APPLIED MATHEMATICS ASSIGNMENT

TOPIC:- CAYLEY HAMILTON THEOREM

BY:- 1. ABHIJEET ROKADE (07)
2. ADITYA TALEKAR (12)
3. DHEERAJ SAPATE (26)
4. NISHANT BANTE (32)

Arthur Cayley, F.R.S. (1821–1895) is widely regarded

as Britain's leading pure mathematician of the 19th
century. Cayley in 1848 went to Dublin to attend
lectures on quaternions by Hamilton, their
discoverer. Later Cayley impressed him by being the
second to publish work on them.[1] Cayley proved
the theorem for matrices of dimension 3 and less,
publishing proof for the two-dimensional
case.[2][3] As for n × n matrices, Cayley stated “..., I

have not thought it necessary to undertake the labor

of a formal proof of the theorem in the general case

of a matrix of any degree”
 William Rowan Hamilton (1805–1865), Irish physicist,
astronomer, and mathematician, first foreign
member of the American National Academy of
Sciences. While maintaining opposing position about
how geometry should be studied, Hamilton always
remained on the best terms with Cayley.[1]

Hamilton proved that for a linear function

of quaternions there exists a certain equation,
depending on the linear function, that is satisfied by
the linear function itself.[4][5][6]

In linear algebra, the Cayley–Hamilton

theorem (named after the mathematicians Arthur
Cayley and William Rowan Hamilton) states that
every square matrix over a commutative ring (such
as
the real or complex field) satisfies
its own characteristic equation.
If A is a given n×n matrix and In is the n×n identity
matrix, then the characteristic polynomial of A is
defined as[7]

where det is the determinant operation and λ is

a scalar element of the base ring. Since the entries of
the matrix are (linear or constant) polynomials in λ,
the determinant is also an n-th order monic
polynomial in λ. The Cayley–Hamilton theorem
states that substituting the matrix A for λ in this
polynomial results in the zero matrix,

The powers of A, obtained by substitution from powers

of λ, are defined by repeated matrix multiplication; the
constant term of p(λ) gives a multiple of the power A0,
which is defined as the identity matrix. The theorem
n
allows A to be expressed as a linear combination of
the lower matrix powers of A. When the ring is a field,
the Cayley–Hamilton theorem is equivalent to the
statement that the minimal polynomial of a square
matrix divides its characteristic polynomial.
The theorem was first proved in 1853[8] in terms
of inverses of linear functions of quaternions,
a non-commutative ring, by Hamilton.[4][5][6] This
corresponds to the special case of certain 4 × 4 real or
2 × 2 complex matrices. The theorem holds for general
quaternionic matrices.[9][nb 1] Cayley in 1858
stated it for 3 × 3 and smaller matrices, but only
published a proof for the 2 × 2 case.[2] The general
case was first proved by Frobenius in 1878.[10]
Explanation:
Let us consider that AA be an n×nn×n square matrix and
if its characteristic polynomial is defined as:
P(λ)=|A−λ In|P(λ)=|A−λ In|
Where, InIn is the identity matrix of same order as AA.

Then, according to Cayley-Hamilton theorem:

P(A)P(A) = OO

Where, OO represents the zero matrix of same order as AA.

We can say that if we replace λλ by matrix AA, then the relation
would be equal to zero. Hence matrix AA annihilates its
own characteristic equation.

Proof:-
Let us assume a square matrix AA of dimension n×nn×n. If PP(λλ)
be its characteristic polynomial, then by
the definition of characteristic polynomial:
P(λ)=|A−λI|=P0+P1λ+P2λ2+...+PnλnP(λ)=|A−λI|=P0+P1λ+P2λ2+...+Pnλn

Also, let us suppose that Q(λλ) be the adjoint matrix of A−λIA−λI,

such that:
Q(λ)=Q0+Q1λ+Q2λ2+...+QkλkQ(λ)=Q0+Q1λ+Q2λ2+...+Qkλk

We have the formula:

(adjA)A(adjA)A = (detA)I(detA)IQ(λ)(A−λI)=P(λ)IQ(λ)(A−λI)=P(λ)I
Q(λ)(A−λI)=P0I+P1λI+P2λ2I+...+PnλnIQ(λ)(A−λI)=P0I+P1λI+P2λ2I+...+Pnλ nI
__________(1)

Also, we have:

Q(λ)(A−λI)=Q0A+(Q1A−Q0)λ+(Q2A−Q1)λ2+...+(QkA−Qk−1)λk−Qkλk+1Q(λ)( A−λI)=Q0A+(Q1A−Q0)λ+(Q2A−Q1)λ2+...+(QkA−Qk−1)λk−Qkλk+1

_________

(2)

On comparing (1) and (2), we get:

ak = n−1n−1
and
Q0A=P0IQ0A=P0I
Q1A−Q0=P1IQ1A−Q0=P1I
Q2A−Q1=P2IQ2A−Q1=P2I
.
.
.
−Qk=PnI−Qk=PnI or −Qn−1=PnI−Qn−1=PnI

On multiplying ascending powers of AA in each equation,

Q0A=P0Q0A=P0
Q1A2−Q0A=P1AQ1A2−Q0A=P1A
Q2A3−Q1A2=P2A2Q2A3−Q1A2=P2A2
.
.
.

−Qn−1An=PnAn−Qn−1An=PnAn

On adding all the equations together, Everything on left hand

side cancels out and we obtain,
0=
P0+p1A+P2A2+...+PnAnP0+p1A+P2A2+...+PnAn or
P(A)P(A) = OO
Hence, the statement of Cayley Hamilton theorem is proved.

Examples

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The examples based on Cayley Hamilton theorem are illustrated below:

Example 1 : Prove Cayley Hamilton theorem for the following matrix?

[1324][1234]

Solution: Let A=[1324]A=[1234]

Let us find characteristic polynomial of given matrix.

A−λI=[1324]−[λ00λ]A−λI=[1234]−[λ00λ]

A−λI=[1−λ324−λ]A−λI=[1−λ234−λ]
P(λ)=|A−λI|=(1−λ)(4−λ)−6P(λ)=|A−λI|=(1−λ)(4−λ)−6

= 4−5λ+λ2−64−5λ+λ2−6

=λ2−5λ−2λ2−5λ−2

In order to prove the statement of Cayley Hamilton theorem for AA, we

need to show that:
P(A)P(A) = OO
A2−5A−2A2−5A−2 = OO

A2=[1324]×[1324]A2=[1234]×[1234]

A2=[7151022]A2=[7101522]

A2−5A−2A2−5A−2
=[7151022]−5[1324]−2[1001]=[7101522]−5[1234]−2[1001]

=[715922]−[5151020]−[2002]=[791522]−[5101520]−[2002]

=[0000]=[0000]

P(A)P(A) = OO, hence Cayley Hamilton theorem for given matrix AA is

proved.

Example 2 : If Cayley Hamilton theorem holds for the matrix, then find
its inverse.
A=⎡ ⎣ ⎢ 2−2−5035146⎤ ⎦ ⎥ A=[201−234−556]
Solution : A=⎡ ⎣ ⎢ 2−2−5035146⎤ ⎦ ⎥ A=[201−234−556]

Its characteristic polynomial is -

P(λ)=|A−λ I|=∣∣∣∣2−λ−2−503−λ5146−λ∣∣∣∣P(λ)=|A−λ I|=|2−λ01−23−
λ4−556−λ|

P(λ)=−λ3+11λ2−21λ+1P(λ)=−λ3+11λ2−21λ+1

According to Cayley Hamilton theorem -

P(A) = O
or A3−11A2+21A−I=OA3−11A2+21A−I=O
I=A3−11A2+21AI=A3−11A2+21A
Multiplying by A−1A−1, we get
A−1=A2−11A+21IA−1=A2−11A+21I .............(1)

A2=⎡ ⎣ ⎢ −1−30−505294583451⎤ ⎦ ⎥ A2=[−158−302934−504551]

Therefore, equation (1) becomes -

A−1=⎡ ⎣ ⎢ −1−30−505294583451⎤ ⎦ ⎥ −11⎡ ⎣ ⎢ 2−2−5035146⎤ ⎦ ⎥ +21⎡
⎣ ⎢ 100010001⎤ ⎦ ⎥ A−1=[−158−302934−504551]−11[201−234−556]+21[
100010001]

=⎡ ⎣ ⎢ −1−30−505294583451⎤ ⎦ ⎥ −⎡ ⎣ ⎢ 22−22−5503355114466⎤ ⎦ ⎥ +
⎡ ⎣ ⎢ 210002100021⎤ ⎦ ⎥ =[−158−302934−504551]−[22011−223344−555
566]+[210002100021]

A−1=⎡ ⎣ ⎢ −2−85517−10−3−106⎤ ⎦ ⎥ A−1=[−25−3−817−105−106]

Applications
Cayley Hamilton theorem is widely applicable in many fields not only
related to mathematics, but in other scientific fields too. This theorem
is used all over in linear algebra. One can easily find inverse of a
matrix using Cayley Hamilton theorem. It also plays an important role
in solving ordinary differential equations. This theorem is quite useful
in physics also. Cayley Hamilton theorem plays a vital role in computer
programming and coding. In a newer subject - Rheology, where
behaviour of material is studied, this theorem is used to determine the
equations that illustrate nature of materials.

In short, there is a vast use of Cayley Hamilton theorem in many areas

where linear equations and matrices are needed to be used.