Direct solution of Distribution System Load
Flow Using Forward/Backward Sweep
Abdullah Mahmoudi, Seyed Hossein Hosseinian
Electrical Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Abd_mahmoudi@aut.ac.ir , hosseinian@aut.ac.ir
Abstract — One of the main requirements in large scale
distribution systems (DSs) is an efficient load flow solution which
can explicitly exploit characteristics of DSs. This paper presents a
direct power flow solution not only for radial distribution
systems (RDSs) but also for weakly meshed distribution systems
(WMDSs) using the backward/forward sweep. The direct
approaches for RDSs are presented in some papers but extension
of them for WMDSs needs solving new extra equations and
meshes must be located at the end of feeders. In this paper, a new
method based on division of currents for WMDSs is used which
can express the voltage of each load in terms of currents and
common impedances of current paths directly without need to
any new data. Results obtained for unbalanced, meshed and
radial systems at different loading conditions, power factors and
R/X ratios show that the proposed method is efficient, fast,
robustness and has great potential to be used for large scale DSs.
Index Terms— Distribution load flow, forward/ backward
sweep, direct load flow, radial distribution systems, weakly
meshed distribution systems
I. INTRODUCTION
W ITH considerable growth of DSs, a robust and efficient
power flow method to determine voltages and line
flows is required [1]. Almost in all topics related to the
expansion, operation and management of DSs, such as loss
minimization, voltage control, Var. planning, sizing and
location of shunt capacitors, state estimation, security analysis,
it is very important to solve the power flow algorithm as
efficient as possible. An electric DS has Special characteristics
such as unbalanced three phase loads, radial structure and high
branch R/X ratios. The traditional load flow algorithms is not
suitable for DSs. Especially the fast decoupled Newton
method [2] which works well for transmission system, has
poor convergence for most RDSs due to their high R/X ratios
of branches. Therefore, new methods with considering those
features have been required.
Several approaches for DS load flow solutions have been
proposed. These methods and solving algorithms based on
basic approaches which have been used to construct them can
be classified into three categories: (a) methods based on
Newton-Raphson (NR) and Newton like methods, (b)
forward/backward sweep (FBS) methods and (c) direct
methods.
To modify conventional load flow methods, NR based
methods initially have been suggested for solving ill-
conditioned power systems [3]-[5]. Then methods based on
general meshed topology like transmission systems have been
proposed [6]-[10]. In [7], the authors presented the most
commonly and rigid approach by combining the implicit Z-
bus method and the Gauss-Seidel method. Calculation of
power mismatches at the end of radial main feeder and
laterals, and construction of the system Jacobian matrix have
been proposed in [11]. To obtain the system Jacobian matrix
in this method, The relationship between lateral power
mismatches and the power injected into laterals must be
calculated thus when there are many laterals presents heavy
matrix computation. A branch-current based NR approach has
been proposed in [12]. Several fast decoupled Newton
methods for DSs have been extended in [13]-[15]. In [16]-[17]
three-phase current injection methods based on current
injection equations have been proposed.
The FBS method based on network topology of DSs is very
prevalent due to its good performance and simplicity of
implementation [18]-[21]. The main idea of the method has
been suggested in [18] which a new power flow method for
calculation of branch current flows has been proposed using
compensation based technique and Kirchhoff's laws. In [19] an
improved version of this method has been suggested, in which
active and reactive powers as flow variables rather than
complex currents were used. Future developments of the FBS
methods for real-time analysis with emphasis on modeling of
unbalanced and distributed loads in [20], and the extension
version allowing the modeling of voltage-dependent loads in
[21], have been presented.
The tertiary category was based on construction of an
impedance matrix and solving equations in form of V=ZI [22]-
[25]. A method which can express the voltage of each load in
terms of currents and common impedance of current paths for
RDSs has been proposed in [22]. In [23]-[24] the author
develops two matrices to express bus voltages as a function of
branch currents, line parameters, and the substation voltage
using special topological characteristics of DSs. Solving RDSs
is easy using direct methods but it is not as easy as RDSs for
WMDSs. In [22], WMDSs have been solved by breaking the
meshes and writing equations for two obtained paths.
Therefore for each loop it is necessary to construct one extra
equation. In [23], the equations of the loop have been solved
by applying the Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) of the loop in
the branch-current to bus-voltage (BCBV) matrix and using
Kron's reduction. One of the most advantages of the direct
methods is that the load voltages can be expressed in terms of
the load currents, the line impedances and the substation bus
voltage. In the both mentioned methods, for WMDS, the load
voltages cannot be expressed in terms of those parameters,
directly. They also considered systems which have only
meshes at the end of feeders and the meshes in the center of
the feeders have not been considered generally. Therefore, this Fig. 1. One line diagram of a main distribution feeder
paper attempts to present a novel method for WMDSs which
can solve the two mentioned problem. In this approach, the conditions must be considered. When a load is constant power,
current divider rule is applied to meshes and only the new data the current can be obtained as shown in (2a). Eq. (2b) is used
which must be used is a current division ratio. for a load which has constant impedance while the magnitude
of the current of a constant current load is definite. If the
II. ALGORITHM DEVELOPMENT FOR RDSS breakup of a composite load is known, the current of each
component can be calculated. They are written as:
The algorithm can be expressed in two sections. These
*
sections include the forward/backward sweep and circuit I Lik = Si* / Vi k (2a)
relationship developments.
I Lik = Vi k / Z Li (2b)
A. Forward/backward sweep
k k k
Although the basic idea of FBS methods are same but their I =I
i Li + ... + I Ln (3)
algorithms presented in papers are different. Therefore, in this
paper, it is presented in two main and simple steps as follows:
where Si is the power of load i, I Lik is the current of load i at
1) Forward Sweep (FS) k-th iteration, n is the total number of loads.
For any load before the calculation of its current, it is Further simplification of the equations can be derived by
necessary to know its voltage. For any feeder, initially with combined (1) and (3) as:
knowing the current of each load from the previous iteration,
V i k =V i k−1 − z i (I Lik −1 + ... + I Ln
k −1
) (4)
the load voltages are updated from the substation bus to the
end of feeder. On the other hand, in this method instead of the It is better to write (4) in terms of the substation bus voltage
bus voltages, the load voltages are calculated. The currents at Vs. Therefore, starting from the substation bus and using (4),
the first iteration are assumed to be zero so the voltages are the voltage of the load 1 in terms of Vs can be expressed by:
equal to the substation bus voltage. n
2) Backward Sweep (BS) V 1k =V s − z 1 ∑ I Ljk −1 (5)
After calculation of the voltages in the previous step, to j =1
update the current of each branch, knowing the load currents Repeating the same process for the other loads yields the
located after the branch is necessary. Therefore, it is better to following formula for voltage of loads as follows:
update the branch currents form the end of the feeder to the
i n
substation bus. Thus from the end of the feeder to the
substation bus, the branch currents are updated using the load
V i k =V s − ∑∑ z r I Ljk −1 (6)
r =1 j = r
voltages from the previous step.
The unknown values in (6) can be restricted to currents, if
B. Circuit relationship developments Vik is expressed in terms of the load current and the load
In each of the mentioned steps the total length of the feeder equivalent impedance. Therefore the voltage of each load can
must be swept. To simplify and express the steps as simple be written as:
circuit relationships, consider a DS consists of a radial main 2
feeder only. The one-line diagram of such a feeder comprising Vi k = Z Lik −1 I Lik −1 = ( Vi k −1 / S Li* ) I Lik −1 (7)
n branches/nodes is shown in Fig. 1. In the FS, the load
where ZLik-1is the equivalent impedance of load i at (k-1)-th
voltages can be obtained as:
iteration, SLi is the power of load i.
V i k =V i k−1 − z i I ik −1 (1) Eq. (7) expresses the equivalent impedance for the constant
power loads. In some cases loads can be expressed in terms of
where Vik is the voltage of load i at the k-th iteration, zi is the
constant impedance or constant current. Eq. (7) for them is not
impedance of a branch located between load (i-1) and load i,
necessary. Only for constant power loads and composite loads
Iik is the current of a branch located between load (i-1) and
as discussed in [22], eq. (6) is necessary and can be rewritten
load i at k-th iteration.
using (7) as:
In BS, the load and branch currents must be calculated.
2
Whereas there are four types of loads, therefore four Vs = Zi1I Lk1−1 + ... + (Zii + Vi k −1 / SLi* )I Lik −1 + ... + Zin I Ln
k −1
(8)
y
Z ij = ∑z
r =1
r
(9)

where Zij is the impedance of a path which is common

between the currents of load i and load j. y in (9) is equal to
minimum i and j (min(i,j)) for loads on the main feeder and
can be generalized to include laterals. Eq. (8) expresses the DS
load flow solution in terms of the Ohm's law relationship in
the form of Vs=ZIL. One of the advantages of this relationship
is that equations are liner and only the diagonal elements of
the Z matrix, including the load equivalent impedances, are
variable and must be updated at each iteration. Therefore, the
direct solution of DS load flow can be obtained by solving
(10) iteratively:
2 solve the different path equations and present those in a single
Z Lik = Vi k / S Li* (10a)
I Lk = Z −1V s (10b)
k +1 k k
Vi =Z I
Li Li (10c)
III. ALGORITHM DEVELOPMENT FOR WMDSS
It is mentioned that the solution of WMDSs is not as easy as
RDSs and has some difficulty. To solve WMDSs as easy as
RDSs, the same solution of RDSs is applied to WMDSs.
When the solution is reviewed, it is clear that for each load the
path form the substation bus to the load is swept and there is
only a single path from the substation bus for each load. i.e.
the load current paths are completely definite but when there
is a mesh, the load currents can be flowed from two paths. In
fact the calculation of the load currents at each path is a
problem. Namely, if there is a mesh in a system and it is
desired to express the voltage of loads as (6), selection of a
path and a solution for the load current problem are needed. If
for each load two equations are written per path, the number
of equations is increased considerably especially for meshes
located in the center of feeders.
It is clear that when a mesh is located in the center of a
feeder, two paths are existed to flow currents to loads located
after a mesh. However, for a mesh located on the end of a
feeder, the boundary of two paths of currents is not explicitly
definite. Hence, in this case one of loads is selected as the end
of the mesh therefore two paths which start from the
beginning of the mesh and end to the selected load are
defined. For simplicity, the meshes located in the center of the
feeder and on the end of the feeder will be referred to as the
central meshes and the end meshes, respectively. The selected
load will be referred to as the end load and for each load a
path which the load is located on that will be referred to as the
self path. To solve these problems considering the electrical
circuit theory and Kirchhoff's laws, the movement to reach a
load from different paths can cause the same electric potential
difference if the current of each path are specified. So
development of the proposed method for WMDSs can be
obtained as follows:
a) Divide the current of loads located after the loop between
the two paths of the mesh using the current divider rule or
KVL of the loop. For the end meshes, divide the current of the
end load.
Fig. 2. one line diagram of a central mesh
b) Select one of the two paths to reach loads located after the
loop and the self path for loads located on the loop.
The movement from each path has same results using the
above techniques. In other words, these techniques are used to
path. To obtain the current division ratio (α) for the selected
path, it is necessary to know the load currents but in the load
flow problem the current is one of the network unknowns.
Therefore, 1) the nominal currents are considered as the load
currents and 2) since the electric potential difference is
obtained by multiplying the current and the impedance
(Δv=z(αi)) so the current division problem is better to apply
when the Z matrix is constituted. i.e. α can be entered in
calculation of impedances (Δv=(αz)i).
Some elements of the Z matrix are computed in a different
way for WMDSs especially when α is entered in the
calculation. Consider a system including one loop as shown in
Fig. 2. The path P1 is chosen as the selected path. According
to location of the load i (assume that the load i is closer to the
substation bus than the load j), three conditions are exist to
obtain Zij and Zji as follows:
In forward formulas Zbl, ZP1 and Zal are the impedance of
the path before the loop, the path P1 and the path after the loop
to load i, respectively.
A) If load i is before the loop, this condition well be same
as RDSs. So the value of Zij and Zji are equal to the value of
the impedance before the load i. i.e. the y at (9) is equal to i.
B) If load i is located on the loop, which includes three
states:
1) The second load is also located on the loop. If two loads
are located on the same path as P1 then the common
impedances (Zij and Zji) are equal to Zbl plus the impedance
on the loop before load i (ZLi). If two loads are located on
different paths, these values are equal to Zbl.
2) If the load i is located on the selected path (P1) and the
load j is located after the loop, therefore:
Z ij = Z bl + α Z Li (11)
Z ji = Z bl + Z Li (12)
3) If the load i is located on another path (P2) and the load j
is located after the loop so:
Z ij = Z bl + (1 − α ) Z L i (13)
Z ji = Z bl (14)
C) If the both loads are located after the loop, the common
impedances in this case are calculated as follows:
Z ij = Z ji = Z bl + Z al + α Z P 1 (15)
From the above equations, it is clear that the Z matrix is not
symmetric for WMDSs. Now the value of α must be specified.
To obtain α there are three methods as follows:
 1) Approximate method TABLE I
THE RESULTS OF THE AZARAK FEEDER ANALYSIS
In the simplest condition, it can be supposed that there are
Algorithms MEP NI NET
no loads located on the loop. So α will be computed using the Proposed method 9.69e-5 4 1.000
current divider rule as: Method [32] 1.15e-6 4 1.024
Method [11] 5.77e-4 7 31.88
α = Z P 2 / ( Z P1 + Z P 2 ) (16)
2) KVL on the loop
The value of α can be calculated using the KVL of the
loop. In this state the KVL equation is solved with nominal
values of the currents.
3) Auxiliary equation
In this method the given KVL in the KVL method is used as
auxiliary equation. This equation is solved after each iteration
considering the calculated values of currents. After the Fig. 3. Eight-bus distribution system
calculation of α, the Z matrix must be updated for the next TABLE II
iteration. For notational simplicity, these three methods will be THE FINAL CONVERGED VOLTAGES OF THE UNBALANCED THREE PHASE
referred to as the MOα1, MOα2 and MOα3, respectively. SYSTEM
The Proposed Approach The method [32]
Bus
Phase
IV. TEST RESULTS No.
V (pu) V (pu)
Ang. (Deg.) Ang. (Deg.)
This proposed method was implemented using MATLAB 1 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 A
7.6 software and tested on a windows-XP-based Pentium(R), 1 1.0000 -120.00 1.0000 -120.00 B
Dual-Core CPU E5200 (2.5 GHz), PC. In order to validity the 1 1.0000 120.00 1.0000 120.00 C
accuracy of the solution for the RDSs and WMDSs the results 2 0.9914 -0.2892 0.9914 -0.2894 A
of the Gauss Seidel load flow is selected as the base results. 2 0.9827 -119.18 0.9827 -119.18 B
2 0.9655 120.11 0.9654 120.11 C
Therefore, the convergence tolerance of the Gauss Seidel is 3 0.9904 -0.2976 0.9904 -0.2979 A
considered 10e-15 p.u. and for the methods is set at 0.0001 4 0.9761 -118.98 0.9761 -118.98 B
p.u. The performance of the proposed method including the 4 0.9630 119.93 0.9630 119.93 C
normalized execution time (NET) and the number of iterations 5 0.9767 -118.95 0.9767 -118.95 B
(NI) is also compared with the other methods. 6 0.9612 119.93 0.9612 119.93 C
7 0.9634 120.10 0.9633 120.10 C
1) Radial Network test
8 0.9617 120.11 0.9617 120.11 C
For the study of RDSs, a radial 20 kV feeder in Chalus city,
Iran, was chosen. This feeder will be referred to as Azarak
feeder. The loads on the distribution transformers (20/0.4 kV)
are considered as the constant power loads. TABLE III
THE RESULTS OF THE AZARAK FEEDER INCLUDING ONE CENTRAL MESH
Results of the main parameters for this feeder are shown in
CT Without
Table I. The table shows that the NI is equal to 4 for the (p.u)
Parameters
Loop
MOα1 MOα2 MOα3
proposed method and [23]. The NET of these two methods is
MEP 9.69e-5 9.19e-5 9.34e-5 9.32e-5
also very close although the NET of the proposed method is
1e-4 NI 4 4 4 4
less. Therefore, the performance of two methods is same and it NET 1 0.98 1 1.48
is very better than the [11]. The maximum error of load MEP 1.51e-7 6.28e-5 4.95e-7 2.07e-7
1e-6
voltages in p.u (MEP) for the proposed method is less than the NI 7 7 7 7
convergence tolerance so its accuracy is acceptable. MEP 2.02e-9 6.29e-5 3.55e-7 6.67e-8
1e-8
NI 9 9 9 9
2) Unbalanced three phase load flow
MEP 2.22e-11 6.29e-5 3.53-7 6.49e-8
A system which is chosen in this section is shown in Fig. 3, 1e-10
NI 11 11 11 11
and taken from [23]. The system includes the three-phase, MEP 4.97e-12 6.29e-5 3.53-7 6.48-8
1e-15
double phase, and single-phase line section and buses. NI 16 17 16 16
Whereas the data of the system which was used for the
analysis of it in [23] is not found so the analysis of this system
is performed with new hypothetical data. Table II shows the performance of these methods, the Azarak feeder with
results for this system. As can be seen in the table, the results hypothetical changes is used for comparisons. To construct a
are very close so the accuracy of this method for three phase loop in this feeder, one of the normally open tie switches is
load flow is same as the direct method proposed in [23]. closed. In this condition the created loop is located in the
3) Weakly-Meshed Network Test middle of the feeder.
It is clear that among three methods used to obtain α, the Table III shows the MEP for different convergence
MOα1 and the MOα2 are approximate. Therefore, to study the tolerances using the three methods of obtaining α. The MEP
when the convergence tolerances becomes less, is becoming
less but the MEP is not less than a value which is an error
caused by its respective approximation. It means that the
approximations used in MOα1 and MOα2 cause only the
errors about 6.28e-5 and 2.9e-7 p.u., respectively. The error of
the MOα3 can be considered as difference of two methods.
The NET and the NI are also shown in table III. This table
shows that the time and number of iteration when the loop is Fig. 4. A system including an end mesh
created is same as the state without the loop. Only the
execution time of the MOα3 is increased since one auxiliary TABLE IV
equation is added and the Z matrix must be corrected after THE RESULTS OF THE SYSTEM SHOWN IN FIG. 4
Load
each iteration. No.
Method in [32] MOα1 MOα2 MOα3
To study the accuracy of these methods to obtain α in 1 3.23e-8 1.02e-6 1.26e-7 1.26e-7
different conditions, first the factors which can affect the 2 7.48e-8 0.00038 2.27e-7 1.63e-7
accuracy of them are discussed as follows: 1) One of the main 3 7.97e-8 0.00076 1.81e-7 5.32e-8
factors is the ratio of load values located after the loop to the 4 7.48e-8 0.00115 9.69e-8 9.5e-8
load values located on the loop (β). 2) imbalance of loads
TABLE V
located on two side of the loop (γ) can increase the error. 3)
EFFECT OF DIFFERENT SYSTEM LOADINGS, POWER FACTORS AND R/X
The lengths or impedances before loads located on the loop RATIO'S ON THE CONVERGENCE
are another factor which can effect on α. Features Conditions
Without Loop MOα2
In the above feeder 12.5% of loads are located on the loop, NI NET NI NET
0.8 4 1.00 4 1.00
β is equal to 4, and the imbalance of loads located on two
0.5 5 1.05 5 1.05
sides of the loop is 6.25%. With these features, the accuracy of Power
0.2 7 1.17 7 1.16
the approach is equal to 6.29e-5 p.u. in the MOα1. The above Factor
0.14 14 1.57 13 1.52
mentioned factors show that the worst condition is when a 0.13 Diverge Diverge 28 2.41
system has an end mesh and high imbalance. So for better 0.1(P+jQ) 3 0.94 3 0.94
2(P+jQ) 6 1.11 6 1.11
study, a system shown in Fig .4 is analyzed. It is clear when System
3(P+jQ) 8 1.23 8 1.23
there is an end mesh, the end load can be selected as there is Loading
4.3(P+jQ) 22 2.08 20 1.94
no imbalance. But to study effects of the imbalance, L4 is 4.4(P+jQ) Diverge Diverge 30 2.54
selected as the end load so there is the 50 percent imbalance 0.1R+jX 3 0.94 3 0.93
however if L3 is selected, there is no imbalance. R/X
0.5R+jX 4 1.00 4 0.98
In addition to the Gauss Seidel load flow, since there is the 2R+jX 6 1.11 6 1.11
Ratio's
3R+jX 7 1.17 7 1.17
end mesh, the method proposed in [23] can be used to test the 4.8R+jX 27 2.35 22 2.09
system. Table IV shows the error of the load voltages in
different methods. The maximum error is 0.00115 p.u. in the
MOα1 and less than the convergence tolerances (0.0001 p.u.) different conditions is studied. Briefly speaking, only the
in two other methods. When L3 is selected as the end load the results of the MOα2 is shown and the Azarak feeder is studied
maximum error is 3.09e-7 p.u. in the MOα1. Only when there in two states when there is a loop and when there is no loop.
is a central mesh, the high imbalance can be applied by the Table V shows NI and NET for different loading conditions,
system especial topology. Therefore the accuracy of the MOα1 power factors and R/X ratio's for both state of the Azarak
is always better than 0.001 p.u. since when there is a central feeder. In the table P+jQ represents the nominal loadings on
mesh, as discussed for the factor 1, the accuracy can be the system while R+jX indicates the nominal R and X
improved. The approach has high accuracy even for the MOα1 parameters of all the branches on the system. As can be seen
therefore only when the desired accuracy is less than 0.001 from table V, the proposed method converges in different
p.u. and the condition is severe (β , γ ), the MOα2 and MOα3 conditions and when there is a loop in the system, the
is needed to be used. The MOα3 increase the time and convergence is not only worse, but also is better than a state
equations and only when the current values have high which there is no loop because in this situation some elements
difference with nominal values and very high accuracy is of the impedance matrix Z become smaller than previous
desired, it is necessary to be used. values.
One of the main advantages of using the load voltage instead
of the bus voltage, is that the equations of switching buses is V. CONCLUTION
not necessary to be solved, so in table IV only the voltages of In this paper a direct method for distribution system was
the loads is presented. developed using backward/forward sweep. The proposed
B. Convergence study method has been extended for WMDSs not only for the end
meshes but also for the central meshes. Three methods for
In each load flow solution, the convergence is very
solving meshes have been proposed. It was proved that the
important feature especially for ill-condition, unbalanced and
accuracy of the proposed method is better than 0.001 p.u. even
meshed DSs so the convergence of the proposed approach in
for serve conditions by using only the current divider rule. The
performance of the approach for WMDSs is as efficient and
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IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-101, No. 10, Abdullah mahmoudi was born in 1985 in Iran. He received his B.Sc. degree
Oct. 1982, pp. 3648-3657. in Electrical Eng. from Shahed University, Iran, in 2007,
[6] T. H. Chen, M. S. Chen, T. Inoue, P. Kotas, and E. A. Chebli, “Three- and the M.Sc. degree from the Electrical Eng. Dept. of
phase Co-generator and Transformer Models for Distribution System Amirkabir University of Technology (AUT), Iran in
Analysis,” IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol 6, No. 4, Oct 1991, 1671- 2010. He is currently a Ph.D. student in the Electrical
1681. Eng. Dept. of AUT, Iran. His research interests include
[7] T. H. Chen, M. S. Chen, K. J. Hwang, P. Kotas, and E. A. Chebli, Power Quality, Distribution System Planning,
“Distribution System Power Flow Analysis - A Rigid Approach,” IEEE Restructuring and Deregulation in power systems.
Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 6, No. 3, Jul. 1991, pp. 1146-1152.
Seyed Hossein Hosseinian was born in 1961 in Iran. He received both the B.Sc.
[8] Birt, K.A. Graffy, J.J. McDonald, J.D. and El-Abiad, A.H. “Three Phase
and M.Sc. degrees from the Electrical Eng. Dept. of Amirkabir University of
Load Flow Program,” IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, ,
technology, Iran, in 1985, and 1988, respectively, and
Vol. PAS-95, No. 1, Part 1, 1976, 59-65.
PhD degree in Electrical Engineering Dept, university
[9] T. H. Chen and J. D. Chang, “Open wye-open delta and open delta-open of Newcastle England, 1995. At the present, he is the
delta transformer models for rigorous distribution system analysis.” IEE assistant Professor of Electrical engineering Department
Proc.-Gener. Transm. and Distrib., Vol. 139, No. 3, May 1992, pp. 227- in Amirkabir University of technology (AUT). His
234. especial fields of interest include transient in power
[10] Teng, J. H. and W. M. Lin, “Current-based power flow solutions for systems, Power Quality, Restructuring and Deregulation
distribution systems,” IEEE ICPST, Beijing, P.R.C. 1994, pp. 414-418. in power systems. He is the author of four books in the
[11] M. E. Baran, F. F. Wu, “Optimal sizing of capacitors placed on a radial field of power systems. He is also the author and the coauthor of over one
distribution system,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., Vol. 4, No. 1, Jan 1989, hundred technical papers.
pp. 735-743.
[12] W. M. Lin and J. H. Teng, “Phase-decoupled load flow method for radial
and weakly-meshed distribution networks,” IEE Proc. Gener. Transm.
and Distrib., Vol. 143, No. 1, Jun. 1996, pp. 39-42.
[13] R. D. Zimmerman and H. D. Chiang, “Fast Decoupled Power Flow for
Unbalanced Radial Distribution Systems,” IEEE Trans. on Power
Systems, Volume 10, No. 4, Nov 1995, pp.2045 – 2052.
[14] A. R. Hatami and M. Parsa Moghaddam, “Three-Phase Fast Decoupled
Load Flow for Unbalanced Distribution Systems,” Iranian Journal of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, Vol. 6, No. 1, Winter-Spring 2007,
pp. 31-35.
[15] Rajicic, D. and Bose, A. “A Modification to the fast decoupled power
flow for networks with high R/X ratios”, IEEE Trans. on Power Systems,
Vol. 3, No. 2, May 1988, pp.743 – 746.
[16] P. A. N. Garcia, J. L. R. Pereira, S. Carneiro, Jr., V. M. da Costa, and N.
Martins, “Three-Phase Power Flow Calculations Using the Current
Injection Method,” IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 15, No. 2, May
2000, pp.508-514.
[17] D. R. R. Penido, L. R. de Araujo, S. Carneiro, Jr., J. L. R. Pereira, and P.
A. N. Garcia, “Three-Phase Power Flow Based on Four Conductor
Current Injection Method for Unbalanced Distribution Networks,” IEEE
Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 23, No. 2, May 2008 pp. 494-503.
[18] D. Shirmohammadi, H. W. Hong, A. Semlyen, and G. X. Luo, “A
Compensation-based power flow method for weakly meshed distribution
and transmission networks,” IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, vol. 3, no.2,
May 1988, pp. 753-762.