EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Fluid mechanics is the cornerstone of chemical engineering, due to many chemical

processing operations occurring in partial or total fluid phase. A fluid is described as a
substance that is constantly deforming when experiencing various forms of stress. Using
Bernoulli’s equation, the shock losses of a globe, gate and ball valves are calculated.
Similarly the frictional losses are experimented on, in a smooth pipe at various flow rates.
Reynold’s number is an important parameter of the fluid when investigating the energy
losses of the piping system.

The experiment was conducted using a 15mm and 25mm smooth pipe, and the various
fittings mentioned above. The flow rate was determined using a bucket system, and the
pressure drop was determined using a manometer.

The friction factor for the 15mm and 25mm smooth pipe was 0.00465 and 0.00803
respectively. The k factor of the gate, globe and ball valve were 13.14, 8.36 and 0.85
respectively. The friction factor follows the inversely proportional relationship with the flow
rate, yielding a positive result. The fitting’s shock losses yielded inaccurate results for the
gate and ball valves, an increase of 98%, and a positive result for the globe valve with a
difference of 28%.

i
CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... i

LIST OF SYMBOLS .............................................................................................................. iii

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND........................................................................................... 2

METHOD .............................................................................................................................. 6

PRECAUTIONS .................................................................................................................... 6

RESULTS ............................................................................................................................. 8

DISCUSSION...................................................................................................................... 10

CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................... 12

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 13

APPENDIX.......................................................................................................................... 14

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS ................................................................................................. 14

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Flow parameters of experiment ............................................................................... 8

Table 2: Experimental energy losses vs Theoretical energy losses ....................................... 9
Table 3: Experimental parameters ...................................................................................... 14

LIST OF FIGURES

ii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION UNIT
Re Reynold’s number
ρ Density kg/m3
v Velocity m/s
di Inner diameter m
μ Viscosity Pa.s
ṁ Flow rate kg/s or m/s or m3/s
CV Constant volume m3
t time s
HD Pump head m
g Gravity m/s2
P Pressure Pa
z Potential head m
∑HL Total energy losses m
Hf Frictional losses m
f Friction factor
L Length m
Hs Shock losses m
k k-factor
V Volume m3

iii
INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics form the basis of for any chemical engineer as majority of it chemical
processing operations are conducted either on the basis of a partial or total fluid phase.
These chemical processing operations have been utilised on industries such as
fermentation, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, polymer, and waste-processing industries
just to mention a few. There are two main reasons that such emphasis is placed on fluid,
namely, an enormous amount of materials exist as gases or liquids or can be transformed
into such phases and the second reason that these materials are more cost effective and
efficient to work with fluids than solids (Wilkes, 2006).

To understand the concept of fluid flow, one needs to define what a fluid is? In broad terms a
fluid can be defined as a ‘substance that will deform continuously when it is subjected to a
tangential or shear force’. The rate at which the fluid deforms continuously is based on the
magnitude of the force applied but also depends on the property of the fluid (Wilkes, 2006).
Some differentiate fluids from solids by the reaction to shear stress. It is known that fluid
continuously and permanently deforms under shear stress while solids exhibits a finite
deformation which does not change over time. Another fact is that a fluid cannot return to its
original state as a fluid after deformation. The fluid is divided into two categories namely,
liquids and gases. The main differentiation between these two components is that a gas will
occupy the whole volume while liquids have a fixed volume (Bar-Meir, 2013).

When defining a fluid, the study of fluid dynamics therefore involves the study of all fluids
under static and dynamic situations. Fluid mechanics is a branch of continuous mechanics
which deals with the relationship between forces, motions and statical conditions in a
continuous material. The broad spectrum of the study of fluid mechanics deals with many
diverse problems such as surface tension, fluid statics, flow of enclose bodies or the flow of
round bodies (solid or otherwise) and flow stability (Bar-Meir, 2013). The study of fluid
mechanics involves many fields and many researchers have distinguished between orderly
flow and chaotic flow as the laminar flow and the turbulent flow. Fluid mechanics can also be
subdivided between single phase flow and multiphase flow (flow made more than one phase
or single material) (Bar-Meir, 2013).

The field of fluid mechanics is a diverse one and this study involves assessing the shock
losses of various fittings and the frictional losses of a smooth walled pipe.

1
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The history behind the understanding of fluid mechanics started as early as 250 B.C and this
resulted with the need to find water supply. Later contributions was obtained through
Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) who built a canal lock near Milan, Italy to further understand
the great need for water supply. This discovery then lead to the increase study of fluid
mechanics (hydraulic) by the contributions made by Galileo, Torricelli, Euler, Newton,
Bernoulli family and D’Alembert. By the twenty century, the scientific knowledge obtained by
the individuals previously was being applied to various liquids and used by many industries.
Currently, computational programmes are being utilised to analyse many fluid mechanics
situations (Bar-Meir, 2013).

Fluids are anything, that flows usually a liquid or gas and are treated as a continuous media
and this motion can be defined in terms of velocity (u), pressure (ρ), density that is evaluated
at every point in space (x) and time (t) (Holland and Bragg, 1995; Pedley, 1996). Fluids are
also assumed to be homogenous and isotropic. A homogenous fluid is one whose properties
are all the same at all locations and this is usually true for single-phase flow. A material that
is isotropic is if its properties are the same in all directions. Gases and simple liquids are
isotropic, however some liquids have complex chain-like molecules (polymer) which may
exhibit different properties in different directions (Holland and Bragg, 1995).

To differentiate between the types of flow, I have decided to subdivide the respective
equations and sections:

1. Types of flow: Laminar and turbulent flow

For laminar flow, the velocity profile is a parabola but for the turbulent flow the profile is
much flatter over most of the diameter.

For turbulent flow, properties such as the pressure and velocity fluctuate rapidly at each
location and so does the temperature and solute concentration in flows with the heat
transfer.

Measurement of different fluids in pipes diameters have shown that for Newtonian fluids the
transitions from laminar to turbulent flow takes place at a critical value of the quantity, of the
equation below, in which u is the volumetric average velocity of the fluid, di is the internal
diameter of the pipe and ρ and μ are the fluids density and viscosity respectively. This
quantity is known as the Reynolds number

2
 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑖
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

2. Compressible and incompressible fluids

All fluids are known to be compressible to some extent, however the compressibility of
liquids are so low that they can be regarded as incompressible, Gases are known to be
much more compressible than liquids but if the pressure of a flowing gas changes just a bit,
and the temperature remains relatively constant then the density will be nearly constant.
When the fluids density remains constant, the flow will therefore be described as
incompressible. Therefore the gas flow in which pressure changes are small as compared
with the average pressure when it is treated in the same way as the flow of liquids (Holland
and Bragg, 1995).

When the density of the gas changes significantly, the flow is described as compressible and
it is necessary to take the density variation into account in making flow calculations. When
the pressure difference in a flowing gas is made sufficiently large, the gas speed
approaches, and may exceed, the speed of sound in the gas. Flow in which the gas speed is
greater than the local speed of sound is known as supersonic flow and that in which the gas
speed is lower than the sonic speed is called subsonic flow. Most flow of interest to chemical
engineers is subsonic and this is also the type of flow of everyday experience. Sonic and
supersonic gas flows are encountered most commonly in nozzles and pressure relief
systems.

3. Conservation of mass
The conservation of mass law states, for a closed system, that the mass doesn’t change
over time; that mass remains constant within the system. Using a mass balance with a
constant volume, the relation for the rate of mass can be expressed as:
𝑑𝑚(𝐶𝑉)
ṁ(𝑖𝑛) − ṁ(𝑜𝑢𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
This is also known as the continuity equation.

4. Bernoulli equation

3
The Bernoulli equation has to deal with the conservation of kinetic, potential and flow
energies of a fluid stream and there conversion to each other regions of flow where net
forces are negligible. The energy equation below is the statement of the conservation of the
energy principle. In fluid mechanics, it becomes convenient to separate the mechanical
energy from the thermal energy with the consideration that the conversion of mechanical
energy to thermal energy as a result of frictional effects known as mechanical energy loss.
This results in the equation becoming a mechanical energy balance. The Bernoulli equation:

𝐼𝑁 = 𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
𝐻𝐷 + + + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + ∑𝐻𝐿
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔

This equation is derived by applying the Newtons second law to a fluid element along a
streamline. The Bernoulli equation is only valid in inviscid regions of flow where the net
viscous forces are negligibly small as compared to inert, gravitational or pressure forces.
Such regions only occur outside of boundary layers and wakes.

5. Energy Losses
Mechanical energy within the system can be reduced by frictional losses, which may result in
heating of fluids due to low viscosity. This results in further decreases in the viscosity and
increase in the flow of the substance. In open flow channels the roughness does not affect
much on the Reynold’s number (Perry, 1997). The total energy losses within the system is
expressed as the sum of frictional losses and shock losses

∑𝐻𝐿 = 𝐻𝑓 + 𝐻𝑠

Using conditions of uniform flow and cross-sectional area the friction factor is expressed
using the following equation:

2𝑓𝑣 2 𝐿
𝐻𝑓 =
2 𝑑𝑖 𝑔

The shock losses due to the various fittings experimented on can be expressed using the
following:
𝑣2
𝐻𝑠 = 𝑘
2𝑔
6. Stresses in fluids

4
It is important to note that the motion of a fluid is related to the forces acting on the fluid. Two
types of forces exist namely, long range forces such as gravity and short range forces that
arise from the relative motion of an element of fluid with respect to the surrounding fluid. The
long range forces are called body forces and gravity is the most commonly encountered
body force.

5
METHOD
1. The valve was opened to the 15mm smooth pipe, with the pump being switched on.
2. The 15mm smooth pipe will first be investigated for frictional losses.
3. Connected 2 pressure measuring hoses to the 15mm smooth pipe labelled X.
4. Simultaneously opened the valves of the pressure measuring hoses.
5. Variables of high, medium and low flow rate would be controlled by adjusting the
degree of the valve labelled Y.
6. The mass flow rate would be determined by measuring the water collected in the
holding tank at the various flow rates after closing the dump valve.
7. A fixed volume was kept with a variation in time being observed.
8. Reopened dump valve as time was recorded for the fixed volume.
9. A pressure drop was recorded at various flow rates, as mentioned above, using a
manometer.
10. Repeat steps 1-9 for the 25mm smooth pipe.
11. To calculate the shock losses, due to various fittings, repeat steps 3-9. The flow rate
would be manipulated by adjusting a fitting which is not being tested.

PRECAUTIONS
 Ensure the dump valve is opened completely before starting the timer for the
controlled volume.
 Ensure all the other valves are closed to the other pipes, except the entry valve to the
pipe to be experimented on.
 Ensure all valves are opened to the fittings when experimenting the shock losses.
 Do not throttle the valve which is being experimented on, but throttle any other of the
fittings to manipulate the flow rate.
 When closing any valve ensure there is an open valve to reduce a build-up of
pressure.

6
7
RESULTS
Table 1: Flow parameters of experiment

REYNOLD'S
VELOCITY (m/s) NO. ∑HL (m)
high 3.7194 55791.4042 0.8426
Smooth
15mm

pipe

med 3.2042 48062.9690 0.6388

low 2.5764 38645.7531 0.4417
high 1.5801 39502.1687 0.1563
20mm Gate Smooth
25mm

pipe

med 1.4971 37428.5640 0.1359

low 1.2175 30438.1705 0.1087
high 1.7340 34679.6763 1.9027
valve

med 1.5248 30496.7556 1.5425

low 0.9461 18922.8807 0.6388
high 1.6044 32088.8454 1.1484
20mm
Globe
valve

med 1.5145 30289.4709 0.9513

low 1.0370 20739.2131 0.4485
high 1.6088 32175.7286 0.0951
20mm Ball
valve

med 1.4842 29684.1859 0.0747

low 0.7560 15119.0446 0.0340

8
Table 2: Experimental energy losses vs Theoretical energy losses

EXPERIMENTAL THEORETICAL
f
high 0.0045 0.0050
Smooth
15mm

pipe
med 0.0046 0.0052
low 0.0049 0.0056
high 0.0077 0.0055
Smooth
25mm

pipe

med 0.0074 0.0057

low 0.0090 0.0059
k
20mm Gate

high 12.4157
valve

med 13.0161 0.17

low 13.9996
high 8.7527
20mm
Globe
valve

med 8.1378 6.00

low 8.1832
high 0.7212
20mm Ball
valve

med 0.6657 70.00

low 1.1665

9
DISCUSSION
Friction Factor, f

With the results accumulated, it shows that the friction factor of the 15mm smooth pipe is
approximately 0.00465 and for the 25mm smooth pipe a friction factor of approximately
0.00804 is observed. When comparing these experimental values to the theoretical values a
difference of 11% is observed for the 15mm pipe and 29% for the 25mm pipe. This is not a
significant difference increasing the validity of the results obtained. Errors in the
experimental procedure may account for these differences:

 Human error – reaction times when recording time may affect the energy losses as it
is inversely proportional to the velocity of the fluid. Thus longer times would result in
an increase in the friction factor. Inaccurate reading may have occurred when
determining the pressure difference of the system.
 Fluid parameters - density of the fluid is dependent on the temperature of the fluid. It
is assumed that the density remains constant over time which may affect the friction
factor calculated. Similarly the viscosity of the fluid also affects the Reynold’s number
which may affect the friction factor calculated in the experiment and the theoretical
values read off the moody friction chart.
 High flow rates – the flow rate of the fluid is inversely proportional to the friction
factor. Thus as the speed of the fluid increases the friction factor decreases, this is in
agreement with literature. High flow rates would increase the temperature of the fluid
which would directly affect the fluid parameters of the fluid.

The thicker pipe experienced a slightly increase in friction factor. As observed in theory the
diameter of the pipe is directly proportional to the Reynolds number, resulting in an increase
in the friction factor as well. Thus through experimental procedure this increase is to be
expected.

k-Factor, k

An average in the k values for the Gate, Globe and Ball valves were 13.14, 8.36 and 0.85
respectively. The globe valve produced the most accurate results with an observed increase
of 28% when comparing theoretical values with experimental values. The gate and ball
valves produced a decrease of approximately 98.7 %, for both valves. These significant
differences may be the result of:

10
  Human error - similarly to the friction factor, so too is the shock losses affected by
inaccurate recordings of time affecting flow rates. The k-factor can be significantly
increased if the valves were not completely opened, or there were some errors in
design increasing the energy lost due to the fittings experimented on.
 Expansions or contractions – there might have been slight differences in diameter of
the gate and ball valves which may account for the high k-factors achieved.

According to theoretical study the k-factor is inversely proportional to the velocity of the fluid
being experimented. The gate valve, besides the significant difference between theoretical
and experimental values, follows this relationship. The globe and ball valves exhibits a
discrepancy in this relationship, as it is observed that during the medium flow rate the k-
factor decreased. Followed by an increase in k-factor when the flow rate is the lowest.

11
CONCLUSION
To conclude, the friction factor of the 15mm and 25mm smooth pipes were 0.00465 and
0.00803 respectively. Also, the relationship between flow rate and friction factor, is an
inverse relationship. The experiment conducted yielded positive and accurate, to an extent,
when compared to theoretical literature.

The k-factors calculated for the gate, globe and ball valves were 13.14, 8.36 and 0.85
respectively. Only the globe valve yielded positive results when comparing theory to the
experiment, as an increase of 28% was observed. The gate and ball valves yielded a
significant difference in the experimental and theoretical values of approximately 98%.

12
REFERENCES
1. Holland, F.A. and Bragg, R. 1995. Fluid flow for Chemical Engineers, 2nd edition.
London: Arnold.
2. Bar-Meir, Genick, “Basics of Fluid Mechanics”, Last modified: Version 0.3.4.0 March
3. 17, 2013, www.potto.org/downloads.php
4. Wilkes, J.O. 2006. Fluid Mechanics for Chemical Engineers, 2nd ed., with
Microfluidics and CFD. Massachusetts: Pearson Education, Inc.
5. Pedley,T.J. 1996. Introduction to fluid dynamics. Scientina Marina, 61: 7-24.
6. Perry, R.H. (ed) 1997. Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 7th Edition. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
7. De Jager, D. 2015. Practical Manual: Fluid Flow Measurements Practical. Cape
Town: Cape Peninsula University of Technology.

13
 APPENDIX
Table 3: Experimental parameters

AREA (m2) TIME (sec) FLOW RATE (l/s) ΔP (Pa)

high 1.767E-04 8.52 0.657 8265.987
Smooth
15mm

pipe

med 1.767E-04 9.89 0.566 6266.151

low 1.767E-04 12.3 0.455 4332.977
high 4.909E-04 7.22 0.776 1533.207
Smooth
25mm

pipe

med 4.909E-04 7.62 0.735 1333.224

low 4.909E-04 9.37 0.598 1066.579
Gate valve

high 3.142E-04 10.28 0.545 18665.132

20mm

med 3.142E-04 11.69 0.479 15132.089

low 3.142E-04 18.84 0.297 6266.151
high 3.142E-04 11.11 0.504 11265.740
20mm
Globe
valve

med 3.142E-04 11.77 0.476 9332.566

low 3.142E-04 17.19 0.326 4399.638
high 3.142E-04 11.08 0.505 933.257
20mm Ball
valve

med 3.142E-04 12.01 0.466 733.273

low 3.142E-04 23.58 0.237 333.306

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
A = 𝜋𝑟 2
= 𝜋(7.5𝑥10−3 )2
= 1.767𝑥10−4 𝑚2

𝑉
Q = 𝑡
5.6
= 8.52

= 0.657 𝑙/𝑠

𝑄
v =𝐴
0.657
=
1.767𝑥10−4

= 3.7194 𝑚/𝑠

𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑖
Re = 𝜇

14
 1000(3.7194)(0.015)
= 0.001

= 55 791.404
𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
𝐻𝐷 + + + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ∑𝐻𝐿
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
∆𝑃
= ∑𝐻𝐿
𝜌𝑔
8 265.987
∑𝐻𝐿 =
1000(9.81)
∑𝐻𝐿 = 0.8426

2 𝑑𝑖 𝑔
f = ∑𝐻𝐿 𝑥 4𝐿𝑣 2
2(0.015)(9.81)
= 0.8426 𝑥 4(1)(3.719)2

= 0.0045

2𝑔
k = ∑𝐻𝐿 𝑥
𝑣2
2(9.81)
= 1.9027 𝑥
1.7342

= 12.4157

15