the time required for the center of the heaviest section to reac
h Tγ and then addin 15 minutes.
127
B. Quench to a temperature below the martensite finish, MF, temperature in a med
ia which will uarantee that in the center of the heaviest section of the castin
 the austenite transforms to martensite, and does not undero any diffusional t

ransformations to pearlite (lamellar α + Fe3C) or b inite ( cicul r ferrite with
iscrete p rticles of Fe3C either
 within the ferrite or on the surf ce of the fer
rite). See the schem 
ticITT i gr m below. Alloying
 elements such s Mn, Cr, Mo
, Ni,V, etc.m y be e to incre se the h r en bility of the steel  (moving the
ITT i gr m to longer times, thereby
  effectively buying time) so iffusion l tr
nsform tion pro ucts re voi e uring quenching. C. He t to temper ture (te
mpering) to obt in the esire mech nic l propertiesin the c sting. This will u
su lly involve he ting in n ir furn cefor perio of bout onehour’s time.  Th
e effect of the tempering
 process on h r ness of typic l Quenche & Tempere s 
teel is illustr te below:

Isotherm l
Tr nsform tion (ITT) Di gr m Rockwell “C” H r
nesss Tγ Temperature ustenite 60 50 s - Cast 40 Hardness 30 20 0 400 800 1200 Te
mperin Temperature (oF) 1% Surface MS MF Pearlite 99% Bainite Typical Temperin
Curve Temperin Time, 1 Hour
Center
100% Martensite, RC 30 - 65
Time

Touhness and Stiffness of Cast Steel and Cast Irons s indicated above, cast st
eel is a material with unmatched impact properties. Charpy Vnotched specimens ca
n have an absorbed impact enery of up to 65 - 70 ft lb, while the best any of t
he cast irons can muster is about 10-12 ft lb in malleable iron. The reason for
this bi difference is, of course, due to the presence of the raphite. In addit
ion to remarkable touhness, steels are also selected for duty because of superi
or stiffness, althouh not as reat a difference is observed here. Cast steel ha
s a Youn’s modulus of about 30 million psi, with ductile

iron at about 25 million
psi, and ray iron from about 10 - 20 million psi. ain it is the presence of
the raphite in cast iron which is the reason for their lowered stiffness values
in comparison to steel. Weldability of Cast Steels and Cast Irons Weldability r
efers to the ease with which the joinin process of weldin (which involves loca
l meltin of the material to be welded) is accomplished. Weldin processes are 
enerally utilized to repair surface defects in castins and to join the castin
to another part in a fabrication process. It is enerally true that cast steels
are considered quite weldable and cast irons are welded with some difficulty. Ca
st steels are selected quite often for specific applications because they can be
easily joined, producin weld joints with properties equivalent to the base mat
erial. On the other hand, cast irons are never selected because of their ability
to be joined. Weldin processes in cast iron are almost always done to repair a
defective castin or to cosmetically cover up some ross surface defect. The re
ason why steels are weldable and cast irons are mostly not weldable
128
result from the response of each of these materials to the meltin, rapid solidi
fication, and rapid coolin in the solid state that is characteristic of the wel
din process. The thermal and the physical nature of weldments are described bel
ow: Heatin and Coolin Curves durin Weldin Weld Metal
Tm Temperature
Meltin Temp
TE

Eutectoid Temp Heat ffected Zone (H Z)

Time
Base Metal (Steel or Iron) with Weld Bead

pplication of a weld bead to the surface of either cast iron or steel would res
ult in local meltin, creation of a weld bead, and local heatin near the weld b
ead where the temperature will have entered the austenitization rane. Rapid coo
lin would follow after the heatin
, a period of time when the weld metal would
solidify and the austenite in the H Z would transform to martensite or some form
of α + Fe3C (pe rlite, b inite, etc.).Typic l scen rios for e ch m teri l re giv
en: Steel Wel Met l -> ustenite  -> α + Fe3C or m rtensite HAZ -> ustenite -> α +
Fe3C or m rtensite C st Iron Wel Met l -> Eutectic Fe3C + γ; and  then γ −> α + Fe3C or
m rtensite HAZ -> ustenite-> α+ Fe3C  or m rtensite
 The most
 esir ble structure
to h ve throughout the wel be n HAZ fter wel ing woul be continuous m
trix of ferrite
 with n even istribution  of Fe3C. Cre tion of m rtensite in eit
her the wel be  or the HAZ is not esir ble bec use of the brittle n ture of t
his ustenite ecomposition pro  uct. Minimizing the c rbon content n lloy  con
tent of the m teri l to be wel e m kes it likely th t no m rtensite woul form,
ch r cteristic of low  lloy
 pl in c rbon steels. Thesesteels m ke up the bul
k of steel cstings pro uce n re therefore highly wel  ble. C st irons, on t
he other
 h n h ve two strikes  g inst
 them in this wel ing process. First, the
r pi ly cooling molten ironwel be is likelyto soli ify with the form tion o
f the continuous iron c rbi e eutectic,  the h r  n brittle white iron th t gr
y n uctile iron processing so stu iously voi s by proper inocul tion. Secon
ly the m trix c rbon contents of c st irons re lmost lw ys gre ter th n 0.6 w
t %, m king it very likely th t the HAZ  woul tr nsform to the h r , brittle m r
tensite.
 Both the eutectic c rbi e n the m rtensite re very etriment l to pr
o uction of successful wel ment. The problem of eutectic c rbie form tion in
c st iron wel ments h ve beensolve by proper choice of electro e m teri l; hig
h nickel lloys h ve been use successfully. Unfortun tely  these lloys  re expe
nsive. The problem of m rtensite form tion in the HAZ n the wel be c n be
e lt with  by proper prehe ting
 n posthe ting schemes. However, these too re c
ostly n c nnot lw ys be one conveniently. It is cle rtherefore th t c st st
eel is much more frien ly m teri l when it comes to wel ing th n c st iron.
129
  
Surf ce H r ening of Steel n Iron  C stings by Selective He t Tre tment There
re m ny pplic tions of steel n iron c stings in which the esire properties
re chieve by selective het tre tment of surf ces,  process in which thin
surf ce l yer is ustenitize very  quickly followe by r pi quenching ction
in which the ustenite is llowe to tr nsform tom rtensite or some other combi
n tion of ph ses. The objective isusu lly to pro uce very h r , we r resist n
t surf ce while ret ining tough uctile core. Success in these processes requi 
res th t the st rting microstructure
 be of type (pe rlite, b inite, tempere m
rtensite) which will respon to the ustenitizing tre tmentin the short time
v il ble. All of these structures h ve very sm ll iron c rbi e p rticles in m
trix of ferrite, combin  tion which  is men ble to ustenitiz tion in short tim
es bec use of the sm ll iffusion ist  nces require to llow  the ustenite to fo 
rm. Processes which
 commonly re use to cre te these  kin s of structures inclu
e in uction h r ening, fl me h r ening n l ser h r ening. Det ils of these tre
tments re given in m ny texts onhe t tre tment. A surf ce tre tment process  i
s illustr te here for  surf ce h r ening of c msh ft simil r to those
 use on
utomobiles. In the i gr m below,  the convention lly surf  ce h r ene c m lobe
is illustr te on the right, n the surf ce ustempere  lobe is shown on the le
ft.
 The convention l tre tment results in the pro uction of m rtensite s-quench
e whichis sub1. C m Lobe Surf ce Convention l Austempere 1. C m Lobe Surf  ce
oF He te to 1600oF (C st Iron or Steel) (C st Iron) He te  to 1600 to epth o
f
 0.12 in. to epth of 0.12 in. C m 2. Austenite Quenche 2. Austenite
 Quenche

in S ltB th t 650oF Lobes in w ter to form 100% M rtensite  in n hel for t
ime nee e 0.12 in. l yer. to form 100% Ausferrite 3. Tempere t 400oF in 0.12
in. l yer. Ausferrite Tem.M rt. to ret in 55RC for We r Resist nce L yer C msh
ft L yersequently tempere to the necess ry h r ness, tre tment which  c n be
performe on both c st irons n steels. Surf ce ustempering to pro uce  n usf
errite structure c n only be one with c st irons. It h s been observe th t the
se surf ce usferrite structures we r s well orbetter  th n the tempere m rten
site, the ustenite m trix tr nsforming to h r , ur ble m rtensite in service
.
130
XVII. C st Copper Alloys  
C st copper lloys h ve bro r nge of pplic tion, use in every  m rket c teg
ory from plumbing to precision electronic  components to m rine n nucle r equip
ment. C st copper lloys re selecte most often  for their excellent
 corrosion r
esist nce, f vor ble mech nic l properties, goo friction n we r properties, b
ifouling
 resist nce (inhibiting m rine  org nisms from
 tt ching themselves to su
bmerge
 surf ces), high electric
 l n therm l con uctivity, goo c st bility  n
excellent m chin bility
 n f bric bility. Like other c st m teri
 ls, soli ifi

ction of copper b se lloys usu llyt kes pl ceby nucle tion n growth of e
n rites of copper-rich
 f ce
 centere cubic soli  solution in which ll of the
problems
 ssoci te with en ritic growth c n n willoccur.
 Theseproblems inc

lu e microsegreg tion of lloying  elements within the  en rites pro ucing core 
structures,
 entrpment of soli ific tion shrinkge n g s porosity in between
en rite rms, n the presence of complex inter en ritic ph ses. In ition, li
ke the tr nsform tions th t occur in luminum n ferrous lloys, soli st te ph
se tr
 nsform tions such s eutectoi tr nsform tions, m rtensitic tr nsform tio 
ns n precipit tion h r ening  re ll possible in these m teri ls. It is beyon
the
 scope of these notes to iscuss ll of the possibilities th t exist in the 
pro uction
 of c stings of copper b se lloys. It is useful, however, to provi e
more et ile look t c sting of Cu - SnNi lloy, m teri l which h s poten
ti l for excellent we r resist nce n strength. The ppropri te ph se i gr m i
s tern ry in which the Ni is completely soluble in the Cu in the soli st te 
n the Sn is soluble upto bout 13 wt. % in the soli st te.Schem  tic ph se i
gr ms of the Cu - Ni n Cu-Sn systems re given below: Liqui 1083 oC 1455
oC oC
α+L kSn = 0.15 α
13.5
L
Temper ture
kNi = 1.8 α 322oC α + α” T1
1083 Temper ture
α+β β α+γ α+δ α+ε
Cu
5
C’ C0 Wt. Prcnt Nickl
C” Ni
Cu
10 Wt. Prcnt Tin
Considr an alloy with 10 wt. pct. Sn and 5 wt. Pct Ni. Examination of th binar
y phas diagrams
 abov shows th complt solubility of Ni in Cu in th solid
 so
lution α, n the solubility of bout 13 % Sn lso in α. The Cu - Ni ph se i gr m c
ont ins miscibility g p t low temper tures, where the single ph se α soli solu 
tion of composition C0 will sep r te into two
 α ph ses α’ + α” of composition C’ n C” res
tively t temper ture T1, ph ses with the entic
i  l cryst l structure of the p r
ent α but with ifferent compositions s ict te by the tie lines on the ph se i
gr m. It c n lso be seen th t the Cu - Sn ph se i gr m is quite complex, with
 number of intermet llic ph ses present in equilibrium withα between melting n
room temper ture. It
 c n lso be seen th t the equilibrium istribution coeffi
cients of Ni in Cu n Sn in Cu re of
131
opposite sign. The Ni toms segreg te negtively, th t is therewill be more  Ni
in the first to freeze (FTF) p rt of the en rite th n t the e ge of the en ri
te, the l st to freeze (LTF) volume; on the other h n Sn toms segreg te positi
vely, with
 less Sn in the FTF th n inthe LTF. Thus composition profile cross
the α en rite in such n lloy woul h ve the gener l ppe r nce s is shown in
the sketch below: 12 10 Weight Pct Alloy 8 6 4 2 0 Tin Nickel
 
1 0 Wt. Fr ction Soli ifie LTF FTF The bove schem tic is not quite ccur te be
cuse in 10 percent Sn lloy there will be signific nt mount  of the inter e
n ritic δ ph se which results from the non-equilibrium
 coring uring
 soli ific tio
n. This inter en ritic ph se is r ther h r intermet llic compoun which will
contribute
 to the we r resist nceof the  c sting; bin ry lloys of 10% Sn re us
e in ge r pplic  tions where goo sli ing we rresist
 nce is necess ry, we r re
sist nce provi e inl rge me sure by the inter en ritic δ.The r ther high level
of Ni within the
 en rite promotes cert in mount of soli solution strengthen
ing of the en rite, but h s the e potenti l for contributing  much more stre
ngthening
 to this m teri l by precipit tion h r ening. This h r ening is ccompl
ishe through form tion of the coherent ’ + ” ph ses on ging the c sting t low t
emper tures. These ph ses re illustr te on the ph se i grm on p ge 128, but
formin m nner quite ifferent th n norm l nucle  tion
 n growth process. In
ste of the precipit tes nucle ting n growing in ivi  u lly the α’ + α” ph ses grow s
composition w ves within the structure s illustr  te   C” Wt. Pct Ni C0 C’ Di
below:
st nce x In this tr nsform tion (sometimes c lle spino l ecomposition) r n
om composition
 v ri tion of composition C0 t time t0 will spont neously incre s
e in mplitu e (composition) with t1 t2 α”
t3
t0
α’
132
  
ging time until the composition limits C’ n C” re re che by the  composition w v
e. This composition v ri tion cre
 tes b rriers to efect motion n therefore st
rengthens
 the m trix. An ge h r
 ening response for n lloy cont ining 10.5 Sn
n 4.4 Ni in the s - c st con ition is shown in the figure below:
220 200 180 160 140 120
350 oC 425 o C
0
4
8
Aging Time (Hours)
12
16
20
24
28 Alloy
32

Aging Response of n As-C st Cu - 10.5 Sn - 4.4 Ni (Split C st Iron Mol , 1 in.P
l te)
  
It shoul be notice th t the h r ness incre se on ging ws much gre ter t 350
oC th n t 425oC, consequenceof the l rger composition ifference (C” - C’) t 35
0 th n t 425oC. See the ph se i gr m on pg. 128 to ppreci tehow this iffere

nce incre ses with ecre sing temper ture. This incre se in h r ness resulte in
signific nt incre ses in tensile strength s well. These results re
133
  
illustr te in the Figure below for specimens ge t 350oC. 
70 60 5040 Cre ting 30 20 0 10 3020 Percent Elong tion Yiel UTS New Ppts As-C
st &Age 350C, 8 Hr As-C st & Age 350C 4.5 Hr
As C st

Solution Tre te 780C,8 Hr As-C st Ppts into Solution 40 50 60
V ri tion of Tensile Properties of C st 10.5 Sn - 4.4 Ni lloy with He t
Tre tment
This figure lso illustr tes the l rge g in in elongtion following solution tre
tment t 780oC, process whereby most of the Ni n Sn v il ble for precipit

tion were put b ck into
 solution.
 It is interesting to note th t the yiel , p
r meter which is very epen ent on the microstructure of the m trix, is much mor
e sensitive to ging th n the UTS.
XVIII. Homogeniz tion of C stings
Most lloy c stings h ve signific
 nt segreg tion present in the s-c st structur
e, result which is usu lly etriment l to themech nic l properties of thec s
ting. This segregtion
 c n t ke the form of gr ients in composition cross en
rites or s inter en ritic ph ses which woul not be present t equilibrium. Rem
ov l or elimin tion
 of this segreg tionrequires he ting to temper tures
 ne r th
e melting point n hol ing for perio of time sufficient to llow iffusion o
f the tomic species involve . Singh n Flemings h ve n lyze the  kinetics
 of
homogeniz tion in c stAl- Cu lloys, lloys in which both Cu gr ients n the
non-equilibrium inter en ritic θ phas is prsnt. A part of th Al - Cu phas di
agram, microstructur and xpctd Cu gradint for
134
an Al - 4.5 % Cu alloy ar givn in th sktch blow:
Dndrit Cntr Microprob Lin Scan Position across Dndrit Intrdndritic Cu
-rich θ Phas 53.5 Wt % Cu Cntr of Intrdndritic θ Phas α 5.65 C 0 = 4.5 kC 0 = 0.
77 0 Dist nce M ximum Solubility of Cu L
53.5
α+θ Al 33 4.5 Wt.% Cu
θ 53.5
It can b sn in th abov sktch of th Cu concntration vs. distanc that a s
ignificant fraction of Cu is prsnt as th θ phas; an yball stimat of th av
rag concntration of Cu in th dndrit is about 1.5 %. Thus th θ phas must co
ntain about 3 % (4.5 - 1.5) of th Cu; this translats to about 6 wt % of th in
trdndritic  phas in th as-cast condition in an alloy in which th uilibri
um structur would contain non of th θ phas aftr solidification is complt (s
 diagram abov). Th primary rason why Cu is addd to Al is to tak advantag
of th potntial for ag hardning th matrix a phas (this is th basis for th
 dvlopmnt of th 2000 sris wrought aluminum alloys). Unfortunatly for th
cast alloy, as is sn in th abov sktch, most of th Cu is not availabl on
dirct aging for th gnration of prcipitats. Thus it bcoms ncssary to ho
mogniz (or solutioniz) th cast matrial, to put th Cu atoms into solution i
n th aluminum rich matrix (dissolv th θ phas particls) so that thn th alloy
can b hat tratd to tak advantag of th Cu that is prsnt. Singh and Flm
ings showd that th rat at which th θ phas would dissolv into th a phas is
a function of th diffusion cofficint of Cu in th Matrix, DCu, and th scond
ary dndrit arm spacing, d. Thir xprssion for th variation of th volum fr
action of th θ phas, Xθ, with tim at tmpratur is givn by: Xθ = Xθo xp - [π2Dt / d2
] where: Xθo = Volum fraction of θ in as-cast condition, t = tim. Hat tratmnt t
o homogniz ruirs that th casting b hatd up into th singl phas α fiel ,
to temper ture r nge of bout 520 to 570 oC. It c n be seen in the bove equ
tion th t the v lue of Xθ will dcras with tim in an xponntial fashion until
(at an infinit tim) all of th intrdndritic phas will b dissolvd into th
dndritic matrix. Clarly this is not practically accptabl; rathr it is nc
ssary only to put most of th Cu into solution in th dndrits. Assuming that 9
5 prcnt of th θ phas is an accptabl amount to b dissolvd into th matrix α g
ives n expression for the time for homogeniz tion, tH of:
135
 
tH = - ln [ 0.05 2] / π2DCu or tH ~ d2 / 2DCu For Al  Cu alloys, DCu = 0.29 ex
[  15662 / T], ( cm2 / sec), where T is the absolute temerature in oK. Thus rea
listic times for homogenization deend strongly on T and d, the dendrite arm sa
cing. Secondary dendrite arm sacing measurements have been made on a wide varie
ty of aluminum alloy castings, measurement which are summarized in the figure be
low:
1000
Ingot Casting Sand Casting
100 MY 423 Lab
Die Casting Gas Atomiz. Water Atomiz. Laser Skin Melting Slat Quenching
10
1
0.1
0.01 10 2 1 100 10 4 10 6 10 8
Cooling Rate (C o / sec)
Clearly the SDAS measurements made in the MY 423 laboratory include a small art
of the very broad range of SDAS values obtainable in industrial rocesses. The
roduction of semi continuous cast ingots for breakdown into sheet and late giv
es the largest SDAS while raid solidification by slat quenching or in the rod
uction of thin ribbons of alloy gives the smallest values of SDAS. Of course, mo
st of the alloys roduced are in the range of the larger SDAS. Obviously the hom
ogenization time of these materials is going to be very different deending uon
the tye of cast roduct. Smaller values of d will require shorter times. The r
elationshi between tH, T, and
136
SDAS, d, is summarized in the Figure below:
107 106
One Week
10 10
5 One Day 4 One Hour
103 10
2
450o C
One Minute
500o C
INGOTS
10 550o C 1
DIE & SAND CASTING
10 10
1 ATOMIZA TION
2

10 3
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Secondary Dendrite Arm Sacing, d (Microns)
It can be seen in this figure that homogenization of large ingots take on the or
der of days to successfully dissolve the interdendritic hases, where atomized 
owders require times that are insignificant. Certainly the homogenization cost c
an be reduced if effort is taken to reduce SDAS by increasing the cooling rate.
Thus there is a large driving force to roduce continuous cast stri on the orde
r of a few centimeters thick. This would reduce energy costs to homogenize as we
ll as to break down by rolling. This is the direction that nonferrous metals is
taking, following the continuous casting examle set in steel, where it is curre
ntly ossible to continuously cast stri on the order of inches in thickness. It
should be mentioned that the above relationshi for tH is generally usable with
other castings as well, lugging in the aroriate diffusion coefficients. Thi
s “rule of thumb” relation 
137
shi alies even though there may be no significant interdendritic hase, for s
ituations in which there are only comosition variations from inside the dendite
s to outside of the dendrites. A selected grou of diffusion coefficient data is
given in Table 12: Table 12: Selected Diffusion Coefficients in Al, Cu and Fe D
= D0 ex [ Q/RT], (cm2 / sec) Matrix Al Al Al Cu Cu Cu Fe, In Austenite Fe, In
Austenite Fe, In Austenite Fe, In Austenite Fe, In Austenite Fe, In Austenite Fe
, In Austenite Cu Mg Li Ni Sn Zn Mn Mo Ni N C Si (0 2%) Cu Solute 0.29 4.4 4.5
1.4 0.027 0.083 (for 10% Zn) 0.055 0.068 0.344 0.91 16.2 D0 15662 16859 16759 27
428 18762 19879 29995 29693 32964 20262 16575 Q/R(oK)
DSi = 4 x 10 10(1206oC), 1.7 x 10 9 (1293oC) 3.6 32964

Data from Smithell’s Metal Reference Book; Shewmon’s Text, Diffusion in Solids robl

em: A ductile cast iron with a nominal com osition 3.7 C, 1.99 Si, 0.29 Mn, 0.18
Mo, 1.33 Ni, 0.77 Cu, 0.052 Mg was roduced at MTU and cast into sand molds (4
inch Y Block). The elements Si, Ni, and Cu segregate negatively (high concentrat
ion in the center of the dendrites and near the nodules[FTF], while Mn and Mo se
gregate ositively (high concentrations in the interdendritic regions [LTF]). Th
e extremes in concentration observed in this alloy is given in the table below:
Table 13: Location FTF LTF 2.9 1.0 Si 1.65 0.65 Ni 1.55 0.3 Cu 0.2 1.1 Mn 0.05 1
.7 Mo
138
The SDAS observed in this heavy section casting was in the range of 200 microns
(0.02 cm). Show that homogenization of this alloy is not ractical (Tm = 1150oC)
.
XIX. Environmental Concerns in Metal Casting

roduct Life Cycle and the Environmental Concern Enveloe Everything material ha
s a life cycle, which means there is a birth, a useful life, and a death. Obviou
sly the most desirable situation is one in which the useful life is infinite. Of
course this is urely wishful thinking because of wear, corrosion, and obsolesc
ence. A roduct Life Cycle begins when raw materials are brought together for th
e urose of roducing or manufacturing a secific roduct for consumtion by th
e ublic. In the ast the roduct life cycle ended when the secific roduct rea
ched the end of its useful life. A general schematic of this rocess for a syste
m in which there was no closure(including mining) is given below. 
roduct Life Cycle, No Closure roduct Manufacturing Resource Extraction ackagi

ng & Trans ort Landfill

roduct Disosal

roduct Use
In this modern age of environmental concern, the roduct life cycle has been mod
ified to include closure of the life cycle and to reflect the concern for the en
vironmental “cost” of roducing and using the roduct. This “cost” includes an awareness
, both qualitative and quantitative, of the energy and  
    material in uts and out
uts during the rocess of roducing the roduct. The roduct Life Cycle indicate
d above has been udated to reflect the Environmental Cost in the figure on age
137. In this Figure the several otions of Life Cycle Closure (Recycling, Reman
ufacturing or Reusing) are included together with the introduction of the Enviro
nmental Concern Enveloe. This enveloe emhasizes the material and energy inut
s and the solid, liquid, and gaseous out 
139
uts resulting from rocesses throughout the cycle.
 
roduct Life Cycle,ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN ENVELO E
SOLID WASTE BURDEN

roduct
 Manufacturing Resource Extraction Recycling Landfill Reuse or Remanufact
uring ackaging & Transort

roduct Disosal

roduct Use

AIR AND WATER OLLUTION
The rimary difference in the roduct life cycles as deicted by these figures i

s the closure through recycling, reuse, or remanufacturing shown above. The driv
ing force for closure is clearly a combination of the desire by manufacturing ce
nters to reduce their costs to roduce the roduct, together with the need to co
mly with existing and future environmental regulation. It will be the resonsib
ility of the designer of the future to consider the environmental enveloe at th
e beginning of the roduct life cycle, to minimize the imact of the roduct man
ufacturing and use on the environment by minimizing energy and material requirem
ents and minimizing deleterious material oututs. Obviously the goal of the desi
gner will be to roduce a roduct with zero negative discharges, to select and h
el design roducts and rocesses which generate useful
 byroducts instead of ou
t uts which will materially harm the environment. roduct Life, Dissiation of M

ass The second law of thermodynamics, with its requirement that entroy increase
s (that randomness revails) can be demonstrated by a critical look at the fate
of roducts. In a discussion of roduct
140
life cycles, it is useful to look at whether or not roduct matter is dissiated
during the lifetime of the roduct and/or after it has ceased to be useful. In
this discussion, dissiation imlies loss of mass external to the roduct. A sch
ematic roduct life—dissiation diagram,shown below, illustrates roduct use on a
scale from “dissiative” to “non dissiative.” This figure shows that highly dissiative
roducts are those which are usually roduced for their controlled chemical rea
ctions (gasoline, blast furnace coke, exlosives, fertilizer, esticides), while
non dissiative roducts are most often roduced for their electronic or electr
ical roerties (TVs, comuters, batteries). In the former, the reaction roduct
s are invariably dissiated to the environment and cannot be conveniently recove
red. In the latter, the roduct does not dissiate matter to its surroundings bu
t ceases to be useful by obsolescence, by nonreversible chemical reactions, or b
y internal mass flow. In many of these instances, it is interesting to note that
roduct function ceases by atomic dissiation (diffusion) within the roduct an
d not by dissiation to the environment. The “in between” roducts shown below invar
iably have a comonent of mechanical or chemical use in which dissiation of mat
ter can occur to different degrees deending uon the roduct. This is illustrat
ed by automotive arts which move against other arts and lose mass by wear, and
by auto body arts which corrode. If there is enough wear or corrosion, the ar
t will eventually cease to function and will require relacement or reair.

roduct Life  Dissiation Diagram

roducts

Useful roduct Life Dissiative Use
DecreasingTendency to Dissiate IncreasingTendency to Dissiate
Non Dissiative Use
Chemical Uses 
Gasoline Coke Exlosives Fertilizers esticides NOT RECYCLABLE
Mechanical Uses 
Automobile Brake ads Automobile Disc Brake Rotors Internal Combustion Engines A
utomobile Bodies Foundry Sand
Electronic or Electrical Uses
Televisions Comuters Batteries Coer Cable Beverage Cans
GENERALL RECYCLABLE Y
Material Flow in a Metal Casting Facility The majority of metal castings roduce
d in the world are made by ouring molten metal into a sand mold made of sand gr
ains (Usually Silica, SiO2) which are bound together by a variety of binder mate
rials including clay water and a large variety of organic and inorganic chemical
s. These kinds of manufacturing facilities, like most manufacturing facilities,
exerience large quantities of materials moving in resonse to the needs of the
rocess. Metal movement occurs in the solid and liquid state, sand in huge quant
ities (sand / metal ratios of 3 10) are needed to make the molds, air flow is re
quired to move and remove combustion roducts, water is needed
141
for cooling and scrubbing air, and chemicals are sometimes necessary to bind san
d grains and create metal enetration resistant layers. This dynamic flow situat
ion is illustrated schematically below, a flow diagram which is reresentative o
f a foundry of 1950. In this schematic the solids
[IN] Disosal in Land• ll
To Scrayard
CASTING
AIR
[OUT]
DUST CHEMICALS AIR OTHER CHEMICALS BINDERS SAND
[IN]
Consumer
Metal Returns Rerocessed Sand

SCRA MET AL

S ENTSAND
[IN]
SLUDGE CHEMICALS W TER A
[T LANDFILL] O
FOUNDR Y BOUNDAR Y
W TER [IN] A
[OUT]
Schematic Material Flow in Foundry, A D 1950
are deicted as entering the casting rocess from right and left, the water ente
rs from the bottom, and the air enters from the to. All material inut is focus
sed uon the casting rocess in the center of the figure. Note that in 1950 the
only recycled material was the metal, the remaining solid, liquid and gas being
disensable. As a result of environmental, financial, and social ressures, the
foundry industry, like most other American industry has resonded by aying much
more attention to the flow of materials, other than the metals which make u th
eir roduct, into and out of their manufacturing centers. Those materials, gases
, solids, and liquids, which are absolutely necessary in the rocess of roducin
g the roduct but don’t aear in the roduct are also very imortant This concern
is illustrated schematically in the figure on age 140, a schematic flow diagra
m for a tyical foundry in the year 2000, in which solid, liquid and gaseous was
te roblems are
142
being addressed by attemts to “close the loos” with aroriate technology.
AIR
[OUT]
FOUNDR Y BOUNDAR Y
Waste for Disosal Dust
[IN]
AIR
AirTreatment Baghouse OTHER CHEMICALS BINDERS SAND
CASTING
Consumer 
To Disassembly for Remanufacture Recycle or Reuse SCRA MET AL Metal Returns Re
rocessed Sand
[IN]
Sand
 Reclamation
S ENTSAND
[IN]
W TER A
[IN]
Water Treatment
W TER A
Sludge
[RECIRCULAED] T
Material Flow in a Foundry in AD 2000
Byroduct from Dust
It can be seen that the solid, liquid, and gas loos have been closed by the inc
ororation of devices for scrubbing and cleaning the air and water, and by sand
reclamation devices which will scrub the sand grains for reuse. These efforts to
control material flow into and out of metal casting lants have been made in re
s onse to the need to imrove the environment of eole. Environmental secialis

ts within the industry resond to health concerns related to the industrial out
ut of solids, liquids, and gases affecting workers (close roximity to the indus
trial outut), affecting near neighbors (within a few blocks of the industrial s
etting), and all residents on earth (green house gas emission, acid rain, etc.).
Sent Molding Media The greatest fraction of castings roduced are made in mold
s in which an aggregate of some refractory material is used as molding media, mo
st often silica sand. As described earlier in these notes, the rocess of making
molds requires a attern around which sand with an aroriate bonding medium i
s acked. The attern is removed, leaving a cavity in the sand into which molten
metal is oured. As indicated reviously, bonding media vary from clay + H2O to
comlex organic resins which, as a result of the heat from the liquid metal, bu
rn and roduce a residual
143
coating on the sand grain surfaces. This new carbon containing surface results i
n difficulty in rebonding the shakeout sand. As a result, a significant amount o
f this “sent sand” is disosed of in landfills (1 million tons er year in Michigan
and 15 million tons in the U.S., 1990 estimate). The figure below is a schemati
c flow diagram for sand in a tyical green sand (clay water bond) foundry. This
figure shows that after the casting oeration the shakeout sand is divided into
two comonents. The major comonent is reused for making new molds (reconditione
d sand), while the minor comonent is treated as waste, screened fines and lums
created by the contact with high temeratures.
Mining of Sand Dunes and Old Lake Beds W ashing, Screening, and Sizing Add W ate
r and clay Reconditioned Sand Molding Sand Core Sand Bonding Media
 
roduction of Molds and Cores ouring of Molten Metal into Sand Molds
Add W ater and clay
Searation of Castings from Sand [SHAKEOUT] Shakeout Sand 1. Sand Unaffected by
Heat 2. Heat Af ected Sand (Lums, Fines) f Mechanical and Thermal Scrubbing of
Sand Grains
CASTINGS
RECLAMATION
Screened Lums & Fines Removal
Fines
To Landfill or Alternate Use
There are oortunities available for sand (lums and fines shown above) which i
s no longer satisfactory for direct use in molding, including: A. Subjecting the
sand grains to a cleaning rocess whereby the interfering layer is removed
144
so that the grains can be used again as molding medium. These cleaning rocesses
are generically called reclamation and are shown closing the roduct cycle in t
he above sketch. This rocess is an exensive addition to the foundry handling s
ystem and has been discussed in some detail on ages 64  67 of these notes. B.
Using the sand grains (lums and fines) for an alternate use, some of which are:
1. Aggregate in ashalt 2. Aggregate in concrete 3. Charge stock in a cement ki
ln 4. Charge stock in glass making 5. Daily cover in a landfill Otion A is not
currently in wide use in the State of Michigan because for many foundries it is
not yet cost effective; i.e., the cost of landfilling is still not high enough t
o offset the increased caital cost requirement to clean these grains. However,
the rate of increase in the cost of disosal is large, and it is simly a matter
of time before Otion A will become attractive and become a art or the sand sy
stem in each foundry. Otion B is in its beginning stage, with B1, B3 and B5 cur
rently in rocess in several locations in this country. Which otion each foundr
y uses will deend uon its own unique circumstances. Environmental Concern of M
etal Casting Facilities. Metal casting facilities have long been known as “recycle
rs” because of their basic function of taking scra metal and turning it into usef
ul roducts. Unfortunately, because of the other material needs of these rocess
es which are described above, metal casting facilities had also earned the reut
ation of being very dirty laces to work at or live near. This reutation has ch
anged, however, with governmental ressure resonding to eoles’ hysical and hea
lth needs as well as the drive for environmental resonsibility on the art of i
ndustry. As a result of these ressures, significant federal legislation has bee
n assed which has been directed at forcing closure of the above loos illustrat
ed on age 140, legislation dealing with clean water, clean air, and the generat
ion and disosal of solid waste, both hazardous and non hazardous. A artial sum
mary of the most significant of these legislations is given below: 1963  Clean
Air Act (CAA) 1965  Solid Waste Disosal Act  First Law dealing with safe dis
osal of household, municial, commercial and industrial waste. 1970  Resource R
ecovery Act 1970  Clean Air Act (CAA), Amendments to CAA, Most of Basic Structu
re of CAA were established in these amendments  Emission Standards for industri
al lants and automobiles. 1970  Clean Water Act (CWA) 1976  Resource Conserva
tion and Recovery Act (RCRA)  regulates generation, storage, transortation, tr
eatment and disosal of hazardous waste 1977  Clean Air Act, Amendments to CAA
1977  Clean Water Act, Requires at least secondary treatment of all ublicly ow
ned treatment works, stiulating that such facilities rovide at least 85% BOD (
biochemical oxygen demand) removal. 1980  Comrehensive Environmental Resonse,
Comensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) , Requires Cleanu of sites which ose
a threat to human health or
145
the environment (Suerfund), Amendment to RCRA 1984  Hazardous and Solid Waste
Amendments, Amendment to RCRA 1986  Suerfund Amendments and Reauthorization Ac
ts (SARA) 1990  Clean Air Act Amendments
 (Goal to reduce air ollution by 90% b
y year 2000) E A (Environmental rotection Agency) Identified Iron and Steel Fou
ndries as otential major source categories of acrolein, benzene, Cr, Co, b, Mn
, Ni, Se, formaldehyde, henol, toluene, xylene,olycyclic organic matter. This
from a list of 189 hazardous air ollutants (HA ) added to existing list from 1
970 All of these legislations have had and do affect the manner in which metal c
asting facilities deal with their own solid, liquid,and gaseous waste, and there
fore their own rocesses. The net result of these far reaching environmental law
s has been that metal casting facilities are very sensitive to any change, or o
tential change in their rocess which could imrove their current environmental
osition. Whereas most industrial roducers of castings didn’t even know what an e
nvironmental engineer was in the mid 1960s, the necessity to comly with the law
has seen a large increase in the number of environmental engineers in ositions
of resonsibility. Indeed it is not an exaggeration to say that all engineers c
urrently emloyed in most industrial situations will find their careers being dr
iven in art by environmental concerns. The ideal industrial organization, from
an environmental oint of view, would know exactly what materials are entering t
heir facility and have comlete control of what haens to those materials in th
at facility, so that nothing leaves the rocess in any way, shae, or form which
could now or in the future be a danger to human health. Clearly this is an imo
ssible task for metal casting lants which use and handle large quantities of ma
terials. Rather than execting to achieve the ideal situation, foundries of the
resent and future will need to otimize their rocesses to minimize the otenti
al danger from emissions which exit their work sace. On examination of the loo
s in the schematic on age 140, one’s eyes are drawn to the center of the foundry
enclosure, the focus oint of all of the inuts and oututs where casting of the
metal takes lace. It is clear that minimizing the otentially dangerous emissi
ons from each rocess will require knowing much more about the materials which a
re going into the rocess and understanding what haens to materials during the
rocess. The inuts and oututs and the rocesses involved in a

146
 hyothetical green sand foundry is illustrated in the schematics that follow:

IN UTS Scra Metal Sand Chemicals Air Other Gases Water

Melting Casting Core Making Mold
 Making Casting Shakeout Sand rocessing Reclama
tion Casting Cleaning
 Casting ainting
ROCESS ENVELO E

OUT UTS Volatiles (Gases) Dusts Sludges Slags Sent Sands Castings
Foundry Boundary
Inuts and Oututs Illustrating the Sources of Volatiles in a Tyical Foundry It
is the foundry’s resonsibility, according to the federal laws summarized on age
s 142 & 143, to be resonsible for the materials generated in the foundry roces
ses. The schematic above shows significant oututs other than the rimary outut
, castings, all of which are otential sources of ollution. All five of the out
uts listed (other than castings) constitute waste roducts which could contain
toxic comonents, comonents which according to the law require mitigation in on
e way or another. Two examles follow in which the law is alied to current ra
ctice. CAA of 
 1990 Consider the com lexity of this situation where volatiles are
concerned. otentially harmful gases can be generated in many of the common ro
cesses involved in roducing castings, as illustrated by the arrows in the above
schematic. These gases include CO and CO2 from combustion during melting and ca
sting, many otentially toxic combustion gases from the organic binder materials
, solvents associated with ainting rocesses, etc. Most of the CO and CO2, as w
ell as a good fraction of the combustion roducts from core binders is released
to the atmoshere in the foundry, or is catured by the air handling system and
released external to the foundry. Some of these gases will find their way into a
scrubber system and can be catured in a sludge as the gaseous secies or as an
other reacted comound. Most, however, will escae and be emitted into the surro
unding atmoshere. According to G. Mosher, the Director of Environmental Affairs
for the American Foundrymen’s Society (Modern Casting, October, 1994, ages 28 
31) it is the intent of the current law that state air ollution agencies will,
in the future, require each foundry to suly information about what hazardous a
ir ollutants and how much of each (of the 189 hazardous air ollutants defined
by Congress) they emit er year before oerating ermits can be obtained. There
are two ways this information can be obtained. First, and most exensive, stack
tests can be obtained and air samles analyzed for their content. Accurate analy
sis, however, requires very careful samling over a reasonable
 time san. These
cond way to answer this question (satisfactorily for the E A) is to use the E A’s
Emission Factors, factors based uon 1970s AFS research done on emissions due to
binder combustion. This requires knowing how much of a articular binder is use
d in a given facility er year and then simly summing the various combustion r
oducts,as determined by the AFS research, from that binder. As an examle Table
14 sum 
147
marizes the emissions from 1 ound of a henolic No Bake binder (This assumes th
at the binder is comletely combusted ina manner tyicalfor a ferrous foundry)
. Table 14: Emissions (in lbs) from One ound of No Bake henolic Resin; after M
osher Emission NH3 Total Hydrocarbons NOX SO2 H2S Acroleine* Amnt 10 6Lb m 39
12159 29 15107 1462 5 Emission Benzene* Formaldehyde*
 HCN* M Xylene* Nathalene*

O Xylene* Amnt 10 6Lb m 11209 10 29 97 49 49 henol* Toluene* Total Aromatic
Amines* Total C2 to C5 Aldehydes* Total HA s (With*) TOTALS** Emission Amnt 10 6
Lb m 975 634 49 3070 16174 44972
** Thus for one ound of binder, 0.0449 ounds of Objectionable gaseous emission
s and 0.0162 ounds classified as hazardous emisssions are released to the atmos
here. resumably the remainder of the one ound of binder will be emitted as th
e combustion roducts of water, CO2, and CO (The OSHA emission standard for CO i
s 50 m) Emission Factors for 12 of the most common binders or sand additives a
re available for calculational uroses. Granting of an oerating ermit will de
end uon the individual state’s law and on the total amount of HA emitted er an
num. This method is a common sense aroach (What Goes In Must Come Out) and a c
onservative estimate of emissions, because all of the binder is assumed to be co
mbusted during the casting oeration. However, it is common knowledge that a sig
nificant art of the binder will be lost to solid waste streams, most notably th
e core butts and broken cores which never see the heat of molten metal. Thus the
foundry can be fairly confident of their air emission resonsibility rovided t
hat they kee good records of the inut binder urchases. RCRA of 1976 The Resou
rce Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 regulates the generation, storage, han
dling and disosal of toxic waste material. A toxic substance is harmful or fata
l if ingested or absorbed. Toxicity is determined using a standardized laborator
y test called the extraction rocedure, a rocess which in essence is suosed t
o simulate the leaching action which could occur if the substance were allowed t
o be exosed to rainfall in an oen landfill. A substance is designated as being
E Toxic if an extract (the leachate from the test) contains any of the eight t
oxic elements or six esticides that follow in concentrations greater than the v
alues given (in milligrams er liter): Arsenic (5); Barium (100); Cadmium (1); C
hromium (5); Lead (5); Mercury (0.2); Selenium (1); Silver (5); Endrin
 (0.02); L
indane (0.4); Methoxychlor (10); Toxahene (0.5); 2,4 D(10); 2,4,5 T Silvex (1)
. It should be noted that a hazardous substance is a more allencomasing term th
an a toxic substance, though the two are often used interchangeably.
148
 
According to the E A there are over 400 listed hazardous wastes and there is mor
e than one ton of hazardous waste er erson er year generated in the U.S. (Thi
s amounts to ~ 250 million tons of hazardous waste generated in the U.S. Of this
amount only a small ortion is contributed by metal casting facilities, erhas
 as a guess  only 1 million tons at maximum.) All of the elements in the abov
e list are otentially resent in the outut from foundries. Certainly lead and
cadmium are likely to show u in ferrous materials as carry over from scra in t
he charge. This distribution of lead as an imurity is illustrated in the inut
 outut schematic below:

IN UTS Scra Metal Sand Chemicals Air Other Gases Water
 
b or bO
  
Melting b Casting or Core Making bO Mold Making Casting Shakeout Sand rocessi
ng ReclamationCasting Cleaning Casting ainting
ROCESS ENVELO E

OUT UTS Volatiles (Gases) Dusts Sludges Slags Sent Sands Castings
Hazardous Waste Landfill or Chemical Treatment
Foundry Boundary
Inuts and Oututs Illustrating the Flow of Lead in a Tyical Iron or Steel Foun
dry Sources of lead in the charge include 1. Leaded steels (lead is used to imr
ove machinability of steels); 2. Leaded aints on scra (Lead was a rominent el
ement in aints for many years); 3. Lead included in automobile shredding roduc
ts (lead acid batteries). It can be seen from the above schematic that the melti
ng oeration results in lead being ever more widely distributed (entroy in acti
on) throughout the foundry work area, erhas to the immediate neighborhood of t
he foundry, and to the landfill site through leaching action of rainfall. The fo
undry is required by law to make sure that emissions of lead from their stacks i
s within state  acceted tolerances and that the air within their foundry conta
ins no more than a certain allowable maximum amount. Clearly the solution to thi
s roblem includes careful monitoring of inut charge materials and using an air
handling system within the foundry which catures effluent from the melting are
a by the use of a scrubber ( a device using water to entra articulate matter)
or a baghouse (a big filter which catures articulate matter). Of course, the s
crubber sludge and the baghouse dust may now contain lead in quantities large en
ough to be classified as a toxic waste. This material will then either have to b
e transorted to a toxic waste site (very exensive  ~ 5 to 10 times the cost of
a normal landfill fee), or the lead will have to be rendered non leachable by c
hemically combining it with another material or by coating the lead articles in
a material which will not leach (another costly oeration). While lead is of co
ncern as an imurity in charge materials which then ends u in the baghouse or i
n scrubber sludge, the fraction of solid waste from metal casting lants which i
s classified as hazardous is quite small indeed. The largest comonent of waste
materials from foundries is sent sand which, for the most art, is not hazardou
s and can be disosed of in local landfills at reasonable cost. In fact most of
the sent sand from foundries is used for daily cover at the land 
149
fill, which usually means that the foundry will ay less er ton to disose of t
he sent sand. Even in the instance of lead and cadmium containing dusts and slu
dges, there are industrial organizations which “mine” these wastes for their heavy m
etals, and as such will either urchase these “byroducts” from the foundry or will
take them at no cost. Of course the monetary exchange
 isdetermined by the grade
of the “ore” that is the dust or the sludge. ollution revention The above examle
s of air emissions and lead emissions are only two environmental concerns which
foundries face on a daily basis. Obviously there are many other examles as well
, examles which will change from one foundry to another, from one metal to anot
her, and even from one state to another (deending on state statutes). The chall
enge for the foundry industry (and every other industrial sector which uses larg
e quantities of materials) is to look closely at their rocesses and urchases w
ith the intent of minimizing or eliminating waste. This engineering and manageme
nt strategy is referred to as ollution revention, as oosed to the end ofie
treatment which has dominatedthe environmental
 area for the first 20 years of
the environmental revolution. ollution revention in the future of metal castin
g facilities will require efforts to: 1. Take a closer look at the fundamental m
aterial handling rocesses with an eye to imlementing design changes which will
minimize waste. 2. Exlore alternate molding media (to sand) with the intent of
develoing dimensionally more stable aggregates which are more resistant to the
rigors of metal casting and more reclamation friendly. 3. Develo new core and
mold binders which will combust more comletely and roduce a minimum of the haz
ardous combustion roducts. 4. Develo and use more sohisticated equiments for
screening incoming charge material to minimize roblems from contaminants such
as lead or cadmium. 5. Increase the overall industry wide casting yield, by usin
g innovative casting techniques and develoing new casting techniques which mini
mize gating and risering systems. 6. Exlore new sources of charge material; for
examle in the cast iron industry take a serious look at direct reduced iron as
an alternate to scra. 7. Other?
150