Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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Hydrocarbon seeps in petroliferous basins in China: A first inventory T

a,⁎ a,⁎ b,c a d
Guodong Zheng , Wang Xu , Giuseppe Etiope , Xiangxian Ma , Shouyun Liang ,
Qiaohui Fana, Wasim Sajjada, Yang Lia
a
Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources, Gansu Province/Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources Research, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, PR China
b
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione Roma 2, Rome, Italy
c
Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
d
Key Laboratory of Mechanics on Disaster and Environment in Western China (Lanzhou University), Ministry of Education, Lanzhou 730000, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Natural hydrocarbon seepage is a widespread phenomenon in sedimentary basins, with important implications
Seeps in petroleum exploration and emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. China has vast petroleum (oil and
Hydrocarbons gas) bearing sedimentary basins, but hydrocarbon seepage has rarely been the object of systematic studies and
Methane measurements. Based on the available Chinese literature, we report a first inventory of 932 hydrocarbon seeps or
Petroliferous basin
seepage zones (710 onshore seeps and 222 offshore seeps), including 81 mud volcanoes, 449 oil seeps, 215 gas
China
seeps, and 187 solid seeps (bitumen outcrops). The seeps are located within the main 20 Mesozoic-Cenozoic
Mud volcano
petroliferous sedimentary basins, especially along the marginal, regional and local faults. The type of mani-
festations (oil, gas or mud volcano) reflects the type and maturity of the subsurface petroleum system and the
sedimentary conditions of the basin. Oil seeps are particularly abundant in the Junggar Basin. Gas seeps mostly
developed in the Lunpola Basin, in smaller basins of the eastern Guizhou and Yunnan provinces, onshore Taiwan
and in the offshore Yinggehai Basin. Mud volcanoes developed in basins (Junggar, Qaidam, Qiangtang, onshore
and offshore Taiwan) that experienced rapid sedimentation, which induced gravitative instability of shales and
diapirism. In comparison to available global onshore seep data-bases, China results to be the country with the
highest number of seeps in the world. The massive gas seepage in China could represent a considerable natural
source of methane to the atmosphere, and a key process that may drive future hydrocarbon exploration.

1. Introduction represent the second most important natural source of atmospheric

Petroleum (crude oil and/or natural gas) reservoirs frequently leak
and release hydrocarbons that may migrate through faults and frac-
tured rocks, and reach the Earth’s surface through a wide array of
seepage modalities. The surface expressions of seepage range from
visible and large manifestations (oil and gas seeps, mud volcanoes,
called “macro-seeps”) to invisible and diffuse emissions (called “mi-
croseepage”), as described in a wide body of literature (e.g. MacGregor,
1993; Abrams, 2005; Etiope and Klusman, 2002; Etiope et al., 2011;
Etiope, 2015). The term “petroleum seepage system” was proposed by
Abrams (2005) to indicate that surface seeps are integral, common part
of a total petroleum system, i.e. the system including all the essential
elements and processes required for oil and gas generation, migration
and accumulation (Magoon and Schmoker, 2000). Generally, macro-
seeps and microseepage are useful indicators for petroleum exploration
(e.g. Link, 1952; Schumacher and Abrams, 1996). Globally, they
methane (a potent greenhouse gas; e.g., Etiope et al., 2008) and prob-
ably the largest natural atmospheric source of ethane and propane
(which are photochemical pollutants and ozone precursors; Etiope and
Ciccioli, 2009). In a given area, degassing is proportional to the extent
of the subsurface hydrocarbon reservoirs, the pressure of the fluids and
the permeability of the overlying rocks, which are mainly determined
by tectonic-driven fractures and fault systems (Etiope and Martinelli,
2002; Etiope, 2015; Tang et al., 2017). Accordingly, countries with
petroleum systems affected by recent tectonic activity tend to have a
large potential for seepage and related emissions of hydrocarbons to the
atmosphere (Etiope, 2015).
China is the 7th and 6th world producer of crude oils and natural
gases, respectively, supplying about 4.6% and 3.9% of the world oil and
gas demands, with proven reserves of at least 25.7 thousand million
barrels of oil and 5.4 trillion cubic meters of gas (BP, 2017). Because of
the westward subduction of the Pacific Plate and the northward

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: gdzhbj@mail.iggcas.ac.cn (G. Zheng), 1571637453@qq.com (W. Xu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2017.10.037
Received 27 July 2017; Received in revised form 28 October 2017; Accepted 29 October 2017
Available online 31 October 2017
1367-9120/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Table 1
Inventory of hydrocarbon seeps in Chinese petroliferous basins.

Basin Mud Volcanoes Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Oil Seeps Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Gas Seeps Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Bitumens Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Ref.
G. Zheng et al.

Junggar 4 Baiyanggou 44.18216 84.39006 200 Heiyoushan 45.60624 84.89779 2 Sikeshu 44.37430 84.24671 3 Wuerhe 46.08915 85.69374 1–6
Aiqigou 44.18966 84.49381 Wuerhe 46.08915 85.69374 Guanyinggou 43.96106 85.88740 Heiyoushan 45.60624 84.89779
Dushanzi 44.30568 84.84754 Dalongkou 43.93078 89.18307 Dalongkou 43.93078 89.18307
Anjihai 44.17744 85.44666 Tuositai 44.14187 84.60134
Santai 44.09144 88.89508
Dushanzi 44.30568 84.84754
Qingshuihe 44.19113 80.76912
Guanyingou 43.96106 85.88740
Tarim 6 Ruoqiang 39.02324 88.16715 3 Shaya 41.22167 82.78182 2 Tazhong 38.99653 83.85964 6, 7–12
Wuluqiao 40.50575 80.45833 Kuqa 41.71791 82.96202 Keping 40.50834 79.04729
Keping 40.50834 79.04729 Luntai 41.77770 84.25216
Lunnan (2) 41.24697 84.20914
Toukela 38.50080 77.32514
Qaidam 1 Tatalin River 37.78168 95.37540 9 Mangya 38.34780 90.15505 1 Tatalin River 37.78168 95.37540 4 Youquanzi 38.21825 91.43102 13–16
Youquanzi 38.21825 91.43102 Ganchaigou 38.41372 90.87178
Kaitemilike 38.08162 91.67625 Xianshuiquan 38.41843 90.87993
Xianshuiquan 38.41843 90.87993 Jiandingshan 38.51623 91.66361
Ganchaigou 38.41372 90.87178
Youshashan 38.23928 90.83612
Youdunzi 38.04589 91.88727
Lenghu 38.73481 93.33061
Jiuxi 4 Laojunmiao 39.79115 97.54714 17
Shiyougou 39.68092 97.62756
Baiyanghe 39.61513 97.65734
Yaerxia 39.83628 97.45877

270
Minhe 35 Xiaxuanzi (9) 36.31925 102.91443 14 Minhe (4) 36.32032 102.83089 13,18
Niukegou (2) 36.32203 102.94591 Haishiwan (3) 36.34547 102.85293
Lamagou (7) 36.37549 102.89918 Honggu (3) 36.29236 102.95917
Yaoshuiquan 36.27977 102.56565 Machangyuan 36.29314 102.91606
(4)
Hanjiagou 36.24278 102.61658
Xichagou 36.71315 102.47284
Majiagou (6) 36.36692 102.90261
Lijiahugou (6) 36.36014 102.84295
Xiangshuigou 36.28719 102.91592
(2)
Qiangtang 2 Gemucuo 33.67835 85.61829 2 Anduo 32.26518 91.68233 1 Anduo 32.26518 91.68233 2 Anduo 32.26518 91.68233 19–25
Yijiecuo 32.50757 84.49011 Xichangliang 33.70101 87.04443 Tuonamu 30.79132 86.26067
Lunpola 15 Shenzha 30.93050 88.70985 13 Xuguocuo (2) 31.93133 90.38092 26 Duojialing (3) 34.14215 85.03344 13, 26
Lunpori (2) 31.94747 89.79927 E’jiazu 32.07227 89.61955 Lugangcuo 32.01206 89.15355
Pagena (2) 32.05153 89.67212 Pacuo 31.86474 90.04668 Lugangtangka 32.01505 89.17441
E’jiazu (4) 32.07227 89.61955 Xiaguohe 31.90140 89.90415 Saipo (3) 32.05655 89.19525
Gaigongqixiu 32.08216 89.61748 Namukacuo 30.73099 91.08814 Liangzhamuna 32.06554 89.25350
(2) (2)
Saipori 32.05655 89.19525 Songkeer 32.02472 89.89607 Gaigongqixiu 32.08216 89.61748
Terigawa 33.75639 87.13655 Cuoerguojiangma 32.09515 89.56722 Dingkasenlong 32.02683 89.77777
Mangxiang 29.06401 98.59699 Jiangria’cuo 32.06629 89.47226 Longbajia 32.01381 89.86303
Gongjue 30.86001 98.27097 Gaigongqixiu 32.08216 89.61748 Shae’ting 32.00699 89.88725
Tangnulongguo 32.02168 89.73347 Luriaika 32.09228 89.64212
Musitang 28.99851 83.84730 Lunpori (2) 31.94747 89.79927
Gaize 32.30271 84.06259 Xiaguohe 31.90140 89.90415
Terigawa 33.75639 87.13655
Langliang 31.53915 93.52180
Mangxiang 29.06401 98.59699
(continued on next page)
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284
 Table 1 (continued)

Basin Mud Volcanoes Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Oil Seeps Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Gas Seeps Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Bitumens Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Ref.
G. Zheng et al.

Gaize 32.30271 84.06259

Gongjue 30.86001 98.27097
Mangkang 29.67991 98.59311
Songliao 3 Fuxin 42.02162 121.67032 1 Changling 44.27589 123.96748 6, 27, 28
Yixian 41.53309 121.23908
Antu 43.11259 128.89793
Erlian 3 Badalahu 45.12965 115.64086 29–30
Bayindulan 45.42120 116.34750
Jiergalangtu 45.04538 115.16644
Ordos 23 Yanhe 35.41945 112.53968 1 Chongxin 37.56202 104.51087 6, 31, 32
Dongsheng 39.82251 109.96334
Shilou 36.99849 110.83451
Bohai Bay 56 Shuangdong (8) 40.43335 117.61450 1 Dongying 37.43475 118.67477 1 Fenghuangshan 40.02106 117.29840 30, 34, 35
Xinglong 40.41736 117.50056
Fangezhuang 40.21149 116.63533
Zhangjiakou 40.76755 114.88634
Fenghuangshan 40.02106 117.29840
Subei 1 Jinshan 32.07707 121.07919 11 Changshu 31.65438 120.75248 17 Guangde (3) 30.87755 119.42093 36–38
Xuancheng (3) 30.94069 118.75859 Ling’an 30.23387 119.72473
Liyang (6) 31.41691 119.48421 Shaoxing (2) 29.99576 120.58611
Tonglu 29.79353 119.69143 Shitai (3) 30.21031 117.48631
Huangshan (8) 29.71475 118.33762
Sichuan 1 Qujiang 30.04358 104.31479 10 Jiangyou Coal 31.78137 104.62891 5 Shuiyandangcun, 29.65112 106.97591 15 Kuangshanliang 32.30380 105.43954 39–48
M. Nanjiawan
Moxinpo Coal 29.85769 106.47703 Longmen Mt. Fault 32.14694 104.92083 Yuanba 31.81114 106.06857
M.
Nantong Coal 28.94356 106.88911 Xiongpo Fault 30.26575 103.67545 Zhengba 32.55087 107.87879

271
M. Zone
Baxian 30.37858 101.89036 Longquanshan 30.58361 104.30056 Chengkou (3) 31.92172 108.67143
Fault
Jiangexian 32.28772 105.52477 Weiyuan Structure 29.52744 104.66888 Baiguo (9) 32.10105 108.33309
Baiguo 32.10105 108.33309
Chengkou 31.92172 108.67143
Qingchuanxian 32.57548 105.23884
Chuxiong 42 Kaili-Shiqian 26.56687 107.98121 12 Kaili (2) 26.56687 107.98121 63 Shangshi 25.95348 99.96460 6, 38, 49
(13)
(includes Yunnan Dafang 27.14168 105.61317 Dafang 27.14168 105.61317 Wen’an (3) 27.07847 107.47155
and Guizhou Tongren 27.73151 105.18960 Shiqian 27.51383 108.22361 Yuanmou (3) 25.70434 101.87452
Province) Wen’an 27.07847 107.47155 Guizhong (8) 26.45035 106.74306 Majiang-Doujun 26.49111 107.58936
(24)
Danzhai 26.19832 107.78873 Yiliang (3) 24.91965 103.14130
Shangshi 27.00778 106.64744 Anfu-Baise (17) 23.90233 106.61820
Yuanmou 25.70434 101.87452 Nanning (12) 22.81700 108.36654
Huaning-Qujing 24.19276 102.92883
(19)
Nanning (4) 22.81700 108.36654
Jianghan 34 Zigui (3) 30.82590 110.97771 7 Sanzhi (3) 29.40007 110.16582 35 Zigui (6) 30.82590 110.97771 6, 38, 50
(includes Middle Yichang (2) 30.69197 111.28647 Jinshan (3) 31.01846 113.11957 Yichang (10) 30.69197 111.28647
Yangtze Cili (4) 29.42997 111.13967 Hanyang 30.55390 114.21872 Sanzhi (3) 29.40007 110.16582
region) Lixian (2) 29.63324 111.75870 Lixian (2) 29.63324 111.75870
Jinshan (5) 31.01846 113.11957 Dayong (2) 29.13299 110.46116
Hanyang (5) 30.55391 114.21872 Cili (3) 29.42997 111.13967
Huangshi (7) 30.18972 115.02673 Jinshan (6) 31.01846 113.11957
Tongshan (2) 29.60717 114.48638 Tongshan (2) 29.60538 114.48261
Xianning 29.88855 114.38930 Puqi 29.71545 113.88373
Jiayu (2) 29.97074 113.93928
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284

Puqi 29.71545 113.88373

(continued on next page)
 Table 1 (continued)

Basin Mud Volcanoes Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Oil Seeps Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Gas Seeps Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Bitumens Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Ref.
G. Zheng et al.

Southwest 17 Lun-shan 23.18386 121.29697 3 Suei-huo-tong- 23.32213 120.48504 51–55

Taiwan yuan
(onshore) Chung-lun 23.38112 120.54753 Chu-huo 22.00720 120.75659
Hsiao-kung- 22.87211 120.35456 Wu-yuan 22.98485 120.24522
shuei
Hsin-yang-nyu- 22.80301 120.40948
hu
Wu-shan-ding 22.79651 120.40653
Gung-shuei- 22.78155 120.39803
ping
Diang-kuang 22.90422 121.18077
Da-kung-shuei 22.87597 120.36221
Yan-chao 22.79651 120.40653
Li-yu-shan 22.55406 120.45122
Kuan-tze-ling 23.28414 120.49204
Yang-nyu-hu 22.80301 120.40948
Choshuitan 23.37592 120.56051
Siaochoshuitan 23.37072 120.56034
Yenshuikeng 22.95829 120.44535
Lungchuanwo 23.00200 120.45855
Tadishan 22.74369 120.32777
Southwest 50 Kaohsiung (13) 22.31440 120.02595 56–58
Taiwan 22.48320 120.07785
(offshore) 22.39645 120.09040
22.50995 120.12530
22.57500 120.13445
22.55465 120.13885

272
22.46375 120.13920
22.57965 120.14010
22.56545 120.15060
22.61452 120.16286
22.31375 120.16340
22.30960 120.16865
21.55830 120.18035
Kaoping Canyon 22.38817 120.40630
(4)
22.38090 120.40810
22.39015 120.41465
22.37855 120.41675
Fangliao 22.18385 120.41280
Canyon (20)
22.20508 120.49330
22.28019 120.50395
22.25645 120.51625
22.25665 120.51645
22.25985 120.51895
22.26006 120.51940
22.26030 120.51970
22.25221 120.51990
22.26688 120.52015
22.26109 120.52050
22.25916 120.52060
22.26495 120.52060
22.26977 120.52220
22.26464 120.52300
22.26683 120.52335
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284

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 Table 1 (continued)

Basin Mud Volcanoes Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Oil Seeps Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Gas Seeps Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Bitumens Lat. (°) Lon. (°) Ref.
G. Zheng et al.

22.26566 120.52465
22.26785 120.52515
22.26815 120.52535
22.26665 120.53035
Yung-An 22.23195 119.80355
Lineam (4)
22.23915 119.80685
22.22875 119.81275
22.35395 119.85915
Passive cont. 22.14800 118.31700
margin (9)
22.27405 118.95750
22.00117 119.09380
22.05160 119.11202
22.04818 119.11213
22.06195 119.11737
22.04942 119.12453
22.06162 119.13790
22.70413 119.76790
Pearl River 4 Baiyun Sag 19.83333 115.16667 46 Baiyun Sag 19.83333 115.16667 59–61
Mouth South-central 20.16667 115.75000 South-central part 20.16667 115.75000
(offshore) part

Qiongdongnan 1 Southern rift 16.00000 109.5000 1 Southern rift 16.00000 109.5000 62–63
Basin Central uplift 18.50000 112.50000 Central uplift zone 18.50000 112.50000
(offshore) zone

273
Yinggehai 120 Lingtou 17.50000 107.75000 64–67
Promontory 18.75000 109.5000
(offshore) Yinggehai Rivulet
Mouth
Yazhou Bay
Nanshan
Promontory
Tianya Promontory

The number of seeps or seepage zones (that may include an unknown number of multiple seeps) is reported for each basin and type of seepage on the left column. The number of seeps in each seepage zone is reported in parenthesis, when known.
Coordinates refer to the main seepage zone (when available in the literature) or to the nearest village.
References: 1. He (1989); 2. ECPGX (1993); 3. Wu et al. (2002a); 4. Wu et al. (2002b); 5. Yu (2016); 6. Huo et al. (2013); 7. Lu et al. (1997); 8. You (2005); 9. Tang et al. (2007); 10. Lu et al. (2008); 11. Tang et al. (2008); 12. Tang et al. (2010); 13.
ECPGQ-T (1990); 14. Liu et al. (2006b); 15. Liu et al. (2012); 16. Yao et al. (2016); 17. ECPGY (1989); 18. Shi et al. (2009); 19. Wang and Wang (1998); 20. Zhao and Li (2000); 21. Wang et al. (2001); 22. Tan et al. (2002); 23. Wu et al. (2005). 24.
Guo et al. (2008); 25. Xie et al. (2009); 26. Luo (1993); 27. ECPGD-J (1993); 28. Liu et al. (2001); 29. Dou et al. (1995); 30. ECPGH (1988); 31. Hu et al. (1998); 32. Yang et al. (2004a); 33. Yao et al. (2007); 34. ECPGSL (1993); 35. Kan and Zhui
(1997); 36. Xu and Wang (2008); 37. Zhong (2010); 38. Li et al. (2011); 39. Chen (1946); 40. ECPGSC (1993); 41. Li et al. (1993); 42. Huang and Wang (2008); 43. Rao et al. (2008); 44. Zhang et al. (2009); 45. Jiang et al. (2010); 46. Liu et al.
(2010); 47. Duan et al. (2016); 48. Liang et al. (2016); 49. Peng et al. (2009); 50. Mei and Fei (1992); 51. Shih (1967); 52. Wang and Wang (1998); 53. Yang et al. (2004b); 54. Sun et al. (2010b); 55. Hong et al. (2013); 56. Liu et al. (1997); 57. Chow
et al. (2001); 58. Chiu et al. (2006); 59. Sun et al. (2012); 60. Li et al. (2013); 61. Geng et al. (2014); 62. Wang et al. (2008); 63. Wang et al. (2010); 64. Huang and Zhang (1992); 65. He et al. (2000); 66. Paull et al. (2008); 67. Huang et al. (2009).
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284
G. Zheng et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284

Fig. 1. Distribution of hydrocarbon seepage sites in relation to the main tectonic structures and sedimentary basins in China (based on Chen et al., 1986; Deng et al., 2003 and Jia, 2012).
Basins: 1 - Junggar Basin; 2 - Tarim Basin; 3 - Qaidam Basin; 4 - Jiuxi Basin; 5 - Minghe Basin; 6 - Qiangtang Basin; 7 - Lunpola Basin; 8 - Songliao Basin; 9 - Erlian Basin; 10 - Ordos Basin;
11 - Bohai Bay Basin; 12 - Subei Basin; 13 - Sichuan Basin; 14 - Chuxiong Basin; 15 - Youjiang Basin; 16 - Jianghan Basin; 17 - Southwest Taiwan Basin; 18 - Pearl River Mouth Basin; 19 -
Qiongdongnan Basin; 20 - Yinggehai Basin. Fault zones: F1 - Tianshan Fault; F2 - Altun Fault; F3 - Kunlun Fault; F4 - Karakoram Fault; F5 - Tanlu Fault; F6 - Qinling Fault; F7 - Longmenshan
Fault; F8 - Xianshuihe Fault; F9 - Red River Fault. Cross-sections: a - Chenhu-Tuditang synclinorium; b - Dabashan piedomont structural belt; c - Heiyoushan profile; d - Youquanzi
anticline; e - Dushanzi anticline.

compression of the Indian Plate against the Eurasian Plate, most of the more detail, as example of the relationship between seeps and regional
sedimentary basins in China are tectonically active with common block and structural features of the basins. This study is the first attempt to-
uplifting, folding, and faulting (Li, 1982). These tectonic factors have wards a more accurate evaluation of hydrocarbon seepage in China that
induced various types of hydrocarbon migration and accumulation to appears to be considerable, and that can have important implications
form petroleum reservoirs, with subsequent release of oil and gas to for petroleum exploration and global emissions of hydrocarbons into
Earth’s surface (Liu et al., 2004; Li et al., 2011). Gas seeps in ancient the atmosphere.
China had a significant role in social and technological development.
They were documented in Chinese ancient books, often referred to as
2. Main characteristics of the petroleum systems in China
“fire wells” (Huo et al., 2013). In 500 BCE, the Chinese used seeps and
near-surface gas pockets of flammable gas, with the support of bamboo
2.1. General setting of the sedimentary basins
pipes, to boil seawater, trap salt, and supply freshwater (ECPGSC,
1993). In modern times, despite their importance for both petroleum
China is the third largest country in the world in terms of con-
exploration and environmental impacts, seeps and microseepage in
tinental area, with an area of 9.6 million km2 and a coastline 14,500 km
China have been sporadically studied and, only in a few cases, reported
long. About 500 sedimentary basins, from Paleozoic to Cenozoic ages,
in the international literature (e.g., Liu et al., 2004; Tang et al., 2007,
have been catalogued, covering an area of 6.7 million km2 (Jia, 2012).
2008, 2010, 2017; Zhang et al., 2014). Seepage studies including mud
There is clearly a large potential for the generation of petroleum (crude
volcanoes and other macro-seeps have been more frequently carried out
oils and natural gases). Most of the petroliferous basins in China are
in Taiwan (e.g., Chen et al., 2010; Hong et al., 2013; Yang et al.,
characterized by multiple stages of formation and reworking, multiple
2004a).
layers of source rocks, and multiple periods of hydrocarbon generation,
In this work, we review and examine the data available in the
migration and accumulation (Jin and Wang, 2004). Overall, the closing
Chinese literature in order to develop the first catalogue of hydrocarbon
of Paleo-Tethys in the Mesozoic era and the uplifting of the Tibetan
seeps in China, including potential seepage areas. We briefly describe
Plateau in the Cenozoic era originated numerous types of geological
the sedimentary basins characterized by gas seepage and, successively,
structures (i.e., folds, fractures, traps, etc.), which provided favorable
list the data and information available in each basin. The seep in-
conditions for the generation, migration and accumulation of hydro-
ventory, summarized in a table, indicates types, quantity and locations
carbons (Chen et al., 1986). In addition, fractures also provided chan-
of seepage (and related references). A few cases are then discussed in
nels or networks for oil and gas to migrate upward and seep to the

274
G. Zheng et al.
surface. Some important differences exist, however, among eastern,
central, western and southern (mostly offshore) China.
Eastern China was characterized by extended periods of tectonics
due to the westward subduction of the Pacific Plate underneath the
Eurasian Plate (Li, 1982). Many sedimentary basins developed along
the Tancheng-Lujiang Fault Zone from north to south, such as the
Songliao Basin, Bohai Bay Basin and Subei Basin. The petroleum-
bearing sequences are mainly of Cretaceous age along with some
younger rocks (Zhang et al., 2009).
Central China, represented by the Ordos Basin and Sichuan Basin, is
a stable cratonic environment where tectonic movement and de-
formation are relatively weak, and the production of crude oil and gas is
restricted to the Upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata (Li, 1982).
Western China includes petroliferous basins characterized by com-
pressional structures. For example, the Tarim Basin experienced an
evolution from marine to terrestrial sedimentary environments, re-
sulting in oil-bearing series spanning eight geological units (from
Cambrian to Neogene) (Zhang et al., 2009).
Finally, the South China Sea and Taiwan (offshore and onshore)
host petroleum-bearing rift basins (the Southwest Taiwan Basin, the
Pearl River Mouth Basin, the Qiongdongnan Basin, and the Yinggehai
Basin), formed in back-arc environment or passive continental margin,
with source rocks mainly developed during the Paleogene and Neogene
period (Luo, 1998).
2.2. The main petroleum-bearing sedimentary basins
In this chapter we briefly describe 20 main sedimentary basins (16
onshore, 1 onshore and offshore, and 3 offshore) that, according to our
inventory described in Section 3, host hydrocarbon seeps, as summar-
ized in Table 1 and Fig. 1. They represent, basically, the widest and
most important petroleum basins in China: (1) the Junggar Basin, (2)
the Tarim Basin, (3) the Qaidam Basin, (4) the Jiuxi Basin, (5) the
Minhe Basin, (6) the Qiangtang Basin, (7) the Lunpola Basin, (8) the
Songliao Basin, (9) the Erlian Basin, (10) the Ordos Basin, (11) the
Bohai Bay Basin, (12) the Subei Basin, (13) the Sichuan Basin, (14) the
Chuxiong Basin, (15) the Youjiang Basin, (16) the Jianghan Basin, (17)
the Southwest Taiwan Basin, (18) the Pearl River Mouth Basin, (19) the
Qiongdongnan Basin, and (20) the Yinggehai Basin.
The Junggar Basin, located at the junction of the Kazakstan,
Siberia, and Tarim blocks, is a Late Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic
superimposed basin. Six sets of hydrocarbon source rocks from
Carboniferous to Paleogene strata are widely distributed in the basin
(Chen et al., 2016). The Carboniferous Dishuiquan Formation (C1d) and
Batamayneishan Formation (C3b) source rocks, characterized by mud-
stone, carbonaceous mudstone and coals, are mainly at mature to over-
mature stages (vitrinite reflectance, Ro = 0.5–4.2%) and contain types
II2 to (mainly) III kerogen (Li et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2016). The
Permian Jiamuhe Formation (P1j), Fengcheng Formation (P1f), Lower
Wuerhe Formation (P2w) mudstone, as well as the Triassic lacustrine
type II source rocks, have mature to highly-maturity kerogen. The
Cretaceous and Paleogene lacustrine source rocks (types I and II) are
mainly at a lower mature stage (ECPGX, 1993; Chen et al., 2016). Rapid
sedimentation favored gravitative instabilities in the Mesozoic sedi-
mentary sequences, setting the conditions for shale mobilization and
mud volcanism (sedimentary volcanism). The Cenozoic Himalaya
Movement led to the overall uplift of the basin, resulting in the de-
struction of some oil and gas reservoirs (Wu et al., 2002a,b) and acti-
vation of seepage systems and diapirs, including the mud volcanism at
the Dushanzi oilfield (ECPGX, 1993). Here, a normal fault occurs along
the central axis of the Dushanzi anticline, providing pathways for the
migration and eruption of connate water, hydrocarbons, and other
gases from the subsurface reservoirs (Wang et al., 1997; Nakada et al.,
2011).
(2) The Tarim Basin is a typical superimposed basin composed of a
Paleozoic marine craton basin and a Mesozoic-Cenozoic terrigenous
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284
foreland basin (Jia and Wei, 2002). Oil and gas accumulations mainly
derive from Cambrian-Ordovician, Carboniferous, and Triassic-Jurassic
source rocks (Jia, 2012). The Middle-Lower Cambrian source rocks
have high maturity (Ro = 1.6–2.5%), while the Middle-Upper Ordovi-
cian source rocks are less mature (Ro = 0.8–1.3%) (Zhang et al., 2000;
Wang et al., 2003). The maturity of Carboniferous source rocks ranges
from Ro = 0.8–1.0% in the Manjiaer Depression to Ro > 2.0% in the
Awati Depression (Chang et al., 2014). The Triassic source rocks mainly
contain types II to III kerogen (Jia, 2012). Affected by six large-scale
tectonic movements, some sub-basins were reshaped by uplifting, de-
nudation, folding, and faulting (Zhang et al., 2007). In the central part
of the basin, the original oil–gas reservoirs were uplifted due to the
strong tectonic movement. As a result, crude oil was oxidized into bi-
tumen (Wu et al., 2002a). The Yakela oil/gas field, located in the
eastern part of Shaya up-warping of the Luntai-Yakela faulted uplift
zone, is a large condensed oil field.
(3) The Qaidam Basin is a composite sedimentary basin composed
of a Jurassic foreland basin and a Cenozoic extensional basin. Most of
the Jurassic source rocks in the northwest of the basin have Ro ranging
from 0.6% (type I kerogen) to 1.4% (type II kerogen). The Tertiary
source rocks at the western margin of the basin have relatively lower
maturity (Ro = 0.4–0.9%; types II to III kerogen; Pang et al., 2004). The
long-distance propagation of compressive stress caused by the collisions
of the Indian Plate and Eurasian Plate resulted in the structural inver-
sion that consisted of compressive down-warping and reverse faulting
in the Miocene and Pliocene epochs (Xia et al., 2001). The distribution
of oil and gas reservoirs was controlled by three sedimentary depres-
sions: the Mangya Depression of the western region, the block belt of
the northern margin, and the Sanhu Depression of the eastern region
(ECPGQ, 1990).
(4) The Jiuxi Basin, located in the transitional region of the Tarim
block, Alashan block and North Qilian Caledonian fold belt, is a fore-
land basin (ECPGY, 1989). The main hydrocarbon source rocks are the
Lower Cretaceous lacustrine black mudstone, which are widely dis-
tributed in the fault depression of the basin, such as Qingxi Depression,
Shibei Depression, Dahongquan Depression. These source rocks have
mature type II kerogen. However, some of the source rocks in the Shibei
Depression have a high degree of evolution, corresponding to the
condensate/wet gas generation (Zhao, 1998). Long term inherited ac-
tivities of the Qilian Mountains overthrust nappe fault and the Altyn
Tagh fault zone controlled the evolution of the Jiuxi Basin since the
Cretaceous period (Chen et al., 2001).
(5) The Minghe Basin, located in the eastern part of the Qilian
Mountain fold series, is a typical rift downwarp intermont basin de-
veloped in Mesozoic and Cenozoic era (Wei and Wang, 1997). The
Middle Jurassic Yaojie Formation (J2y) is the primary hydrocarbon
source sequence, which is dominated by coal measures, oil-shale and
mudstone, corresponding to the kerogen types II2-III, I-II1 and II, re-
spectively. Most of these source rocks have low to medium maturity
(Ro = 0.5–1.1%) (Zhang et al., 2006). The formation and development
of the basin have experienced several tectonic reconstructions, which
gave rise to the formation of multiple local structures, such as Hutouya
anticline and Haishiwan monocline, where oil seeps have been ob-
served (ECPGQ, 1990).
(6) The Qiangtang Basin, located between the Jinshajiang and
Bangong-Nujiang suture belts, is a composite foreland basin. The hy-
drocarbon source rocks are mainly Triassic-Jurassic limestone and ar-
gillaceous rocks (Guo et al., 2008). The Upper Triassic calcareous shale
from the Tumengela Formation (T3t) is highly mature (Ro = 1.3–1.5%),
corresponding to the condensate/wet gas generation stage. The mud-
stone from the Tumengela Formation (T3t) and Zangxiahe Formation
(T3z) is over-mature, corresponding to the dry gas generation stage. In
the southern part of the basin, the Upper Triassic limestone and argil-
laceous rocks from the Xiaochaka Formation (T3x) mainly contain high
mature types II1 and II2 kerogen (Ding et al., 2011). The Middle Jurassic
limestone and argillaceous rocks from the Buqu Formation (J2b) (types I
G. Zheng et al.
and III kerogen) and Xiali Formation (J2x) (types II and II2 kerogen)
have Ro from 1.4% to 1.7%. The Upper Jurassic Suowa Formation (J3s)
are composed of limestone (type II1 kerogen, average Ro = 1.3%) and
argillaceous rocks (type I kerogen, average Ro = 1.7%; Wu et al., 2005).
The most remarkable tectonic features of the basin are the strong up-
lifting and horizontal sliding between blocks (Zhao and Li, 2000). Two
deformation phases during the late Yanshan movement and Himalayan
movement (from Cretaceous to Quaternary) fractured and damaged
several reservoirs (Guo et al., 2008). In the Suona Lake area, a series of
active mud volcanoes craters developed as a consequence of diapirism
and faulting (Xie et al., 2009; Fu et al., 2015).
(7) The Lunpola Basin is a Cenozoic terrestrial basin. Paleogene
sequences are widely distributed in the basin, with the largest thickness
exceeding 4000 m (Du et al., 2004). Mudstone and shale with types I
and II1 (oil prone) kerogen, represent the main source rocks. Most of
these lacustrine source rocks have moderate maturity, with an average
of Ro = 0.6% in the Oligocene-Early Miocene Dingqinghu Formation
(E3-N1d) and Ro = 0.7–1.1% in the Eocene Niubao Formation (E2n)
(Zhang et al., 1997). The organic matters of the Niubao Formation (E2n)
source rocks are over-mature (Ro > 2.0%) in Jiangria’cuo and Jiang-
jiacuo areas (Gu et al., 1999). The formation and evolution of the basin
are related to the movement history of the Bangong-Nujiang deep fault.
(8) The Songliao Basin is a Mesozoic rift basin characterized by
Mesozoic and Cenozoic hydrocarbon systems. The Upper Jurassic
source rocks have reached high-mature to over-mature stages
(Ro > 2.0% in the coal-bearing source bed; ECPGD, 1993). Three sets
of coal-measure source rocks are primarily dispersed in the Upper
Jurassic Huoshiling Formation (J3h), Lower Cretaceous Shahezi For-
mation (K1s) and Yingcheng Formation (K1y) with Ro = 3.2%, 2.4% and
2.2%, respectively; the maturity of some basement samples is up to
5.4% (Mi et al., 2010). The basin was restrained between the Tan-Lu
and Taihang-Wuling fault zones. The southeastern part of the basin
(uplifted) hosts oil seeps and bitumen (Fuxin city and Antuxian city;
ECPGD, 1993).
(9) The Erlian Basin, located in the Central Asia-Mongolian fold
belt, is a Mesozoic continental rift basin (ECPGH, 1988). Hydrocarbon
source rocks are mainly clastic rocks in the Lower Cretaceous Arshan
Formation (K1a) and Tengger Formations (K1t). These source rocks
mainly contain type II kerogen with a maturity corresponding to the oil
generation window. In addition, due to basin uplifting, the thermal
evolution dropped resulting in additional immature or lower mature
source rocks (Dou et al., 1998). The basin comprises a group of small
faulted depressions, most of which are single-fault sags. In the slope and
uplifted areas, some oil pools were damaged resulting in a large area of
heavy oil outcrops (Dou et al., 1995; Fang and Gu, 2005).
(10) The Ordos Basin, located in the stable Northern China
Platform, is a typical cratonic basin including Lower Paleozoic, Upper
Paleozoic and Mesozoic sequences (ECPGC, 1992). The source rocks of
the Upper Paleozoic strata (type III kerogen) are dominated by coal
seams and black mudstone. The low maturation of the Upper Paleozoic
coals (Ro = 0.6–1.2%) is due to the Yimeng Uplift. Toward the south
(Sanbei Slope) the maturity increases (Ro = 1.2–2.8%). Maturation
reaches a peak, with Ro > 2.8%, in the Huanxian-Yanan area, where
gas is generally dry (Xiao et al., 2005). The basin is characterized by a
stable tectonic setting, which controlled the development of erosional
surfaces and the distribution of depositional systems and ultimately
governed the distribution of oil and gas fields and trap types (Yang
et al., 2005, 2008).
(11) The Bohai Bay Basin, located in the eastern part of the Sino-
Korean Platform, is a superimposed basin that consists of a Mesozoic-
Cenozoic basin and a Proterozoic-Paleozoic basin (Jia, 2012). Moder-
ately to highly mature (Ro = 1.5–2.0%) Ordovician carbonate source
rocks are widely distributed in the basin (Cao et al., 2001). In the
Dongying Depression, the Eocene Shahejie Formation (E2s) hosts the
main source rocks (peak oil generation maturity, Ro = 0.8–1.2%, type I
kerogen), which are dominated by grey to black mudstone, calcareous
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284
mudstone and oil shale (Guo et al., 2012). The basin has characteristics
of multiple cycles of depression and uplift, and each depression has its
own sedimentary system and pattern of oil generation (Chang, 1991).
(12) The Subei Basin is composed of small half grabens and char-
acterized by closely-spaced faults, small traps, and homogeneous hy-
drocarbon abundance (Ji, 2000). The Eocene mudstones are the main
hydrocarbon source rocks, which are mainly at immature to mature
stages (Ro = 0.4–1.3%). The organic matters belong to types I and II
kerogen (Liu, 2010). The basin has experienced three episodes of uplift,
characterized by dustpan-shaped fault depression. Many oil seeps occur
along the slope of dustpan-shaped depression, such as the Gaoyou sag
and Jiangdu Uplift (Xu and Wang, 2008).
(13) The Sichuan Basin is a large cratonic basin with six different
source rocks, ranging from the Cambrian to the Triassic (Jia, 2012). The
marine mudstone from the Cambrian to Silurian contains high-mature
to over-mature types I and II kerogen. The marine shale of the Lower
Silurian Longmaxi Formation (S1l) in the southern basin has high vi-
trinitite reflectance values (Ro = 1.8–4.2%) and strong gas generation
intensity. The Permian Qixia Formation (P2q) and Wujiaping Formation
(P3w), characterized by coal measure (type III kerogen) and marine
mudstone (type II kerogen), are mainly at an over-mature stage. The
source rocks of the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation (T3xj) are domi-
nated by gas prone dark mudstone and coals. These source rocks are
mature in the central basin and highly mature in the western basin,
characterized by gas generation with subordinate amounts of light oil
or condensate oil (Dai et al., 2009; Jia, 2012). Due to the shift in de-
pocenters and the heterogeneity in basin evolution, different districts
exhibited distinct sedimentary sequences and thus different oil and gas
distributions. Gas pools were distributed in every district, but oil was
discovered only in the central sector (Ma et al., 2008). In the eastern
margin of northern Longmen Mountain, oil reservoirs were destroyed
by many faults caused by Hercynian tectonic movement (Huang and
Wang, 2008).
(14) The Chuxiong Basin, located on the Paleozoic passive-con-
tinental margin of the western Yangtze platform, is a Triassic peripheral
foreland basin (Tan et al., 2004). The Triassic coal measures are the
main hydrocarbon source rocks, with the largest thickness of about
1000 m. The hydrocarbon source rocks are highly mature (types II1 and
III kerogen) characterized by dry gas generation (Mao et al., 2010). The
basin experienced multiphase tectonic movements, of which Yanshan
movement was critical to the formation of oil and gas reservoirs. The
Sazhi ancient reservoir was rebuilt, and bitumen outcrops occurred in
the Upper Triassic Shezi and Ganhaizi Formation (Peng et al., 2009).
(15) The Youjiang Basin, located between the Jinshajiang-Red
River-Song Ma suture and Yangtze Block, is a continental margin basin
(Huang et al., 2013). This basin is also called “Nanpanjiang Basin”. Both
potential source rocks and solid bitumen in the basin are highly over-
matured (Liao et al., 2015). Although limited oil exploration drillings
have only encountered non-commercial gas shows, exposures of palaeo-
petroleum reservoirs with abundant solid bitumen were widespread in
the basin. The bitumen was interpreted as cracking residue of crude oil
(Gu et al., 2012). This basin was subsequently deformed by folding and
thrusting during the Middle-Late Triassic, which destroyed oil and gas
accumulations (Qiu et al., 2016).
(16) The Jianghan Basin, located in the middle part of Yangtze
block, is a Mesozoic-Cenozoic superimposed basin (ECPGJ, 1991).
Many sets of hydrocarbon source rocks have been distinguished in the
southern part of basin (Wang et al., 2002). The Paleogene Qianjiang
Formation (E2q) source rocks contain mature types I and II1 kerogen,
and the Xingouzui Formation (E1-E2x) source rocks contain mature to
high-mature (Ro = 0.8–1.6%) types II2 and III kerogen (Lu et al., 2008).
The Cretaceous Yuyang Formation (K2y) is a set of red sandstone and
mudstone with type III kerogen. Most of the Permian carbonates are at
mature to high-mature stages, and contain types I to II kerogen (Wang
et al., 2002). The Lower Silurian shale and mudstone have
Ro = 0.7–3.3% and mainly contain type I kerogen (Li et al., 2010). The
G. Zheng et al.
basin experienced multiple-stage extension and compression tectonic
activity, characterized by the whole uplift and subsidence with local
stratigraphic erosion (Zhao et al., 2010).
(17) The Southwest Taiwan Basin, located between the Luzon
volcanic arc and the passive China continental margin, is a Cenozoic
extensional rift basin (Du, 1991). The hydrocarbon source rocks are
Oligocene-Miocene marine shale and, subordinately, Jurassic-Cretac-
eous continental shale. These source rocks mainly contain type III
kerogen. The Oligocene-Miocene source rocks have Ro = 0.6–1.0%. The
Cretaceous source rocks have the same high maturity, corresponding to
the condensate/wet gas generation (Ro = 0.6–1.1%). The Jurassic
source rocks are more mature, with Ro = 2.69–3.78% (He et al., 2006).
Due to the rifting extension along the continental margin of the
northern South China Sea and sea-floor spreading of the South China
Sea Basin, the basin’s tectonic environment was controlled by thrust
and strike slip faults (Du, 1994). Active fluid manifestations were de-
tected in the area offshore of southwestern Taiwan (Liu et al., 2006a).
(18) The Pearl River Mouth Basin, located in continental and
transitional crust, is one of the major Cenozoic sedimentary basins of
the northern continental shelf offshore South China Sea (Huang et al.,
2003). The Eocene Wenchang Formation (E2w) (over-mature types I to
II1 kerogen) and Enping Formation (E2-3e) (high-mature types II2 to III
kerogen) are the principal source rocks in the basin (Chen and Pei,
1993; Peng et al., 2017). The basin was dominated by two episodes of
rifting from the late Cretaceous to the early Oligocene, which brought
about ruptures and regional normal faults in various segments of the
basin. Three major sub-basins were separated by local uplifts and
characterized by horst and graben structures (Yu, 1990).
(19) The Qiongdongnan Basin, located at the junction of the
Eurasian, Pacific and Indo-Australian plates, is a Cenozoic passive
continental margin basin (Wang et al., 2010). The Lower Oligocene
Yacheng Formation (E3y) and Upper Oligocene Lingshui Formation
(E3l) in the Ledong, Lingshui and Songnan sags are the main source
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284
Fig. 2. Examples of hydrocarbon seeps. a - Heiyoushan oil
pool (Junggar Basin); b - Dushanzi mud volcano (Junggar
Basin); c - Wuerhe bitumen (Junggar Basin); d - Dushanzi oil
seeps (Junggar Basin); e - Aiqigou mud volcano (Junggar
Basin); f - Datong River oil seeps (Minhe Basin); g -
Baiyanggou mud volcano (Junggar Basin); h - Anguo town
oil seeps (Ordos Basin); i - Nanjiawan gas seep (Sichuan
Basin); j - Wu-shan-ding mud cones (Southwest Taiwan
Basin); k - Suei-huo-tong-yuan everlasting fire (Southwest
Taiwan Basin); l - Chu-huo everlasting fire (Southwest
Taiwan Basin).
rocks, with high-mature (Ro = 1.3–1.6%, corresponding to wet gas
generation) and over-mature (Ro > 4.0%) type III kerogen (Wu et al.,
2013). The evolution of this basin was closely linked to the strike-slip
movement of the Red River Fault (Gong et al., 2011). During the
Miocene, seafloor spreading occurred in the South China Sea and ex-
tensive normal faults formed (Clift and Sun, 2006), which acted as
pathways for the upward migration of deep fluids. Hydrocarbons could
also migrate along polygonal faults in the southern part of the basin
(Sun et al., 2010a).
(20) The Yinggehai Basin, located on the northwestern shelf of the
South China Sea, is one of the most gas-rich Cenozoic rift basins in
China (Sun et al., 2003). The Miocene marine rocks represent the major
source rocks (high-mature type III kerogen) of shallow gas fields
(Huang et al., 2002). The basin had a northwestern trend with a general
transform-extensional structure, and was characterized by a rapid
subsidence rate, high geothermal gradient and overpressure (Huang
et al., 2005). Strike-slip faulting and mantle lithosphere stretching
controlled the development and formation of the basin. Mud diapirism
and fluid flow structures developed along a series of faults (Xie et al.,
2001).
3. First hydrocarbon seepage inventory
We surveyed the Chinese scientific literatures that documented
hydrocarbon seepage phenomena from a total of 67 peer-reviewed ar-
ticles and reports. The survey resulted in a first inventory of 932 hy-
drocarbon seeps or seepage areas (Table 1), including 710 onshore
seeps and 222 offshore seeps. Onshore hydrocarbon seeps include 26
mud volcanoes, 449 oil seeps, 48 gas seeps, and 187 solid seeps (bi-
tumen outcrops), while offshore hydrocarbon seeps contain 55 mud
volcanoes and 167 gas seeps.
Some articles did not report the exact number of individual seeps,
but only the number of seepage areas, which may host multiple
G. Zheng et al.
individual seeps whose number is unknown. For a better description of
the inventory, six main regions were classified considering the natural
geographical conditions, tectonic settings of Chinese continent and
surrounding marine areas, the similarities and difference of petroleum
systems, and history of oil and gas exploration and development
throughout China (Chen et al., 1986; Deng et al., 2003; Jia, 2012),
including the regions of Northwest China, Qinghai-Tibet, Northeast
China, North China, South China, and South China Sea (Fig. 1). These
six regions host more than 20 basins as described in the previous
chapter. Seepage locations and data source are summarized as follows.
3.1. Northwest China
Since the beginning of oil-gas exploration at the end of the 19th
century, more than 200 oil and gas seeps have been discovered in the
Junggar Basin (ECPGX, 1996). Oil seeps mainly occur along the
piedmont fault zone of the Tianshan Mountain and near the surface of
the unconformity at the southern margin of the Junggar Basin, like in
the Heiyoushan (Fig. 2a), Dushanzi (Fig. 2b), Wuerhe, Santai, Tuositai,
Qingshuihe, and Guangyuan areas (Zhang et al., 1988; He, 1989; Yu,
2016). Several anticlines in southern part of the basin were formed
mainly by the strong northward thrusting of the Tianshan Mountains
that were geologically composed of three sub-parallel fold-and-thrust
belts. In the Heiyoushan area, there are 8 small oil pools exposed at the
surface (Huo et al., 2013). Oil seeps still keep overflowing without
condensation in any season. Gas seeps are mainly distributed at the
fold-and-thrust belts in the southern margin of the basin, such as the
Sikeshu area, Dushanzi district (Wu et al., 2002a; Yu, 2016). These gas
seeps form either bubble plumes or flames. Natural bituminous veins
are widely exposed at the surface of the Wuerhe (Fig. 2c) and
Heiyoushan areas (Wu et al., 2002b; Huo et al., 2013). The Himalaya
Movement led to the overall uplift of the basin and subsequently re-
sulted in the destruction of reservoirs (Wu et al., 2002a). Mud volca-
noes occur in the localities of the Anjihai town, Dushanzi district, Ai-
qigou and Baiyanggou town (Fig. 2d–f). These mud volcanoes are
mainly developed along the central axis of the anticlines where some
normal faults existed, which provide suitable pathways for the migra-
tion of hydrocarbons, water and mud. In the Dushanzi mud volcano,
natural gas erupted from the vents has a relatively high content of
methane that can be easily ignited and produced flames up to one meter
in height. The gas is thermogenic, stemming from reservoirs about
3600 m deep (Nakada et al., 2011).
In the Tarim Basin, oil seepage zones have been discovered in
Ruoqiang and Awati County. In Ruoqiang County, several oil seeps
have been documented along the valley of the Ruoqiang River. Crude
oil is overflowing from the Quaternary sandstone (You, 2005). In Awat
County, the Wuluqiao oil seeps have been found along the structural
zone of the Wuluqiao fault at the southern Awati Depression (Lu et al.,
2008). Gas seeps are mainly distributed in the Kuqa depression, in-
cluding Shaya, Kuqa and Luntai Counties (Huo et al., 2013). Solid seeps
(Silurian bitumen) are instead widely distributed in the Tazhong and
Keping uplifts characterized by intense folding and faulting (Lu et al.,
1997; Zhang et al., 2007). In addition to visible seeps, it is worth noting
that invisible microseepage of thermogenic gas has been documented in
the faulted sectors of the Yakela and Dawanqi oil/gas fields; the diffuse
seepage is higher in correspondence with shallow and more pressurized
(unexploited) reservoirs (Tang et al., 2007, 2008, 2010, 2017).
3.2. Qinghai-Tibet
In the Qaidam Basin, several types of hydrocarbon seeps have been
discovered, such as oil seeps, bitumen sites and one mud volcano (Liu
et al., 2006b, 2012). Because of excessive uplift, the reservoirs were
exposed to the ground surface in the northwest of Altun slope area,
which caused the destruction of the oil reservoirs and formation of
bitumen, such as ones at Ganchaigou and Shiyougou areas (ECPGQ,
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284
1990). Oil seeps are mainly distributed in the Mangya Depression and
the Delhi Depression, including the Ganchaigou, Xianshuiquan, Hon-
ggouzi, Youquanzi, Youshashan and Delhi areas (ECPGQ, 1990). In
Ganchaigou area, oil soaked conglomerate and black bitumen are ex-
posed at the surface. In Youshashan area, the exposed oil soaked
sandstone has a thickness of 158 m, covering an area of 5 km2. In the
Youquanzi, bitumen and paraffin fill fractures in the rocks, and liquid
bitumen still keeps discharging along the fault zone (Liu et al., 2006b).
In the Delhi area, bitumen occurs within fractures of thick Carboni-
ferous outcrops (Carboniferous Huaitoutala Formation; Liu et al.,
2012). The Tatalin River mud volcano is located at the upstream of the
Tatalin River. Gas vents are mainly distributed along the Dachaidan-
Tuosu Lake fault zone, indicating the control action of faults (Yao et al.,
2016).
The Yumen oilfield in the Jiuxi Basin is the cradle of China's oil
industry. The Laojunmiao oilfield was discovered after drilling around
the oil seeps in the Laojunmiao area. Meanwhile, oil seeps were also
found in the Shiyougou, Baiyanghe and Yaerxia areas. In Shiyougou,
crude oil oozed from the outcrops of the eastern part of Shiyougou
anticline (ECPGY, 1989). The Qilian Mountains over-thrust nappe fault
and the Altyn Tagh fault zone controlled the deformation of the Jiuxi
Basin (Chen et al., 2001).
Since the first reports of oil seeps in 1943, a total of 48 oil seeps and
bitumen have been found during field investigations in the Minhe
Basin (ECPGQ, 1990; Shi et al., 2009). These seeps are mainly dis-
tributed along the northeastern margin of Bazhou Depression and
western edge of Zhoujiatai Uplift, like the seeps in the area of Minhe,
Haishiwan, Honggu, Machangyuan and Yaojie. In the Honggu district,
oil seeps occur along the southern bank of the Datong River (Fig. 2g),
and bitumen are widely distributed on the joint surface of sandstone
along the eastern bank of the Datong River. Two sites of oil spring are
discovered at Lamaguo and Yaoshuiquan where crude oil oozes from
metamorphic rocks (ECPGQ, 1990).
In the Qiangtang Basin, oil seeps are mainly located in corre-
spondence with slope zones and faults zones (Zhao and Li, 2000). A
huge system of oil pools along a fault, exceeding 100 km in length, is
reported on the Long’eni anticline structure in the southern depression
(Wang and Wang, 1998; Wang et al., 2001). Evidence of oil migration
was found in six layers at the depth of 221–700 m after drilling near the
pool. The oil seeps can be ignited forming flames about 60 cm high
(Guo et al., 2008). In addition, four liquid oil seeps have also been
discovered near the 114 Road maintenance squad of Qinghai-Tibet
highway and Bilongcuo-Angdaercuo region (Tan et al., 2002; Wu et al.,
2005). In 2009, Gemucuo mud volcano was discovered in the central
Qiangtang which was clearly formed as a consequence of diapirism and
faulting (Xie et al., 2009; Fu et al., 2015), and bituminous veins were
observed in the ejected material. The distributions of vents are sig-
nificantly controlled by tectonic faulting (Xie et al., 2009).
Since the first bituminous vein was discovered in 1951, a total of 54
surface hydrocarbon seeps including 15 oil seeps, 13 gas seeps and 26
bituminous veins have been reported in the Lunpola Basin and its
surrounding areas (ECPGQ, 1990; Luo, 1993). Due to the intensive
uplifting and denudation, some oil-gas reservoirs are damaged at the
southern slope belt and northern nappe structural zone (Luo, 1993).
These hydrocarbon seeps are mainly derived from the Oligocene-Early
Miocene Dingqinghu Formation (E3-N1d) and Eocene Niubao Formation
(E2n), and distributed along the south slope zone and the north nappe
belt, such as Niubao, Changshan and Hongxingliang areas (ECPGQ,
1990).
3.3. Northeast China
In the northeast China, oil and gas seeps are relatively less nu-
merous compared with other areas. In the Songliao Basin, oil seeps and
bitumen are discovered in the Gaoyou Depression, Jiangdu Depression,
including Fuxin City, Yixian County, Antu County, and Longjiang area
G. Zheng et al.
(ECPGD, 1993; Liu et al., 2001; Huo et al., 2013). In the Longjiang area,
surface oil seeps have been reported in the outcrops of Carboniferous-
Permian sequences, and bitumen was observed in the cracks of silt-
stone-packstone and carbonate rocks (Liu et al., 2001).
The Erlian Basin, at the edge of the fault depressions, hosts some
areas with several bituminous seeps, such as Badalahu, Bayindulan, and
Jiergalangtu depressions. Intensive tectonic reforming actions due to
tectonic movements since the Early Cretaceous resulted in the de-
struction of palaeo-reservoirs at the edge of the fault depressions,
especially in the Badahu area (Dou et al., 1995; ECPGH, 1988).
3.4. North China
As early as in the East Han dynasty (25–220 CE), oil seeps known as
“Gaolu oil-seeps” had been discovered along the Qingjianhe River on
the loess plateau of the Ordos Basin. Many shallow wells have been
drilled around these oil seeps since 1907 (Yang et al., 2004b). Since the
Late Paleozoic era, the basin has experienced little faulting and folding
so that only a few anticlinal traps were developed (Dai et al., 2005). Oil
seeps and bitumen are also reported in Shanbei area, such as Yan’an
and Yulin cities. Crude oil leaks from the fractures of the sandstone on
the bed of the Yanhe River (Fig. 2h). The initial exploration of Yan-
chang Oilfield was conducted by means of seeking these oil seeps (Yao
et al., 2007; Huo et al., 2013). In addition, oil seeps are also found in
the Dongsheng, Shilou outcrops in eastern part of the basin. The crude
oil has a relatively low density and discharges with a flux of 20 liters
per day (Hu et al., 1998).
In the Bohai Bay Basin, the phenomenon of spontaneous combus-
tion of oil and gas was recorded as early as in 1777 (ECPGD, 1991).
According to the early fieldwork, oil seeps and bitumen were dis-
covered in the outcrops of Middle-Upper Proterozoic and Paleozoic
strata in the northern part of the basin (ECPGH, 1988; ECPGSL, 1993).
For example, liquid oil seeps could be observed in the cracks of Ordo-
vician limestone at the Fangezhuang area (Kan and Zhui, 1997). In
addition, a significant work about the relationship between near-sur-
face seepage and oil/gas pools was performed by Zhang et al. (2014) in
the southern slope of the Dongying depression. It was demonstrated
that the seepage displayed a string-bead shaped pattern and was dis-
tributed along faults, and the microseepage anomalies were ring-
shaped, coinciding with oil/gas pools, sand bodies or traps (Zhang
et al., 2014).
In the Subei Basin, a large number of hydrocarbon seeps have been
discovered in the Paleozoic-Mesozoic marine strata since 1950. A total
of 11 oil seeps and 17 surface bitumen sites are documented in the
Gaoyou sag and along the Jiangdu Uplift. Oil seeps are mainly in the
Permian-Triassic strata, and bitumen occurs in the Cambrian strata (Xu
and Wang, 2008; Li et al., 2011). In addition, the Jinshan mud volcano
occurs in Liyang City, southern Jiangsu Province. Dozens of vents with
intermittent gas release are distributed on the flanks of the mud volcano
(Zhong, 2010).
3.5. South China
In the Sichuan Basin, oil seeps and bitumen mainly occur in the
Longmenshan area, Changling-Longwanggou area, Dabashan piedmont
structural belt, and some coal mines (Zhang et al., 2009; Jiang et al.,
2010; Duan et al., 2016). At Nantong Coal Mine, oil seeps ooze from the
cracks of limestone of Permian Chongxing Group (Li et al., 1993). At
Moxinpo Coal Mine, yellow greenish oil seeps were discovered in fis-
sures of Maokou limestone. Nearly 40 tons of crude oil have been dis-
charged from the cracks since oil seeps were found in 2008 (Liu et al.,
2010). In Guangyuan area, many oil seeps and solid bitumen exist on
the Changjianggou section (Rao et al., 2008). In addition, bituminous
veins occur in the Kuangshanliang and Yuanba area of northwestern
Sichuan Basin (Huang and Wang, 2008). The Qujiang mud volcano,
characterized by strong gas eruptions, occurs along the bank of Jialing
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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284
River in the Dazhou area (Chen, 1946). Gas seeps are mainly distributed
in the Qionglai, Zigong, Fushun and Pengxi areas, mostly along the
Longmen Mountain, Xiongpo, and Longquanshan fault zones (ECPGSC,
1993; Huo et al., 2013). A large number of gas seeps were also found in
rivers near the Lower Triassic Jialingjiang Formation outcrops of the
Weiyuan Structure (Liang et al., 2016). In addition, because of tectonic
uplift and active faults, natural gases migrated to the surface along
faults in the Dabashan orogenic belt and Jiangnan orogenic belt (Duan
et al., 2016). In the Shuiyandangcun village, the intense methane see-
page is manifested by gas burning that produces impressive flames
(Fig. 2i). The phenomenon is so renowned that the Shuiyandangcun
village has the nickname of “Invisible Fire Village” (Brady, 2014).
A larger number of oil seeps, gas seeps and solid (bitumen) seeps
have been reported in some small and medium size basins along the
paleo-uplift and paleo-slope in Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Hubei
Provinces (Li et al., 2011; Huo et al., 2013), like the Chuxiong Basin,
Jianghan Basin and Youjiang Basin. Because of the multiple tectonic
movements, such as the Caledonian Movement and the Yanshan (Jur-
assic-Cretaceous) Movement, some marine hydrocarbon reservoirs in
southern China were destroyed, with subsequent oil and gas seeps ex-
posing on the surface (Huo et al., 2013). Overall, oil and gas seeps are
mainly distributed in the Triassic and upper Paleozoic outcrops, and
bituminous veins mainly occur in the Lower Paleozoic strata (Li et al.,
2011). There are 18 oil seeps, 4 gas seeps and 49 bitumen in the
Chuxiong Basin, Youjiang Basin and some other small size basins.
The seeps are mainly distributed in the Guizhong Depression, Huaning-
Qujing, Jurong-Anhai, Kaili-Shiqian and Majiang-Doujun areas (Peng
et al., 2009; Li et al., 2011). In the Jianghan Basin and its surrounding
areas (including the Middle Yangtze region), a total of 34 oil seeps, 7
gas seeps and 35 bitumen sites have been discovered in joints of shale
and carbonates. These seeps are mainly located at the Huangling uplift
belt, Lixian depression, and Chenhu-Tuditang double synclines (Mei
and Fei, 1992).
3.6. South China Sea
In the Southwest Taiwan Basin, gas seepages, including many mud
volcanoes, are widely distributed in both onshore (Shih, 1967; Wang
and Wang, 1998; Yang et al., 2004b; Sun et al., 2010b) and offshore
areas (Liu et al., 1997; Chow et al., 2001; Chiu et al., 2006). Several
submarine mud volcanoes occur on both the accretionary wedge and
the passive continental margin, which are always associated with either
diapiric ridges, faults and fractures, or gas hydrates (Chiu et al., 2006).
There are 64 mud volcanoes in 17 onshore areas according to Shih
(1967), and 12 of them were still active when Yang et al. (2004b) re-
visited the sites. These active mud volcanoes mainly occur along five
tectonic zones: Chu-kou Fault zone, Gu-ting-keng anticline zone, Chi-
shan Fault zone, Coastal Plain zone, and southern Coastal Range zone.
Based on their geomorphologic shapes, these mud volcanoes can be
classified into five types: (1) mud pool (Chung-lun, Da-kung-shuei,
Yang-nyu-hu and Yan-chao); (2) mud shield (Hsiao-kung-shuei, Hsin-
yang-nyu-hu, Gung-shuei-ping, Li-yu-shan and Diang-kuang); (3) mud
cones (Wu-shan-ding) (Fig. 2j); (4) mud maar (Luo-shand); (5) muddy
hot spring (Kuan-tze-ling). In addition, other five active mud volcanoes
are reported by Sun et al. (2010b): Choshuitan, Siaochoshuitan, Yen-
shuikeng, Lungchuanwo and Tadishan. Gas seepages, including “eternal
fires”, are then reported at Suei-huo-tong-yuan (Fig. 2k), Chu-huo
(Fig. 2l), and Wu-yuan, which are characterized by everlasting fires.
Considerable amount of natural gases are released from these onshore
seeps, as documented by several flux measurement surveys (Yang et al.,
2004b; Hong et al., 2013). Offshore mud volcanoes are primarily dis-
tributed in the deeper water area of the depression slope in the southern
region of the basin. Chiu et al. (2006) reported 50 mud volcanoes in the
coastal zone of Kaohsiung, along the submarine canyons near Kaoping
and Fangliao, and along the linear structural zone of Yongan. These
submarine mud volcanoes could be related to mud diapiric activities,
G. Zheng et al.
gas hydrate dissociation or the rising of high-pressure fluids along faults
and fractures (Chiu et al., 2006).
In the offshore Pearl River Mouth Basin, subsurface fluid flow
structures, including mud diapirs and gas chimneys were recognized
with thanks to geophysical methods (Sun et al., 2012; Li et al., 2013;
Geng et al., 2014). A 3D model of fluid migration was proposed in the
south-central part of the basin, which recognizes two main fluid flow
systems: a deep system (mud volcanoes, mud diapirs, pipes and large
faults), controlled by the basement highs and over-pressure, and a
shallow fluid flow system (minor faults, canyons, mass transport de-
posits, gas hydrate, and pockmarks), controlled by stratigraphy and
over-pressure that is transferred from deep fluid flow pathways (Sun
et al., 2012).
In the offshore Qiongdongnan Basin, some fluid manifestations
and pathways, such as pockmarks, gas chimneys and polygonal faults,
were identified by interpreting high-resolution 2D and 3D seismic data,
(Wang et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2010a). A big pockmark with a diameter
of about 860 m was discovered in water depth about 1376 m and a
small mud volcano was also identified in this pockmark. The gas is most
likely thermogenic, from the petroleum system within the deeply
buried syn-rift sediments (Wang et al., 2008).
The offshore Yinggehai Basin hosts numerous gas seeps in a rela-
tively large near-shore area, extending about 100 km along the west to
southeast coasts of the Hainan Island. About 120 gas vents were esti-
mated at water depths usually less than 50 m (Huang et al., 2009).
These vents are distributed mainly in the Lingtou Promontory, the
Yinggehai Rivulet Mouth, Yazhou Bay, the Nanshan Promontory and
the Tianya Promontory (Huang and Zhang, 1992; Huang et al., 2009).
In addition, gas chimneys and characteristic pockmarks were also dis-
covered during geological surveys of the shallow seafloor around mud
diapirs (He et al., 2000, 2017; Paull et al., 2008), where many types of
natural gas reservoirs were identified (Wang and Huang, 2008).
4. Discussion
4.1. Types of hydrocarbon seepage and comparison with global seep data-
sets
Fig. 3 shows the relative proportion of the several types of hydro-
carbon seeps reported in our inventory. Oil seeps, accounting for 48%,
represent the more common (or more documented) type of seepage in
China. Most of them (200) are located in the Junggar Basin. These oil
seeps are mainly in the form of black oil-filled pools, oil drops, oily
patches and oil-impregnated terrains. Oil leaks in vents of mud volca-
noes are considered as an integral part of the mud volcano seepage
system, so they are not considered as independent oil seeps in the in-
ventory. Oil exposed to the atmosphere can be altered, because of
oxidation and biodegradation, and transformed into bitumen. Solid
seeps account for 20% of total seeps.
Fig. 3. Relative proportion of the several types of seepage in China.
280
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284
Gas seeps (dry gas vents and bubble plumes) account for 23% of the
Chinese seep inventory. They occur mainly in the Lunpola Basin, the
Sichuan Basin, and the southern part of China including the continental
margin of the northern South China Sea, where natural gas is exploited
from the Eocene lacustrine sequences, Eocene and Oligocene marine
rocks, and Paleozoic-Mesozoic marine strata (Gu et al., 1999; Huang
et al., 2002; Li et al., 2011).
Mud volcanoes, as expected, are associated to basins (Junggar,
Qaidam, Qiangtang, Subei and Sichuan) with sedimentary gravitative
instability, due to the low density of shales that can be buoyant in the
surrounding rocks.
The 523 onshore fluid seeps (oil, gas and mud volcanoes) of our
inventory represent a large addition to the existing global onshore seep
data-sets, which reported only few seeps from China (CGG, 2015;
Etiope, 2015). In comparison to the data reported in the 2015 CGG
data-base (CGG, 2015), it appears that there are more documented
seeps in China than in North America (483 seeps), Central-South
America (143), Africa (41) and Oceania (93). Europe, including Azer-
baijan, has 1091 documented seeps. Therefore, China would be the
country in the world with the largest number of seeps. The information
reported in the 67 Chinese papers we surveyed warrants further careful
analysis and needs confirmation by field investigation.
4.2. Structural control of hydrocarbon seepage
The reasons for the massive hydrocarbon seepage in China should
be searched into the intense and multiple tectonic events that, from
Mesozoic to Quaternary, deformed the southeastern corner of the
Eurasian Plate (Deng et al., 2003). For example, the Jurassic “Yanshan
Movement”, the large orogenic event that caused massive faulting
(Dong et al., 2008) deformed all major Paleozoic basins and, likely, set
the structural conditions for widespread seepage systems in the Meso-
zoic-Cenozoic petroleum systems (e.g., Li et al., 2011). In addition, the
more recent and diffuse basin uplifts such as the northwestern and
southern margin of the Junggar Basin, the northwestern part of the
Tarim Basin may have fractured shallower seals and cap rocks leading
to the seepage of younger petroleum systems (He, 1989; Wu et al.,
2002a; Zhang et al., 2007). Hydrocarbon seeps occur mainly along re-
gional and/or local faults and fracture zones at the margin of petroli-
ferous basins. We argue that the tectonic activities and related de-
formations may have controlled the escape of hydrocarbons from the
central sectors of the basins to their margins.
As shown in Fig. 4, the occurrence of surface hydrocarbon seeps is
strongly affected by regional and local tectonics (e.g., reverse-faulted
anticline, uplifted margins of basins). In the southern part of the Jian-
ghan Basin, oil and gas seeps occur on the Chenhu-Tuditang syncli-
norium in correspondence with fault systems (Fig. 4a). In the north-
eastern margin of the Sichuan Basin, oil seeps mainly occur along the
Dabashan piedomont thrust belt where many faults developed, and
bitumen scatters along the Dabashan piedomont slip belt (Fig. 4b). The
distribution of these seeps is controlled by progressive deformation
characteristics of Dabashan Mountain from northeast to southwest. In
the northwestern margin of the Junggar Basin, the Himalaya Movement
led to the overall uplift of the basin, the reservoir was exposed to the
ground surface in the Heiyoushan area (Fig. 4c). In the Qaidam Basin,
subsurface reservoirs are damaged by thrust faults within the You-
quanzi area (Fig. 4d). In the southern margin of the Junggar Basin,
some normal faults occur along the central axial of the Dushanzi anti-
cline (Fig. 4e), which provide pathways for the migration and eruption
of hydrocarbons from the subsurface reservoirs, resulting in the for-
mation of the Dushanzi mud volcano.
The marginal faults in almost all basins represent the main seepage
areas. In analogy with marginal faults in petroleum fields in the United
States (e.g., Piceance or Denver-Julesburg basins in Colorado; Klusman
et al., 2000), it is likely that these zones are also characterized by dif-
fuse microseepage, even in absence of macro-seeps. From a
G. Zheng et al.
geographical base, we estimate that the total area of these fault zones
(assuming a lateral fault-zone extension of 1 km) is on the order of 3–4
million km2. This is a first order estimation of the potential area of
microseepage; the actual microseepage area could be significantly
smaller.
5. Conclusions and implications
This work provides the first inventory of hydrocarbon (oil, gas, and
bitumen) seeps and seepage zones in China, so far documented in sparse
Chinese journals and reports. Hydrocarbon seepage appears widely
distributed in all main (20) Chinese onshore and offshore petroliferous
basins: a total of 932 seeps and/or seepage areas, including 745 fluid
seeps (mud volcanoes, oil seeps and gas seeps, of which 523 are on-
shore) and 187 solid (bitumen) seeps have been documented. The in-
ventory does not include gas-bearing springs (freshwater springs),
considered a specific class of seeps in other inventories as they can
contain and release considerable amounts of natural gas (Etiope, 2015).
Additional work shall be made to review or perform geochemical stu-
dies on natural gas dissolved in springs in China.
281
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284
Fig. 4. Examples of relationships between seeps, faults and
anticlines in several Chinese basins. Cross-sections re-
drawn on the basis of Mei and Fei, 1992; Duan et al., 2016
and Huo et al., 2013. a - Chenhu-Tuditang synclinorium
(Jianghan Basin); b - Dabashan piedomont structural belt
(Sichuan Basin); c - Heiyoushan profile (Junggar Basin); d -
Youquanzi anticline (Qaidam Basin); e - Dushanzi anticline
(Junggar Basin). d and e - are schematic tectonic models
(without horizontal scale). The locations of these cross-
sections are shown on Fig. 1. ∊ - Cambrian; O - Ordovician;
S - Silurian; T1 - Lower Triassic; T2 - Middle Triassic; T3 -
Upper Triassic; P1 - Lower Permian; P2 - Middle Permian;
P3 - Upper Permian; J1 - Lower Jurassic; J2 - Middle Jur-
assic; J3 - Upper Jurassic; K - Cretaceous; E - Paleogene; N1
- Miocene; N2 - Pliocene.
Seeps occur mainly along regional and/or local faults and fracture
zones at the margin of petroliferous basins. The seepage is clearly
controlled by brittle deformations produced by the numerous and in-
tense tectonic events of this region. Type and maturity of the petroleum
system determine the type of the seeping fluid (gas or oil), and special
stratigraphic conditions in some sedimentary basins (gravitative in-
stabilities of shales) induce mud volcanism.
Compared to available global onshore seep data-bases, China seems
to be the country in the world with the highest number of seeps. Such a
massive gas seepage could represent a considerable source of methane
to the atmosphere, and a key process that may drive future hydrocarbon
exploration. Hydrocarbon seepage in China deserves, therefore, a sys-
tematic and detailed investigation program.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Prof. D.R Hilton (Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, UCSD) for useful discussions on natural gas in China,
and Prof. D. Fortin (University of Ottawa) for her proof reading of the
manuscript. This study was supported by the National Science and
G. Zheng et al. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 151 (2018) 269–284

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