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11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 1 29-03-09

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System for Domestic Hot Water

Services

DANMARKS Educational Notes for

TEKNISKE
UNIVERSITET
11127 Sustainable Heating and
Cooling of Buildings
2009
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 2 29-03-09

1 REQUIREMENT OF THE STANDARD ......................................................................................................... 3

1.1 The functional requirements of the standard on installations for domestic hot water ................................... 3
2 DISTRIBUTION OF DOMESTIC HOT WATER .......................................................................................... 4
2.1 Waiting times at taps ..................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Distribution and circulation ........................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Heat loss from pipes and cooling of water in the pipe .................................................................................. 5
2.4 Dimensioning of circulation systems ............................................................................................................ 6
2.4.1 Dimensioning cooling and velocity ....................................................................................................... 6
2.4.2 Dimensioning of pump in circulation systems ....................................................................................... 7
2.4.3 Circulation system with one loop .......................................................................................................... 7
2.4.4 Circulation-system with more loops ...................................................................................................... 7
3 SYSTEM FOR PRODUCTION OF DOMESTIC HOT WATER .................................................................. 9
3.1 A hot water system with a flow through heat exchanger ............................................................................ 11
3.1.1 The power of the heat exchanger ........................................................................................................ 11
3.1.2 Hot water consumption and effective power of heat exchanger .......................................................... 11
3.1.3 Necessary power of a hot water system with a flow through heat exchanger ..................................... 11
3.2 A hot water system with a hot water tank ................................................................................................... 12
3.2.1 Draw-off programme and energy consumption .................................................................................. 12
3.2.2 Design of the hot water tank ............................................................................................................... 12
3.2.3 Effective Power of the heat exchanger and tank volume without tank heat loss ................................. 14

Figure 1 Draw-off programme for a single family house/apartment with bathtub. ....................................................... 3
Figure 2 Draw-off programme for a single family house/apartment without bathtub. .................................................. 3
Figure 3 Waiting times as function of pipe length for copper and PEX-pipes. [2] ...................................................... 4
Figure 4 Hot water system without circulation pipe [2]. ............................................................................................... 4
Figure 5 Hot water system with circulation pipe [2]. .................................................................................................... 4
Figure 6 Examples of circulation pipes for hot water system [2]. ............................................................................... 5
Figure 7 Heat loss from the hot water pipe to the ambient. ......................................................................................... 5
Figure 8 Sketch of circulation system with one loop [2]............................................................................................. 8
Figure 9 Sketch of circulation system with two loops [2]. ........................................................................................... 8
Figure 10 Symbols and definitions for a hot water tank. [2] ........................................................................................ 9
Figure 11 Example of flow and temperature conditions during charging of the tank. [2] ............................................ 9
Figure 12 Principle of system for hot water production .............................................................................................. 10
Figure 13 System for hot water production – solar heating [3] ................................................................................... 10
Figure 14 Temperatures during a draw-off programme (A/S ARO) ........................................................................... 11
Figure 15 DHW draw-off profile and status of the heat storage tank. ........................................................................ 12
Figure 16 Heat loss of the hot water tank.................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 17 Energy conservation of the hot water tank.................................................................................................. 13
Figure 18 Energy conservation of the hot water tank at the end of the draw-off program. ......................................... 14
Figure 19 Energy conversation of the 24 hour period. ................................................................................................ 14
Figure 20 Illustration of the effective energy content of a hot water tank. [2] ............................................................ 15
Figure 21 P-E curve for hot water tanks for all taps of a single family house/apartment. [1] ..................................... 17
Table 1 Data for one tap in permanent dwellings. [1] ................................................................................................. 15
Table 2 Data for draw-off programme in a dwelling. [1] ........................................................................................... 15
Table 3 Hot water draw-off program for a single family house/apartment - start every 12 hours .............................. 16
Literature:
[1] DS 439. Norm for vandinstallationer (2000). Dansk Standard.
[2] Vandinstallationer, SBI-anvisning 165 (1990). Statens Byggeforskningsinstitut.
[3] Vand og Afløb, Ståbi (2000). Ingeniøren|bøger.
[4] B. Howald Petersen. Hydraulik, DIAB 1991.
[5] DS/ISO 3822-1. Akustik. Laboratorieundersøgelser af støj fra armaturer og udstyr i brugsvandsinstallationer.
[6] Rørcenter-anvisning 002, Ressourcebesparende vandinstallationer i boliger. Teknologisk Institut 1999.
[7] Nye muligheder for udformning af vand- og afløbsinstallationer, SBI rapport 178 (1986).
[8] Dimensionering af water heatere, Otto Paulsen. Teknologisk Institut 1996.
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems
1 Requirement of the standard
This educational notes describe calculation and design
of systems for domestic hot water services. Hot water
system must be designed in such a way that each draw-
off location can meet the required flow rate and
volume of hot water according to the standard. In this
course, the Dansk Standard DS 439 “Code of Practice
for Domestic Water Supply Installations” is used [1].
The requirement for one tap location is listed in Table
1. For example the tap shall be able to provide hot
water for shower with a mixed temperature of 40˚C
and a minimum volume flow rate of 0.14 l/s. The
tapping lasts 300 s so that 42 l of hot water is drawn.
For a single family house/apartment, the draw-off
programme (Table 2 and Table 3) must be fulfilled.
The draw-off programme for a single family house/
apartment with a bathtub is given in Figure 1, while the
draw-off programme for a house/apartment without a
bathtub is given in Figure 2.
Figure 1 Draw-off programme for a single family
house/apartment with bathtub.
Figure 2 Draw-off programme for a single family
house/apartment without bathtub.
Installations for domestic hot water can be divided up
into systems for production of hot water and pipelines
etc. for distribution of hot water.
For hot-water supply system, dimensioning volume
flow rates and pressure losses are calculated by the
same principles as for cold water. In addition to this
3 29-03-09
there are a number of specific functional requirements
on hot water installations that must be met.
1.1 The functional requirements of the standard
on installations for domestic hot water
• The installation must be able to perform a
sufficient volume flow rate and water volume
with a suitable temperature at the taps.
• The installation must be designed and carried out
so that the risk of bacterial growth becomes the
smallest possible.
• The installation must be designed so that waste of
energy must be avoided as much as possible
(insulation of pipes, circulation pipes etc.).
• Heating surfaces for heat transfer must be
designed so that the lime deposit on these
surfaces can be kept at a low level. The heating
surfaces must be accessible for cleaning.
To avoid waste of water the hot water system should
be designed so that the hot water reaches frequently
used taps in about 10 sec. at the latest after the tap has
started.
Small pipe dimensions reduce waiting times, in that
way waste of water is reduced, too.
A suitable water temperature at the tap depends on the
purpose; for normal domestic hot water it is stated:
• Personal hygiene min. 40 ºC
• Washing-up min. 45 ºC
At taps in kitchen the water temperature should be so
high that it can be used for rinsing.
Generally the water temperature at taps should,
however, not be so high that there is a danger of
scalding and lime deposits. Normally, the temperature
should therefore be maximum 55 ºC.
The following chapter deals with distribution of hot
water system while the third chapter deals with
production of hot water.
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 4 29-03-09

2 Distribution of domestic hot water hot water production unit to the joint, while the
circulation pipe (BC) is defined as the pipe from the
2.1 Waiting times at taps
joints to the hot water tank or other hot water
Waiting times are calculated according to the standard production unit. Small systems with and without
for a volume flow rate of q = 0.2 l/s circulation pipes and large systems with circulation
π pipes of different designs are shown in Figure 4, 5 and
⋅ d i2 ⋅ L
t= 4 6.
q
t waiting time (s)
The necessity of designing the system with a
di inner diameter (m)
circulation pipe depends on the acceptable waiting
L pipe length (m)
times and number of taps before an acceptable
q volume flow rate (m3/s)
temperature is obtained at the individual taps in the
installation. Size and design of the circulation pipe can
With q = 0.2 l/s and d i in mm :
therefore not be determined until waiting times and
t ≈ 0.004 ⋅ (d i )2 ⋅ L (s)
corresponding number of taps at selected (critical) tap
Example: d i = 10 mm ⇒ t = 0.4 L (s) locations are available.

Figure 4 Hot water system without circulation pipe

[2].
Figure 3 Waiting times as function of pipe length for Manifold system (copper pipes), where the length of the
copper and PEX-pipes. [2] manifold pipe is relatively short.

For calculation of waiting time, please note that for a

system without circulation pipe, the pipe length L is
the length of the pipes from the hot water tank to the
tap (see Figure 4). For a system with circulation pipe,
the pipe length L shall be the length of the pipes from
the joint to the tap (see Figure 5 and 6).

2.2 Distribution and circulation

Figure 5 Hot water system with circulation pipe [2].
The following figures show a number of fundamental
Traditional system (hot zinc coated steel pipes) with
examples of the design of the piping for distribution of
manifold pipe for joint points for taps.
domestic hot water. The hot water supply pipe (BV) is
defined as the pipe from the hot water tank or other the
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 5 29-03-09

Φ = U l ⋅ (T − Te ) ⋅ L (W)

Φ the heat loss from pipes (W)

Ul heat loss coefficient of pipes (W/(m⋅K))
T average water temperature in pipes (ºC )
Te ambient temperature (ºC )
L length of pipe (m)

The heat loss Φ is about 12 W per metre pipe if:

• pipes are insulated according to DS 452
• pipe dimensions ≤ 50 mm
• pipes installed in rooms with T e > 10 ºC
• hot water temperature is 50 ºC

Since water in the pipe has a higher temperature than

the ambient air, heat will be transmitted from the water
to the ambient. By thermal conduction, heat transmits
through the pipe wall and the insulation material. Then
by free convection heat is lost to the ambient air (see
Figure 7).

BV Hot water supply

BC Hot water return
Figure 6 Examples of circulation pipes for hot water
system [2].

A. System with one loop, with circulation only on

horizontal manifold pipes.

B. System with several loops, with circulation pipe

shared between several supply pipes.

C. System with the length of the circulation pipe

approximately equal to the length of the supply Figure 7 Heat loss from the hot water pipe to the
pipe. ambient.

Heat loss coefficient U l can be expressed as:

2.3 Heat loss from pipes and cooling of water in
π
the pipe Ul =
1 d  1 d  1
⋅ ln u  + ⋅ ln 2  +
Hot water pipes are usually placed in a way that the 2 ⋅ λr 2 ⋅ λi
 di   du  α 2 ⋅ d 2
heat loss benefits the building.
di inner pipe diameter (m)
Heat loss (power loss) from pipes can be expressed as: du outer pipe diameter (m)
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 6 29-03-09

d2 outer diameter of pipe insulation (m) U l ⋅ L ⋅ (T1 − Te )

∆T =
λr/λi thermal conductivity of pipe/insulation 4200 ⋅ q + ½ ⋅ U l ⋅ L
(W/(m⋅K))
a2 outer surface heat transfer coefficient If the heat loss from pipes is known, the cooling of the
water flow can be calculated by:
(W/(m2⋅K))
The connection between heat loss from a pipe and Φ
∆T =
ρ ⋅c⋅q
cooling of water during flow in the pipe can be
expressed as: From the above equation, it is shown that the cooling
of water in a given pipe can be reduced by increasing
Φ = ρ ⋅ c ⋅ q ⋅ ∆T
the volume flow rate or the pipe insulation.
Φ heat loss of pipe (W)
ρ density of water (kg/m3)
With q in l/s and ρ = 1 kg/l and c = 4200 J/(kg⋅ K):
c specific heat of water (J/(kg⋅ K))
Φ
∆T cooling of water in the pipe (K) ∆T =
4200 ⋅ q
q volume flow rate (m3/s) Example:
Calculation of temperature decrease in pipe during hot water
With q in l/s and ρ = 1 kg/l and c = 4200 J/(kg⋅ K): draw-off.

Φ = 4200 ⋅ q ⋅ ∆T 20 mm pipe with volume flow rate q = 0.2 l/s

insulated pipe: Φ = 12 W per m
⇒ ∆T = 12/(4200⋅ 0.2) = 0.014 K per m pipe
Calculation of the cooling ∆T during flow in a pipe of
uninsulated pipe: Φ = 45 W per m
length L can be done by setting heat loss = cooling of
⇒ ∆T = 45/(4200⋅ 0.2) = 0.054 K per m pipe
water:

U l ⋅ (T − Te ) ⋅ L = ρ ⋅ c ⋅ q ⋅ ∆T 2.4 Dimensioning of circulation systems

2.4.1 Dimensioning cooling and velocity

The cooling ∆T on a length of pipe from point 1 to 2
can then be expressed: For a hot water system with circulation, the supply
pipe is circulated continuously by a pump in order to
keep the pipe warm so that the waiting time at any tap
U ⋅ L  T1 + T2 
∆T = l ⋅ − Te  ⇒ is no longer than 10 s. The circulation flow is cooled
ρ ⋅c⋅q  2 
down by heat loss from the supply pipe, therefore the
U ⋅L  ∆T  water temperature drops as it flows from the hot water
∆T = l ⋅  T1 − − Te  ⇒
ρ ⋅c⋅q  2  tank to the tap.

Ul ⋅ L The difference between the outlet temperature from the

⋅ (T1 − Te ) water heater and the minimum acceptable tap
ρ ⋅c⋅q
∆T = ⇒
temperature designates ∆T. The standard DS 439 [1]
 
1 + ½ ⋅ U l ⋅ L  states that the outlet temperature at the water heater
 ρ ⋅c⋅q 
 
must be at least 55 ºC. Moreover it is stated that the
U l ⋅ L ⋅ (T1 − Te ) temperature should be at least 50 ºC at the taps.
∆T = ⇒
ρ ⋅ c ⋅ q + ½ ⋅U l ⋅ L The dimensioning cooling of circulation flow in the
supply pipe for ”ordinary” installations is 5-10 K, but for
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 7 29-03-09

smaller installations it can be necessary to choose a flow q c . In the circulation pipe there must always be a
cooling of 2-5 K to get sufficient circulation volume one-way valve and a regulation valve (pre adjustment
flow rate. valve).
The standard states that fluid velocity should be at least 2.4.2 Dimensioning of pump in circulation systems
0.05 – 0.1 m/s in the circulation system. The lower limit
The pump must perform a volume flow rate
is specifically given for a system with hot zinc coated
corresponding to the circulating volume flow rate:
steel pipes. When using copper pipes there is an upper
qp = qc
limit of 0.5 m/s in circulation pipes due to the risk of
The pump must perform a pressure increase (pressure
corrosion.
difference) of at least:
∆ p p = 1.25 ⋅ ∆p c + ∆p k (kPa)
The circulating flow rate can be calculated by:
∆p c = the straight pipe pressure loss of the
Φ
qc = circulation pipe
ρ ⋅ c ⋅ ∆T
As a simplified assumption, the local loss caused by
qc circulating water flow rate (m3/s)
localized disruption of the flow, such as valves, bends,
Φ heat loss from the supply pipe (W)
and other fittings is 25% of the pressure loss in the
∆T cooling of the water flow (K)
straight pipes.
ρ density of water (kg/m3 ) The pressure loss of one-way valves at a small water
c specific heat of water (J/(kg⋅ K)) volume flow rate is not known or measured. A spring
loaded one-way valve is assumed to be: ∆p k = 5 kPa.
With q in l/s and ρ = 1 kg/l and c = 4200 J/(kg⋅ K): If the pump performs more than necessary, the extra
Φ pressure difference of the pump is included as a
qc = (l/s)
∆T ⋅ 4200
pressure loss in the regulation valve.

Example:
2.4.3 Circulation system with one loop
The cooling of flow in the supply pipe ∆T is 3 K for the joint
with the largest distance from the hot water tank. Volume flow rate (simplified calculation as an

With the heat loss from the pipe set at Φ = 12 W per m pipe example):
the circulating water flow is: q c = 3.5 ⋅ L F = q p (l/h)
q c = 12/(3 ⋅ 4200) ≈ 0.001 l/s per m pipe, L F = length of the supply pipe (m)
or 3.5 l/h per m pipe. The pipe length used for calculation of the volume
flow rate q c , is in [2] stated to be the summed length of
It appears from the above example that the necessary all the supply pipes to the taps. For calculation of the
volume flow rate q c , which gives satisfactory volume flow rate q c in a circulation system with one
temperature conditions at taps, is very small compared loop, the pipe length is the length to the joint point, see
to draw-off volume flow rate (0.056-0.21 l/s, see Table Figure 8.
1). It is therefore allowable to ignore the extra pressure
loss given by the circulation flow when dimensioning 2.4.4 Circulation-system with more loops
the supply pipe.
Total volume flow rate:
q c = 3.5 ⋅ L F = 3.5 ⋅ (L F1 + L F2 + L F3 + L F4 ) (l/h)
Dimensioning and pressure loss calculation of the
circulation pipe is made based on the circulating water
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 8 29-03-09

As in Figure 9, the volume flow rate in the individual

pipe after the joint is
LF 1
q c1 = ⋅q
( LF 1 + LF 2 + LF 3 + LF 4 ) c
LF 2 + LF 4
qc 2 = ⋅q
(LF 1 + LF 2 + LF 3 + LF 4 ) c

HWP: Hot Water Production

CP: Circulation pump
L F : Length of supply pipe
L C : Length of return pipe

Figure 8 Sketch of circulation system with one loop

[2].

HWP: Hot Water Production

CP: Circulation pump
L F : Length of supply pipe
L C : Length of return pipe

Figure 9 Sketch of circulation system with two loops

[2].
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 9 29-03-09

3 System for production of domestic hot T a ≤ the tap water temperature T v

water
Systems for production of domestic hot water are During charging of the tank, water at the bottom of the

normally designed so that domestic water is heated by tank will be heated by the spiral. The heated water rises

passing a heat surface (heat exchanger). The heated up to the top of the tank due to buoyancy driving force.

water can then be distributed directly to the taps or While water in the centre of the tank has a relatively

stored in a tank for later use. In many systems heat lower temperature and higher density, thus falling

exchanger and storage tank are combined to what is down to the bottom of the tank.

called a hot water tank (Figure 10). Larger systems can

be made by combining separate heat exchangers and
tanks. A hot water system with a heat exchanger and a
very small tank volume is called a flow through heat
exchanger.
As in Figure 10, the hot water tank is heated by a spiral
heat exchanger located at the bottom of the tank.
Charging of the tank is regulated by a controller with
T a as feeding temperature signal. During the taps, cold
water enters in the bottom of the tank and hot water
leaves from the top of the tank.

Figure 11 Example of flow and temperature conditions

during charging of the tank. [2]

The principle of a system for hot water production is

illustrated in Figure 12. The system has a cylindrical
tank with internal spiral heat exchanger. The system is
connected to a distribution net. The tank is charged by
circulating water from district heating net through the
spiral. The system can also be charged by a gas burner
or oil boiler.
Figure 13 shows a solar domestic hot water system
with cylindrical hot water tank charged by spiral heat
exchangers. The fluid in the solar collector loop is
circulated by a pump which is controlled by the
T k ~ Cold water temperature
difference between the absorber temperature in the
T v ~ Hot water draw-off (tap) temperature
collector and the bottom water temperature of the tank.
T a ~ Temperature just below thermo-line T a <T v
The pump automatically starts to circulate fluid in the
BV: Hot water
solar loop if there is sufficiently high solar irradiance.
BK: Cold water
The heat collected by the flat plate solar collector is
Figure 10 Symbols and definitions for a hot water transferred to the bottom of the tank by a spiral heat
tank. [2] exchanger. Auxiliary energy is supplied in case of
insufficient solar energy.
The temperature in the heating zone
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 10 29-03-09

5. Scalding value
6. Control system
As examples, the following two photos show hot water
tank with one (left) and two spiral heat exchangers
(right).

FF District heating supply

FR District heating return
The temperature of the tapped water depends on the
BK Cold water
tapped water flow rate and is normally allowed to vary
BV Hot water
within a fixed temperature interval. The water flow
BC Circulation return
from the tank is usually mixed with cold water at the
Figure 12 Principle of system for hot water production tap to obtain the wanted tapping temperature. For a
given tap the water flow from the tank will therefore
depend on the outlet temperature from the tank and the
wanted temperature at the tap.
The temperature variation in the tank during a draw-off
programme is shown in Figure 14. The iso temperature
levels at 50˚C and 20˚C are shown as solid curves. The
programme starts with a stratified tank with an
increasing water temperature from the bottom to the
top. At the upper tank, water temperature is higher than
or equal to 50˚C while the temperature is equal to or
lower than 20˚C at the bottom of the tank. When the
tap starts, the cold water enters the bottom of the tank
and hot water at the top of the tank is drawn out of the
tank. Water temperature in the tank starts to decrease.
Figure 13 System for hot water production – solar After the tap, the tank is gradually charged therefore
heating [3] water at the upper tank rises back to 50˚C. The

1. Solar collector procedure is repeated during the second hot water

2. Tank draw-off.

3. Electric heating element

4. Value
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems
Figure 14 Temperatures during a draw-off programme
(A/S ARO)
3.1 A hot water system with a flow through heat
exchanger
3.1.1 The power of the heat exchanger
The power of the heat exchanger – at a certain draw-
off volume flow rate – can transfer to the domestic
water by heating the water from the cold water
temperature to the hot water temperature.
The effective power of the heat exchanger can be
calculated by:
Peff = qV ⋅ (TV − TK ) ⋅ ρ ⋅ c
P eff effective power of the heat exchanger
qv volume flow rate during draw-off (m3/s)
TV hot water temperature (°C )
TK cold water temperature (°C )
ρ density of the water (1000 kg/m3 )
c specific heat of the water (4200 J/(kg K))
With q in l/s and ρ = 1 kg/l and c = 4200 J/(kg⋅ K) :
Peff = 4.2 ⋅ qV ⋅ (TV − TK ) (kW)
The power and energy demand for all taps are shown
in Table 1. They are calculated from the formula by
using the tapping temperature.
For a house installation, normally the following
temperatures are used for dimensioning:
Inlet temperature (cold water) T K = 10 ºC
Hot water temperature T V = 55 ºC
11 29-03-09
3.1.2 Hot water consumption and effective power of
heat exchanger
Water heater that supplies hot water to a tap should
have a thermal performance that satisfies the
requirement for volume flow rate, water volume and
temperature as mentioned in Table 1.
For taps from tapping places in several rooms one must
distinguish between which types of water heaters are
used, namely flow through heat exchanger or a hot
water tank.
If a flow through heat exchanger (without tank
volume) is used, it must at any time be able to yield a
power corresponding to the power need for the
dimensioning volume flow rate.
If a house without a bath tub is considered, the
necessary power for a flow through heat exchanger
(W) will normally correspond to the tap for kitchen wash
and shower at the same time, see Figure 2.
If values for volume flow rates and temperatures (at
taps) are used from Table 1, we get:
power at tap for kitchen wash
P eff = 4.2⋅0.10⋅(45-10) = 14.7 kW
power at tap for shower
P eff = 4.2⋅0.14⋅(40-10) = 17.6 kW
--------------------------------------------------
Total 32.3 kW
That means the power of the flow through heat
exchanger has to be 32.3 kW in order to fulfil
requirement of the standard.
3.1.3 Necessary power of a hot water system with a
flow through heat exchanger
As for direct heating of domestic water by a flow
through heat exchanger, the necessary power of the
heat exchanger can be calculated by:
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 12 29-03-09

draw-off programme is repeated for a period of 12

Pn = ( Peff + Phx ) ⋅ f p (kW)
hours.
Pn the necessary power of the heat exchanger (kW) With values from Table 1 and draw-off programme as
P eff the effective power of the heat exchanger (kW) in Table 3, the theoretical energy consumption for a
P hx heat loss from heat exchanger (kW) 12-hour period for one dwelling with taps for shower,
fp safety factor for lime deposits with value in the bath, kitchen wash and hand wash can be calculated as:
interval 1.1-1.5 E = 2⋅1.47 + 2⋅4.36 + 8⋅0.61 + 8⋅0.35 = 19.34 kWh.

If heating of the domestic water is for instance In practice the real draw-off programme will result in
provided by district heating net, the dimensioning less energy consumption. The measured energy
volume flow rate of the primary side of the heat consumption for domestic hot water for a dwelling is
exchanger (district heating net side) is calculated by: of the order of 5-8 kWh/day.
Peff + Phx The maximum 24-hour consumption for a dwelling ,
q primary =
4.2 ⋅ (TVF − TVR )
(l/s) however, can be a factor 2-4 times the real
consumption.
q primary the dimensioning volume flow rate of the
primary (district heating) loop of the heat
3.2.2 Design of the hot water tank
exchanger (l/s)
T VF inlet temperature on the primary side (°C ) The principle of the heat storage tank is shown in Fig.

T VR return temperature on the primary side (°C ) 15. The tank is charged with a low flow rate all over
the day. Before 6:00 AM, the tank is fully charged. In
6:00 AM, the first draw-off starts. In about 1 hour, the
Example with a flow through heat exchanger for one
tank is almost emptied. From 7:00 AM to 16:00 PM
dwelling:
the tank is continuously charged and is discharged
• Inlet temperature on the primary side,
from time to time. At 16:00 PM the tank is emptied
T VF = 60 ºC
again. From 16:00 PM till 6:00 AM of the next day, the
• Outlet temperature on the primary side,
tank will be gradually charged and will be full before
T VR = 30 ºC
the start of the first draw-off of the next day.
• heat loss from heat exchangers = 0.05 kW
Hot water flow for kitchen wash and shower converted
into 45ºC
q v = 0.10 + 0.12 = 0.22 l/s
P eff = q v ⋅ 4.2⋅(T V – T K ) = 0.22 ⋅4.2⋅(45–10) = 32.3 kW
Pn = (32.3 +0.05)⋅1.3 = 42 kW
q primary = (32.3 +0.05) / (4.2⋅(60 – 30)) = 0.26 l/s

3.2 A hot water system with a hot water tank

3.2.1 Draw-off programme and energy consumption

If a system with a hot water tank is used, it should have

a power and thermal performance that can satisfy a
draw-off programme as in Figure 1/Figure 2. The Figure 15 DHW draw-off profile and status of the heat
storage tank.
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 13 29-03-09

Heat loss coefficients from the tank are calculated for
the top, bottom and the side respectively, see Figure
16.
transfer coefficient of the top surface of the tank. α bot is
the heat transfer coefficient of the bottom surface of
the tank. α side is the heat transfer coefficient of the side
surface of the tank.
Heat loss of the tank is:
P heat loss = U*(T tank -T ambient ) W
U: Total heat loss coefficient including heat loss from
the top, the bottom and the side of the tank.
T tank : Average tank temperature.
T ambient : Indoor ambient air temperature.

Energy conversation of the hot water tank shall be

observed for any period after the draw-off program
starts which gives:
ΔE= P eff ·Δt- P heat loss ·Δt - E tap

Figure 16 Heat loss of the hot water tank.

The heat loss coefficient from the top of the tank is

determined by:

π
(d y + es )
2

4 W/K
et 1
+
λ atop
Figure 17 Energy conservation of the hot water tank.
The heat loss coefficient from the bottom of the tank is
A draw-off program is shown as example in Figure 18.
determined by:
There are 4 hot water draw-offs with an interval of 20
π
(d y + es )
2 min. If the energy conversation is applied at the end of
4 W/K the draw-off program, it gives:
eb 1
+ E2-E1= P eff ·Δt- P heat loss ·Δt - E tap
λ abot
E1+(P eff ·Δt- P heat loss ·Δt) = E2+E tap
The heat loss coefficient per height unit from the side
Since energy content of the tank can not be negative,
of the tank is determined by:
E2 ≥ 0
π E1+(P eff ·Δt- P heat loss ·Δt) ≥ E tap [1]
H W/K
1 d y + 2e s 1 1 The equation defines energy content of the tank at the
ln +
2λ dy a side d y + 2es start of the draw-off program, which shall be large
where d y is the outer diameter of the tank. H is the enough to fulfill the required hot water consumption.
height of the tank. e s is the thickness of the side The validity of the equation requires an average heat
insulation. e t is the thickness of the top insulation. e b is loss from the tank.
the thickness of the bottom insulation. λ is the thermal If heat loss from the tank can neglected, the equation
conductivity of the insulation material. α top is the heat is: E1+P eff ·Δt ≥ E tap
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 14 29-03-09

3.2.3 Effective Power of the heat exchanger and tank

volume without tank heat loss

The terminologies for practical dimensioning of hot

water system with hot water tank are:
• The effective tank volume, V eff
• The effective power of the heat exchanger

The effective tank volume at a given draw-off volume

Figure 18 Energy conservation of the hot water tank at
flow rate is the volume that can be tapped before the
the end of the draw-off program.
draw-off temperature has fallen to a minimum
The energy conservation is applied to the 24 hours
acceptable hot water temperature, see Figure 20.
after the draw-off program starts. If the energy content
The real tank volume must be larger as there must be
of the tank is assumed to be unchanged, the energy
room for the cold water led to the tank during tapping.
content at the start of the draw-off of the next day is
Based on experience:
E1. It gives:
V = 1.4 ⋅ V eff
E1-E1= P eff ·Δt c - P heat loss ·24- E tap
V Actual tank volume
(P eff ·Δt c - P heat loss ·Δt) = E tap
V eff Effective tank volume
Since there is a heat loss from the tank 24 hours of
the day,
The effective tank volume can be determined by a
P eff = (E tap +P heat loss ·24)/ Δt c [2]
standardized test of draw-offs without energy supply
The charging of the tank during the day can be
(DIN 4708-1, -2, -3).
maximum 24 hours
Assuming that the hot water tank is tapped with a
Δt c ≤ 24
constant volume flow rate, the temperature of the
P eff ≥ (E tap +P heat loss ·24)/ 24
tapped water will fall in time. When the temperature
It can be seen that the effective power of the heat
reaches the lowest acceptable value the effective
exchanger shall be large enough so that it can
energy is discharged. The tapped volume at this point
compensate the heat loss from the tank and it can
is called the effective tank volume.
provide required hot water consumption within the day
(24 hours).
The illustration on 20 shows the effective energy
content, E eff , of the tank. At any time after the draw-off
starts, ∆t, the following requirement must be met: The
energy content in tank at the start of the period plus
Figure 19 Energy conversation of the 24 hour period.
energy produced in the period ≥ energy consumption
If heat loss from the tank is not considered, the
of tap during the period.
equation is:
P eff = E tap / Δt c E1 + Peff ⋅ ∆t ≥ Etap
The hot water tank shall be designed so that both
E1 energy content of tank in the start of the draw-
equation [1] and [2] are obeyed.
off programme (kWh)
P eff effective power of heat exchanger (kW)
∆t time after the tap starts (h)
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 15 29-03-09

E tap Energy consumption of tap ( kWh)

The energy for heating of a water volume can be
determined by:

E = ρ ⋅ c ⋅ ∆T ⋅ V
E energy content (in tank) (Joule)
ρ density of water (kg/m3)
c specific heat of water (J/(kg⋅ K))
∆T heating of water (T V -T K ) (K)
V water volume (in tank) ( m3)
With water volume V in litres
ρ = 1 kg/l and c = 4200 J/(kg⋅ K)
and the conversion 1 kWh = 3.6⋅106 J:
Figure 20 Illustration of the effective energy content of
1 ⋅ 4200 ⋅ ∆T ∆T a hot water tank. [2]
E= 6
⋅V = ⋅V (kWh)
3.6 ⋅ 10 857
Tap
Data for hot water draw-off from one tap Unit
Bath Shower Kitchen wash Hand wash
Suitable temperature (mixed water) T b °C 40 40 45 40
Minimum mixed volume flow rate q b (mean) l/s 0.21 0.14 0.10 0.056

Assured hot water consumption (mixed water) V b litre 125 42 15 10

Duration of one draw-off s 600 300 150 180

The needed power at the tap of T K = 10 °C kW 26.2 17.6 14.7 7.0

The energy demand of the tap for one hot water draw-off
kWh 4.36 1.47 0.61 0.35
at T K = 10 °C

Volume flow water with T v = 55 °C and T K = 10 °C l/s 0.139 0.093 0.078 0.037

Hot water consumption V v with T v = 55 °C, T K = 10 °C litre 83.3 28.0 11.7 6.7

Table 1 Data for one tap in permanent dwellings. [1]

Tap
Unit
Bath Shower Kitchen wash Hand wash
Installation with bath tub Number of taps 2 2 2 4
Installation without bath tub Number of taps 4 2 4
Tap interval
min 30 20 20 20
= time between start of two taps
Tap period
h 12 12 3 6
= time between repetition of draw-off programme

Table 2 Data for draw-off programme in a dwelling. [1]

11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 16 29-03-09

Tap programme Minutes from the start of the programme

start every 12 hours Bath Shower Kitchen sink Wash basin
Installation with bath 0,30 60,80 60,80, 240,260, 0,20,40,60
420,440, 600,620 360,380,400,420
Installation without bath 0,20,40,60 0,20, 180,200, 0,20,40,60
360,380, 540,560 360,380,400,420

Table 3 Hot water draw-off program for a single family house/apartment - start every 12 hours

The connection between the effective volume of the E 1 ≥ E tap - P eff ⋅ ∆t = 8.5 – 1.1 = 7.4 kWh
tank V eff and the effective energy content E eff of the 860 860
Veff = E1 ⋅ = 7.4 ⋅ = 141 litres
tank (see Figure 20) can approximately be expressed: ∆T 55 − 10
860 With P eff = 3 kW, V eff = 100 litres
Veff = E eff ⋅ ( litre )
∆T
Please note that the critical period is the period that
∆T
Eeff = ⋅ Veff (kWh) requires the largest energy content of the tank. Let’s
860
assume that the tapping period 0-5 min. is critical. 5
Example:
min after the tap starts, 1 shower BR + 1 kitchen wash
In a dwelling, the volume and power of the hot water
KV + 1 hand wash HV have been drawn.
tank must be determined under the condition that.
V tap = 28 + 11.7 + 6.7 = 46.4 litres
• The outlet temperature from the tank is 55 ºC.
⇒ E tap = 2.43 kWh
• The tap programme as in Table 3 is used.
P eff is set to 1.0 kW
The tank volume is determined by the energy in the
⇒ P eff ⋅ ∆t = 1.0 ⋅ 5/60 = 0.083 kWh
tank at the start of the period plus the energy produced
E 1 ≥ E tap - P eff ⋅ ∆t = 2.43 – 0.083 = 2.35 kWh
during the period ≥ Energy consumption by hot water
Since E 1 is smaller than the above calculation (7.4
draw-off during the period.
kWh), the effective tank volume of 141 litres
E 1 + P eff ⋅ ∆t ≥ E tap
calculated for the period 0-65 min is larger than the
requirement tank volume for the period 0-5 min. The
Dwelling without a bath tub:
period 0-5 min is not critical.
The critical tapping period is 0 – 65 minutes when
4 showers BR + 2 kitchen washes KV + 4 hand
House/apartment with a bath tub:
washes HV have been tapped (see Figure 2).
A critical draw-off period is 0 – 85 min with 2 bath
The water volume tapped in the period is:
BK + 2 showers BR + 2 kitchen washes KV + 4 hand
V tap = 4 ⋅ 28 + 2 ⋅ 11.7+ 4 ⋅6.7 = 162 litres
washes HV (see Figure 1).
Tapped energy during the period
The water volume tapped during the period is:
T − 10 55 − 10 V tap = 2 ⋅ 83.3 + 2 ⋅ 28 + 2 ⋅ 11.7 + 4 ⋅6.7 = 273 litres
Etap = V ⋅ Vtap = ⋅ 162 = 8.5 kWh
860 860
Tapped energy during the period
(E tap = 4⋅1.47 + 2⋅0.61 + 4⋅0.35 = 8.5 kWh)
TV − 10 55 − 10
Etap = ⋅ Vtap = ⋅ 273 = 14.3 kWh
860 860
If P eff is chosen at 1.0 kW
(E tap = 2⋅4.36+2⋅1.47 + 2⋅0.61 + 4⋅0.35 = 14.3 kWh)
⇒ P eff ⋅ ∆t = 1.0 ⋅ 65/60 = 1.1 kWh
It can be seen that:
If P eff is set to 4.0 kW
P eff ≥ E tap / 24
⇒ P eff ⋅ ∆t = 4.0 ⋅ 85/60 = 5.7 kWh
11127 Educational Notes on Domestic Hot Water Systems 17 29-03-09

It can be seen that:

P eff ≥ E tap / 24
E 1 ≥ E tap - P eff ⋅ ∆t = 14.3 – 5.7 =8.6 kWh

860 860
Veff = E1 ⋅ = 8.6 ⋅ = 164 litres
∆T 55 − 10
With P eff = 6.4 kW, V eff = 100 litres

It is investigated if tapping period 0-10 min. is critical

(Bath BK + hand wash HV)
V tap = 83 + 6.7 = 89.7 litres
⇒ E tap = 4.71 kWh
Figure 21 P-E curve for hot water tanks for all taps of
P eff set at 4.0 kW
a single family house/apartment. [1]
⇒ P eff ⋅ ∆t = 4.0 ⋅ 10/60 = 0.67 kWh
E 1 ≥ E tap - P eff ⋅ ∆t = 4.71 – 0.67 = 4.04 kWh
The heat exchanging surface of the heat exchanger
Since E 1 is smaller than the above calculation (8.6
will, in use, gradually be blocked up with lime, the
kWh), the period 0-10 min is not critical.
power of the heat exchanger must therefore be larger
than the effective power. Typically 10-50% is added
Example:
as a safety factor for lime deposits.
In a dwelling, a hot water tank is installed
For systems with a hot water tank and circulation
• Tank volume, V = 200 litres.
pipes, there will be heat losses from the tank and heat
• The outlet temperature from the tank is 55 ºC.
loss from the pipe during circulation. These losses
must be included in calculation of the necessary power
The effective volume of the tank:
of the hot water system:
V eff = V/f V = 200/1.4 = 143 litres
Pn = ( Peff + Pbeh + Pcirk ) ⋅ f p
The effective energy content of the tank:
TV − 10 55 − 10 Pn the power of the hot water system (necessary
E eff = ⋅ Veff = ⋅ 143 = 7.5 kWh
860 860
power)
P eff the effective power of the heat exchanger
Effective power for the heat surface can be read from
P tank heat loss from stored heat in the tank
Figure 20:
P cirk heat loss from the pipe during circulation
Without a bath tub, P eff = 1 kW
fp safety factor for lime deposits with value in
With a bath tub, P eff = 4 kW
the interval 1.1-1.5

Figure 21 shows how the necessary effective power

decreases with the increase of the effective tank
volume.
It is shown that for tank volume = 0 the value of the
effective power corresponds to simultaneous taps of
kitchen wash and shower, see Table 1.