CNC Setting and

Operation Workbook
City and Guilds Co-publishing Series

City and Guilds of London Institute has a long his tory of providing
assessments and certification to those who have undertaken education and
training in a wide variety of technical subjects or occupational areas. Its
business is essentially to provide an assurance that pre-determined
standards have been met. That activity has grown in importance over the
past few years as government and national bodies strive to create the right
conditions for the steady growth of a skilled and flexible workforce.
Both teachers and learners need materials to support them as they work
towards the attainment of qualifications, and City and Guilds is pleased to
be working with several distinguished publishers towards meeting that
need. It has been closely involved in the planning, author selection and text
appraisal, although the opinions expressed in the publications are those of
the individual authors and are not necessarily those of the Institute.
City and Guilds is fully committed to the projects listed below and is
pleased to commend them to teaching staff, students and their advisers.

Carolyn Andrewand others, Business Administration Level I and Business

Administration Level II, John Murray
Chris Cook, Assessor Workbook, Macmillan
David Minton, Teaching Skills in Further and Adult Education, Macmillan
Graham Morris and Lesley Reveler, Retail Certificate Workbook (Levels 1
and 2), Macmillan
Peter Riley(consultant editor), Computer-aided Engineering, and associated
Workbooks: CNC Setting and Operation; CNC Part Programming;
COlllputer-aided Draughting; Robot Technology; Programmable Logic
COlllrol, Macmillan
Barbara \Vilson, Information Technology: the Basics, Macmillan
Caroline Wilkinson, Information Technology in the Office, Macmillan
CNC Setting and
Operation Workbook

Tom Renshaw
Department of Engineering Technology
Blackpool and The Fylde College

Consultant Editor: Peter Riley

Formerly Head of Department of Engineering
Technology, Blackpool and The Fylde College

M
MACMILLAN
~
C+3
Cityand Guilds
© Tom Renshawand City and Guild~ nf I.ondon Institute 199.+

All rights resen"ed. No reproduetion, copy or transmissinn of

this publieation may be made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publieation may be reprodueed, eopied ur
transmitted save with the written permission or in accordance \\"ith
the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,
or under the terms of any lieenee permitting limited copying
issued by the Copyright Lieensing Ageney, 90 Tottenham Court
Road, London WIP 9HE.
Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this
publieation may be liable to eriminal prosecution and ci\"il
elaims for damages.

First published 1994 by

THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS
and London
Companies and representati\'es
throughout thc world
ISBN 978-1-349-12687-3 ISBN 978-1-349-12685-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-12685-9

A eatalogue record for this book is a\"ailable

from the British Library

Typeset by EXPO Holdings, Malaysia

Acknowledgements

Thanks are duc to the following for perm iss ion to use photographs:
Cincinnati Milaeron (page 3), Norelen (page 16).
Contents

Introduction 1

How to use this book 2

Safety note 3

Learning Assignment 1 Position machine axes 4

Task 1.1 Absolute and ineremental positioning 5
Task 1.2 Cheeking table limits of travel 7
Task 1. 3 Manual positioning of tool in all axes 7

Learning Assignment 2 Methods of guarding 8

Proteeting the operator 8
Proteeting the maehine and/or workpieee 8
Task 2.1 Methods of proteetion on CNC maehines 9
Task 2.2 Operating the maehine Z axis loek 9
Task 2.3 Spindie motor proteetion on a turning eentre 9
Task 2.4 Cheeking interloek guards 10

Learning Assignment 3 Machine datums 11

Task 3.1 Setting maehine to datum position 12
Task 3.2 Re-setting maehine override 12
Task 3.3 Transferring maehine datum to workpieee datum 13
Task 3.4 Component loeation using work eo-ordinates 13

Learning Assignment 4 Work-holding 14

Se1eeting damps 14
Task 4.1 Component setting 15
Task 4.2 Component damping 15

Learning Assignment 5 Ne tooling 17

Task 5.1 Working praetiees 17
Task 5.2 Tool tip seleetion 18
Task 5.3 Tool identifieation 18

Learning Assignment 6 Tool changing 20

Manual tool eh anging 20
Automatie tool ehanging using magazines or earousels 20
Automatie tool ehanging using turrets 20
Task 6.1 Tool seleetion: turning 21
Task 6.2 Tool seleetion: milling 21

Learning Assignment 7 Tool offset facilities: turning 23

Programming information 23
Task 7.1 Setting a tool offset in the X axis 23

Learning Assignment 8 Toollength offsets: milling 25

Methods of tool offset measurement 25
Task 8.1 Setting TLO values manually on a maehine 26
Task 8.2 Set TLO values away from the maehine 26
Learning Assignment 9 Tool setting 27
Pre-setting 28
Setting on the machine (turning) 28
Qualified tooling 28
Task 9.1 Pre-setting tools using a fixture 29
Task 9.2 Pre-setting tools by measurement on machine 29
Tool nose radius compensation (TNRC) 30

Learning Assignment 10 Ne program listing and analysis 31

Task 10.1 Program analysis 32
Task 10.2 Program efficiency 32

Learning Assignment 11 Input, edit and store data 34

Task 11.1 Data storage 34
Task 11.2 Data transfer 35

Learning Assignment 12 Pro gram proving 36

Testing method 1: Dry run 37
Testing method 2: Step through block by block 37
Testing method 3: Graphie simulation 37
Task 12.1 Pro gram proving 38
Task 12.2 Program proving and correction 38

Learning Assignment 13 Tape handling 40

Task 13.1 Tape editing 41
Task 13.2 Tape loading and re-winding 42

Learning Assignment 14 Tape preparation 43

Code standards for punched tape 43
Preparing the paper tape 45
Task 14.1 Tape preparation 45

Glossary 47

Index 49
Introduction

Computer numerical control (CNC) systems and machine tools are

essential elements in many industrial processes. The setting and operation
assignments in this workbook will provide a broad range of practical
experiences which represent a valuable foundation to the successful
application of this technology.
The subject is a diverse one, which frequently involves separate elements
of the CNC manufacturing process. Because of this, practical activities
have been carefully selected to create a comprehensive yet cohesive
programme of study which dosely follows the City and the Guilds
Computer-aided Engineering 230 series CNC Setting and Operation
syllabus. This workbook will also prove to be a useful aid to those studying
standard CNC modules available through the Business and Technology
Education Council (BTEC).
The approach in all the assignments concerns the practical application
of CNC. This ranges from CNC machine setting to program proving and
editing. It is a multi-disciplined technology which demands a multi-skilled
engineer for effective application. The workbook will be particularly
suitable for:
• recently trained engineers wishing to advance to more specialised CN C
and new technology work
• mature, skilIed and experienced engineers who require to update and
enhance their traditional skills with CNC machine tool operation and
applications
• service and maintenance personnel who require to broaden their skills
and knowledge base in response to multi- and inter-disciplinary
developments in CN C technology
• technical trainers and teachers who are see king to acquire new
technology skills in response to changing course demands.
The result of rapid technological advances in industry is that there has never
been a more exciting time to be an engineer. This workbook has been written
for those concerned with sharing and exploiting the benefits that may be
derived from this new technology and its associated working methods.

City and Guilds/Macmillan publishing for

computer-aided engineering
This workbook is one of the series of City and Guilds/Macmillan books
which together give complete and up-to-date coverage of computer-aided
engineering. A core text, or source book (Colllplller-aided Engineering),
gives basic information on all the main topic areas (basic CNC; CNC
setting and operation; CNC part programming; CNC advanced part
programming; basic CAD/CAM; computer-aided draughting; advanced
CAD; basic robotics; robot technology; programmable logic controllers;
more advanced programmable logic controllers). It has tasks structured in
to the text to encourage active learning.
Workbooks cover five main topics: CNC setting and operation; CNC
part programming; computer-aided draughting; robot technology;
programmable logic controllers. Each workbook indudes all the
operational information and guidance needed to be able to complete the
practical assignments and tasks.
The books complement each other but can be used independently.
Petcr Riley (formerly Head of Department of Engineering Technology,
Blackpool and The Fylde College) is Consultant Editor of the series.
 How to use this book

Each learning assignment in this workbook has a similar structure, to make

its use as straightforward as possible. Information and guidance that is
needed to be able to complete the practical work is included in each
assignment.
You will be able to identify the following parts of the text:
• Background information introducing the topic at the beginning of each
assignment.
• Other relevant knowledge given under the heading 'Additional
information' .
• In the sections 'Useful observations' you will find points which will help
you in becoming familiar with the process and in exploring ways in
which it can be used.
• The practical 'Tasks' are represented in a logical sequence so that they
can be accomplished safely and successfully. In many cases 'Additional
tasks' are included to reinforce and enhance the basic practical work.
• If there is information of particular interest concerning the practical
tasks, you will find this under the heading 'A point to note' or 'Points to
note'.
All the diagrams and illustrations which are needed for each assignment are
given at the appropriate point in the text.
You are recommended to obtain a folder in which to keep work you have
completed. This will serve as arecord of your achievements and may be
useful for future reference.

2
Safety note

The tasks in this workbook are mainly designed for metal-cutting turning
centres (Figure A) and machining centres (Figure B). The general
principles and the skills you will acquire should, in general, be transferable
to all types of CNC machines.
All the tasks in this workbook are structured in such a way that you will
never be required to run a machine vvithout the use of machine and tool
guards, together with all the other recognised safety precautions. You must
never operate a machine without supervision by qualified personnel. If you
notice any defect during operation, you must report it immediately to your
supervisor.
Before operating any machine tool, you should make sure that all
services and functions are in working order. It is the duty of everyone
concerned with the production process, particularly the setter/operator, to
check the machine regularly, and to folio\\' the routine maintenance
schedule as a minimum requirement. The following should always be
checked:
• the pneumatic system for recommended pressure, adequate lubrication
and clean filters
• the hydraulic system for recommended pressure, reservoir levels and
adequate lubrication
• that the machine is clean and free from swarf build-up, and that the
correct type and quantity of coolant is being used.
Before you operate any machine, you must be fully aware of emergency
conditions. You IIll/sl also be able to shut down the machine if an
emergency does happen.

.... Figure A Turning centre

• Figure B Machining centre • Figure C CNC machine control panel

3
Learning Assignment 1
Position machine axes
To identify and control the relative movements of tools and workpiece
when programming CNC machines, it is necessary to define the possible
planes of movement. Each of these planes is defined by using any two of
the three axes, X, Y and Z (Figure 1.1). They are generally recognised as:
• the X, Y horizontal plane
• the X, Z vertical plane
... Figure 1.1 Machine axes • the Y, Z vertical plane .

-Y
~

y~ Y~
z
X. Y plane x 2 plane Y Z plane

To control tool and component movement safely and effectively on a

CNC machine, you have to understand the standard nomenc1ature for the
machine axes. The standard used is the right-hand Cartesian co-ordinate
system.
The rule shown in Figure 1.2 is used to orientate the machine axes to
this co-ordinate system. Their positions on a turning machine are shown in
Figure 1.3, and those on a milling machine in Figure 1.4. Notice that a
positive direction of movement of a component on a machine is one that
causes an increasing positive dimension in the workpiece.
Movements within these three main axes are defined by tool/spindle
movement, even if in practice it is the machine table that moves.

)_.+X
+X
+2

~ Figure 1.2 Right-handed Cartesian

co-ordinate system. A positive direction
of movement of a component of a
machine is one that causes an increasing
positive dimension on the workpiece.

4
 x- ~ culting tool

__+----,lL,-------+_ Z +

x, Z zero pOint
\ wor k'
piece

.... Figure 1.3 Cartesian co-ordinate system:

turning (two axes)

X-----~~---.~X~+~----------"
y-

x, Y, Z zero point
Z-
.... Figure 1.4 Cartesian co-ordinate system:
milling (three axes)

Task 1.1 Absolute and in cremen tal positioning USEFUL OBSERVATION

The locations of the following five points on the grid in Figure 1.5 are Positioning about the three axes may be
given from the datum 0,0: either by absolute co-ordinates (when
position 1 80/50 aU dimensions and further movements
position 2 10/10 are taken from a datum position) or
position 3 30/40 incremental co-ordinates (aU dimen-
position 4 60/20 sions and further movements are taken
position 5 90/0 from the current position).
Using absolute dimensioning, tool move-
ment in the -X (negative) direction and
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 in the -Z (negative) direction will reduce
60 the size ofthe bar (Figure 1.3).
50
40 ___________ 3 ____________________________
30
20 _________________________ 4 _________________

10 2 ________________________________________

o ___________________________________ 5 _____

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
.... Figure 1.5

First, complete Figure 1.6 by placing the relevant co-ordinates in the

table. (You will notice the irrelevance of stating the 'From' position
when you are using absolute positioning.)

5
 From To Absolute Incremental
position position co-ordinate co-ordinate

datum 1

1 2

2 3

3 4

~ Figure 1.6
4 5

position 1 30120
position 2 -401-20
position 3 -20/10
position 4 10/-10
position 5 401-30

-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

30
20 1
10 3
0
-10 4
-20 -- 2
-30 5- -
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
~ Figure 1.7

N ow, with the datum transferred to the centre of the grid (Figure 1. 7),
complete the table in Figure 1.8. (Notice the significance of the positive
and negative signs in the chart.)

From To Absolute Incremental

position position co-ordinate co-ordinate

datum 1

1 2

2 3

3 4

4 5
~ Figure 1.8

Before operating a CNC machine, you first need to set it to its own datum
position. This allows the part program to be written with a datum point
relevant to the component. The position of this work datum relative to
the machine datum can then be entered into the machine control. You
will need to know the limits of travel in all three machine axes, so as to be
able to select and position the work within the capacity of the machine.
Always keep in mind the following safety rules:
• machines must not be operated without qualified supervision
• guards must be in position and all interlock switches operative
• machine parameters must only be set by qualified personnel
• when cutting metal you may not be fully protected by guards; you mUSl
wear goggles.

6
 Task 1.2 Checking table limits of travel
With the machine positioned at its datum, in manual mode and with
the positional axes of the machine control unit (MCU) set to zero,
move the machine in all axes through their maximum limits of travel.
Note the distances moved by referring to the MCU readouts.

Task 1.3 Manual positioning of tool in all axes

Whilst still in manual mode and with the spindIe set at a safe Z
position, move the table to position the tool spindIe at the locations
used in Task 1.1.

Additional information
CNC machines mayaiso have a number of rotary axes (Figure 1.9),
together with controlled movements of the machine table and tools about
these axes. These machines can not only produce more complex
component shapes, but also produce components using fewer set-ups.
These developments, together with the introduction of multiple spindies
and driven tooling on turning centres, have greatly enhanced the
capabilities of CNC machines.

~ Figure 1.9 Axes of rotary motion

+Y

~B~
+X,+Yor+Z
+X

c~
+Z

+Y

+8

r - - - - c r l - - ' - - - +X

+A

+Z

zero directions of rotary motions A, 8 and C

7
Learning Assignment 2
Methods of guarding
The guard devices on CNC machines have three purposes:
• to protect the operator
• to protect the machine
• to protect the workpiece.
All operators must be thoroughly familiar with the safe running of all the
machines in their area. As the setter/operator, it is also your responsibility
to maintain safety within the working area by keeping the area clean and
easily accessible.

Protecting the operator

Door interlocks are switches which, when activated, break an electrical
circuit, usually stopping the machine immediately. They are normally
fitted to observation panels and doors. If it is not necessary to stop the
machine but only to give warnings that thc doors have been opened, the
interlock switches may be connected to alarm beils or flashing lights
(Figure 2.1).
All observation panels are made from reinforced material which is
able to withstand impact. They must be in place whenever the machine
tool is working, and if they show the slightest defect they must be
immediately replaced.
The programming protocol is itself a guarding method. Both the
setter/operator and the part programm er must be fully aware of all the
programming functions that affect the operation of the machine. For
example, it would be dangerous and unacceptable to use dweil codes
instead of operation stop functions. Should the program be suddenly
re-activated and the machine start into motion unexpectedly, someone
nearby could be badly hurt.
The recommended protective c10thing must be worn at all times.
Exactly what is recommended depends upon the workpiece material, the
cutting conditions and the working environment.

Protecting the machine andlor workpiece

Overload proteetion is often provided for machine drives, by fitting
sensors to the main motors. In the event of an overload, the machine stops
immediately.
Restrictions on tool travel can be set so that cutting tools are
prevented from entering certain parts of the working area. These restricted
zones may be used to protect the workpiece or the tool.
Clamping sensors, fitted into automatic clamps, signal the MCU that
clamps are closed before cutting can take place. These or similar sensors
may be used to indicate the presence of a component.
Robot and work-handling sensors monitor the operational condition,
the position of dedicated robot arms and similar equipment, and relay this
information to the MCU.
The work table and/or spindIe drive are automatically slowed down
as limits are reached.
Guards are positioned to protect machine slideways and measuring
... Figure 2.2 Swarf guard devices from swarf (Figure 2.2) .

8
Additional information
With any guarding method, there is a conflict between total protection and
reasonable accessibility. Everyone in the machine industry, from designers
to operators, must always be aware of the dangers to people and machines
from rotating tools, workpieces and materials used, especially because a
small adjustment lo an element setting or operation may radically alter
some other part of the process.

Task 2.1 Methods of protection on CNC machines

On machines available to you, identify the methods of protection
listed in the table (Figure 2.3) and note the type and position of each.
Also draw a simple line diagram indicating the position and use of
each device.

... Figure 2.3

Protection Pos ition and operation

Turnlng centre Machining centre

Interlocks

Slideways

Spindies

Machine isolators

Emergency stops

Air pressure

Oilleveis

Limit switches

Proximity switches

Task 2.2 Operating the machine Z axis lock A POINT TO i OTE

If a machining program requires sev-
Using a CNC machining centre, load a small program containing eral cuts at various Z levels, you can
several moves in the Z plane. Run the program with the Z lock prove the profiling elements of the
operating. Then run it with the Z lock switched off. (Note: the test program without the relevant move-
program must run weil c1ear of the table, c1amps and so on.) ments in the Z plane.

Task 2.3 Spindie motor protection on a turning

centre
Set the spindIe protection sensors (if fitted) to maximum protection
setting. Fix a test bar stock in the chuck jaws. Then set the machine A POINT TO NOTE
for a light cut and automatically feed the cutting tool towards the test Modem CNC machines are often
workpiece. When the tool touches the workpiece, the machine feed fitted with 'adaptive control' sensing
device . One type protects the spin-
will stop. The lOol will not cut into the workpiece at all. This shows
die motor from overload by monitor-
that the sensors may be set to a very low cutting force value. This ing and controlling the associated
setting value may be used either to protect the lOol against damage, or motor torque.
to protect the motor drives in the event of overload conditions.

9
 Task 2.4 Checking interlock guards
Load and run a machine with a demonstration program. During
operation of the program, open the interlock-protected guards to test
each switch in turn. (You do not need to use cutting tools or a
workpiece for this task.)

You must be familiar with the procedures for machine re-start after
emergency shutdown before you begin this task. Make sure that all offsets
are correctly cancelled or re-set, and that the tools used are in the right
location and sequence for operation.

10
Learning Assignment 3
Machine datums
Part programs used to machine components on CNC machines are written
using co-ordinate dimensions taken from the component datum. When the
component is placed on a maehine, thc position of this datum needs to be
loeated and entered into the MCU. This is aehieved by eomparing the
eomponent datum with the machine datum so that the MCU ean eompute
the co-ordinate values between the two positions. This must be done
before maehining ean begin. The fixed maehine datum position is set
using mieroswitehes and positional eneoders loeated on eaeh of the
maehine's movable axes. Setting is usually earried out by an automatie A POINT TO NOTE
setting routine whieh moves the table, spindie or turret away from its A machine datum on the Z axis is
loeation and then aeeurately re-positions it. This routine must be earried usually located within the spindIe.
out every time the maehine is switehed on.

X,Y datum machine table

~
c. ~
/
"V
machine
spindie

spIndie
datum

'-- cutter
spindie datum on a vertlcal table datum on a vertlcal
milling machine milling machine (plan view)

chuck
machine
spindie

J spindie
datum

spindie and turret datums on turning centres

..... Figure 3.1 CNC machine spindie. table
and turret datums

Eaeh faee of a turret must have its own datum position, but these all
eoineide when indexed into the working position.
When tools or workpieces are plaeed into their respeetive holding
positions, maehine datums are often ineonvenient for programming. These
datums ean be transferred to more easily usable positions sueh as the tip of
the tool or the end of the bar. This may be done either by inc1uding these
transfer values in the set-up ea1culations, or by the use of toollength
offsets within the part program.

11
 turre!

spIndie
lurret datum

tool-holder

cutllng
1001

/
datum effecllvely
lranslerred to tool tip
datum effectively transfer red 10
cutter lip by 1001 length ollset lacility
within program
turning lools milling cutters
~ Figure 3.2 Datum transfer

Task 3.1 settmg mach'me to datum posItIOn

Switch on the machine. Note that machine datums are not set. With
the table or turret placed in a randomly chosen position away from
the machine datum, zero the readout display on the controller for all
the axes. Move the machine in all programmable axes to set the axes
to zero datum positions. Use automatie setting routines if these are
available. Note the direction and amount of movement in each axis,
and practise recording this by completing the chart in Figure 3.3.
Observe the rate of travel as the moving machine elements approach
their datum positions.

Movement - (table/tool)
Machine tool Axis
Signed direction Amount

~ Figure 3.3

Task 3.2 Re-setting machine override

Now set the machine to manual mode and move each machine
element past the limit switches in each plane of movement.
In each case note the error code genera ted and the procedures
required to re-set each axis.

Additional information
The position of a component datum point relative to a machine datum
may be set within the work co-ordinate system of component location.
This enables the component to be accurately located by using the
appropriate preparatory function code. Look, for example, at the part
program in Program 3A, and then at Program 3B, which is the same

~ ProgrlUIl 3A
04545
N5 GOO G90 G71 G94 G80 G49
NIO G92 X-345.0 Y234.0 Z123.0
N15 T06 M06
N20 G44 H06
N25 S2340 M03
N30 GOO XO.O YO.O Zl.O

12
 04545
N5 GOO G90 G71 G94 G80 G49
N10 T06 M06
N15 G44 H06
N20 S2340 M03
N25 G55
N30 GOO XO.O YO.O Zl.O .... Program3B

program using work co-ordinate settings. Notice that block N10 in

Pro gram 3A is not required when work co-ordinate settings are used.
Notice too that block 25 in Pro gram 3B, the G55 code, identifies the X, Y
and Z values stored in the MCU that have been pre-set to locate the work
datum; all programmed co-ordinates are now taken from this point.
This method of locating the component relative to the machine datum is
often used with work-holding fixtures set permanently on the machine table.

Task 3 3 Transfernng machine datum to workpiece

Cf)

~ datum
~ With a rectangular block c1amped on to a CNC milling machine table
and with the machine set to manual mode (Figure 3.4), locate the
four corners of the block and complete the table in Figure 3.5. Follow
this work sequence:
1 Note the diameter of the cutter to be used (say 10 mm dia slotdrill).
2 Set the machine datum position to zero in all three major axes.
3 Move the tool to touch the top surface of the workpiece (Z = 0).
4 Note the distance moved in Z.
5 Move the tool to touch the edge of the test block on the X datum
face.
6 Note the distance moved in X.
7 Move the tool to touch the edge of the test block on the Y datum • Figure 3.4 Task 3.3
face.
8 Note the distance moved in Y.
To ca1culate the correct X and Y values, remember to add (or
subtract) the cutter radius to (or from) the noted values, as required.
Take care not to damage the tool. Use special setting tools if these are
available. The Z value will be the same for all four corners.

Datum position X co-ordinate Y co-ordinate Z co-ordinate

4
.... Figure 3.5

Task 3.4 Component location using work

co-ordinates
First, use the co-ordinate values entered in Figure 3.5 to set the work
co-ordinates for the four datum positions into the MCU.
Now, identify the four datum positions in Figure 3.5 by allocating
suitable G codes, so that each location may be called using a prepared
test program.
Before you move the machine, remember to set the machine datum
position to zero in all three major axes so that the distances traversed
to the component datum point may be read off and entered into the
work co-ordinate settings.

13
Learning Assignment 4
Work-holding
In Learning Assignment 1 we said that there are three planes far possible
movement: the X, Y horizontal plane, and the X, Z and the Y, Z vertical
planes. Ir is also possible far rotation to take place about each of the three
axes, X, Y and Z. Movement can take place in any of these six ways and
this is often described as having six degrees offreedom (Figure 4.1).
When you damp a component, you need to think about constraint in a11
six (Figure 4.2).
Components may be restrained by a combination of two methods:
• damping friction, induding magnetic chucks and suction plates
... Figure 4.1 Six degrees of freedom • locational stops, induding angle plates, location pegs and fixtures.
Locational stops should be used to resist the main cutting forces. Do not
rely on the frictional farces between the damps and the workpiece.
The damping of components must not interfere with the cutter paths.
This is best ensured by listing a11 c1amps available to the setter/operator in
a work-holding database for the programmer. If a workpiece unavoidably
has to be damped across cutter paths, extra c1amps must be used with a
sequence of c1amp adjustments and programmed stops induded in the
part prograrn. Details of this, together with a11 necessary documentation,
must be made available to the setter/operator.
Automatie damping set-ups can be used. These a110w the damps to be
swung away from the damping position, and then back, as the cutter
passes. This is done by using the required 'misce11aneous' (M) codes
within the part program.
The aims of damping arrangements must be to avoid interference whilst
safely securing the component with a minimum number of set-ups which
delay the cutting process.

Selecting clamps
The selection process depends on the method used:
• in manual c1amping, you select the damps from a list, noting any
preferences mentioned by the programmer
• in automatie loading and c1amping (used with fu11y automated
manufacture), a11 damps are selected during the design and/or
programming stages.

~ Figure 4.2 Principles of c\amping and

location
fixture
base·plate

clamping
force

location
-plate

location
peg

end view plan view

14
 050

Drill and tap two M8 holes.

Bore 018 mm hole.
Machine to width tagether Material Aluminium alloy
with 25 mm end radius, All dimensions in mm. .... Figure 4.3 Task 4.1

• in modular c1amping, you build up a clamping system from

component parts in advance of the production schedule; this is a job for
a skilIed setter/operator.
Bear in mind the following factors:
• direction of cut: it is important to resist the main cutting forces with
location stops wherever possible, and the restraint of turning moments
must also be considered
• material to be cut, since differing workpiece materials result in
different cutting forces
• c1amping forces, in that the force exerted by the clamp on the
workpiece must be sufficient to withstand the cutting forces but not
great enough to cause distortion.

Task 4.1 Component setting

The workpiece shown in Figure 4.3 is to be machined along the edges
indicated. List the information that you would use in setting the
component. Sketch the component, showing your chosen clamping
arrangements.

Task 4.2 Component c1amping " 6. deep 36 3-holes 012

equl-spaced
060
Prol,le base
Identify five points you would need to consider when clamping the Machlne top and bottom face
component shown in Figure 4.4. Draw simple line diagrams to Drill three holes 012 mm
Bore 036 mm hole 36 mm deep
illustrate your choices. All dimenSions In mm

• Figure 4.4 Task 4.2

Additional infonnation
Correct fixturing is an important factor in the efficiency of CNC
machines. Poor fixtures can result in:
• Ionger production times
• possibilities of component defects or increased scrap
• damage to tooling
• poor surface finish.

15
 Fixtures should be designed together with thc component; often a minor
modification at this stage can greatly improve thc damping arrangements
later. You must be aware of the fixtures available and their methods of
assembly. Good fixture design ensures that the component can only be
loaded in thc right way. Often, in production of small quantities of
components, you will have responsibility for choosing the damping.
The versatility of CNC machining allows the design engineer to
consider shapes that cost too much to produce by conventional machining
methods. Intricately shaped components can be awkward to damp,
however. To manufacture fixtures suitable for each component may be
expensive, so purchasing modular damping could be cost-effective. These
modular fixtures are assembled from accurately manu1'actured
components, often on grid plates. With good planning you can assemble
the fixture in advance, further reducing set-up time.
The ultimate in modern damping methods is the use of hydraulicallyl
pneumatically operated modular damping, with the operating sequence
managed from within the part program. This method 01' manufacture
increases your responsibility, as setter/operator.

ADDITIONAL TASK

If modular damps are a\'ailable to you, use these to reproduce the

damping arrangements of any dedicated fixture to which you have
access.

~ Figure 4.5 Modular clamping system

16
Learning Assignment 5
Ne tooling
The principles of metal cutting are the same for both CNC and
conventional machining. Tool geometry and tool wear characteristics are
also the same. The tool-changing facilities and tool monitoring are the
principal benefits of CNC tooling.
When tools wear the cutting forces increase, and with the more
technically advanced CNC controllers these fore es can be monitored and
acted upon. This action will be in the form of visually displayed data for
the operator or the activation of an automatie tool-changing sequence.
These facilities greatly improve both product quality and production
efficiency.
The selection of tool type and tool material depends on the work
material and the cutting conditions. Once you have selected the tools, you
can calculate the correct cutting speeds and feeds.
Indexable (throwaway) inserts are recommended for all tooling on CNC
machines. The characteristics of such tips are standardised; the codes used
are shown in Figure 5.1. The seven compulsory symbols are always stated,
whilst the remaining three may or may not be shown.

.... Figure 5.1 Inserted type tip designation

system

The significance of the symbols constituting the designation is as follows

CD Letter symbol identifying insert shape

(2) Letter symbol identifying normal clearance
@ Letter symbol identifying tolerance class
Compulsory
® Letter symbol indicating identifying chip-breakers and/or fixing symbols
@ Number symbol identifying insert size
® Number symbol identifying insert thickness
(j) Letter or number symbol identifying insert corner configurat ion
® Letter symbol indicating cutt ing edge condition Optional
® Letter symbol identify ing cutting direction } symbols
® Symbol of the manufacturer, at his OptiOl1.

Cf) T as k 5 1 W ork'mg practlces

~
Cf)
Complete the list of good working practices shown in Figure 5.2.
~
.... Figure 5.2
Working practice Reasons/observations

1 Check all tools before use

2 Tool care

3 Boring bar ratio of length to diameter

should be as low as possible

4 Be aware of negative and positive tool

rake angles

5 Use shortest allowable drills and

cutters
A POINT TO NOTE
6 Climbmill whenever possible Cuning taols are available for left-
and right-hand operations, and
7 Increase cutting speeds to optimum,
tuming centres gene rally have rear
never decrease turrets. You need to be aware of this,
and to check the spindle direction
8 Use cutters with large tip radii and the orientation of tools before
whenever possible you use them.

17
 u/cut 3.0 wide*3.0 deep
u/cut 5.0 wide*2.0 deep

o 0
o ci
(') "<t
lSl lSl

Material: low-carbon steel M10*1.50 pitch

Tolerance ± 0.1
Feedrate 0.15 finishing All dimensions in I'l1m.
~ Figure 5.3 Task 5.2

Task 5.2 Too! tip se1ection

Using manufacturers' tooling charts, select the tools best suited to
machine the component in Figure 5.3 and complete the table in
Figure 5.4. The component is to be made from either low-carbon
steel or medium-carbon stee1. Select tools for use in each case.

Workpiece material Tip no. Tip specification

low-carbon steel 1
2
3
4

medium-carbon steel 1
2
3

~ Figure 5.4
4

Task 5.3 Too! identification

USEFUL OBSERVATION

Turned components may require fur-
ther machining - for example, holes on
a pitch circle diameter (PCD) or lateral
grooves. Generally, this would require
an additional set-up on a machining
Identify the tools shown in Figure 5.5. List their applications and
explain their shape. Their names are listed in random order at the foot
of the dia g ram. Select the correct name for each too1.

F
centre with extra handling and set-up

~50 ~h~50 ~
time.
If powered tooling is available on the
turret, however, these milling operations
may be carried out during the turning
cycle. This greatly reduces the lead -..jf2 ....j~
time.

Mo 9;:~2Ö~ ~ 11 P
rough turning finish boring finish turning internal grooving
~ Figure 5.5 CNC tuming tooIs external grooving screw-cutting rough boring parting-off

18
 Milling Turning

l
correct
correct

Cl
c:
.2
o
.E

deflection

incorrect incorrect
.... Figure 5.6 l\lilling and turning tool
deflection

Additional information
In tool setting, it is always necessary to minimise tool deftection, which
produces dimensional inaccuracy and poor surface finish. To reduce the
effects of any unavoidable tool deftection you may need to take aspring
cut, that is, profile or bore the component with previously programmed
cutter paths.
The aims of monitoring the toollwork interface are to optimise tool life
and to ac hieve the most economical cutting conditions. In conventional
machining the operator can monitor the cutting, but with CNC machining
in-process sensing has to be used. This in-process sensing, or adaptive
control, monitors the tool, workpiece and driving elements, and
automatically compensates tool feeds, speeds and cutting depth to
maintain chosen cutting conditions.
Data files of tool li fe can be incorporated into timed tool changes within
the part program. Unacceptable amounts of tool wear can thus be avoided.

19
Learning Assignment 6
Tool changing
The benefits of CNC machines, such as their ability to machine contours,
accuracy of location and repeatability, must be backed up whenever
possible by efficient materials handling and tool changing. The aim is to
reduce downtime and to optimise the manufacturing process, at whatever
scale of production. It is inefficient to stop a CNC machine to adjust tool
damps or holders. So any setting to centre height or tool datums must,
where possible, be made away from the machine.
Methods oftool changing and associated tool storage must always be cost-
effective. They vary considerably, but most fall within three categories.

Manual tool ehanging

Several types of fastening and quick-release mechanisms are available.
When they are used by a skilIed operator high production rates are
possible, provided that the tools being used have been purchased as
qualified tools or have been pre-set. The advantages of manual tool
changing are:
• there is no limit to the number of tools used
• the setter/operator can check the tools visually
• the tool change may be carried out near the cutting position.

Automatie tool ehanging using magazines or

earousels
Here the tools are placed into the tool-holders in a suitable arrangement and
the tool offset values are entered into the MCU. The tools are called by
programmed codes in the sequence required. Carousels with up to 24 tools
are usually controlled in such a way that the tool that has just been used is
returned to a numbered location; the tool carrier is then indexed to the next
listed tool. With the larger type of tool rrtagazine, a special tool-changer
usually places the last-used tool into the location just emptied, and the
dedicated machine control computer notes the new location of each tool. In
some systems the MCU searches ahead in the part program for the next tool
to be used, and then indexes the tool magazine to place the next tool into the
tool change position. All this happens whilst the component is being
machined, greatly increasing tool-changing efficiency. The advantages of
automatie tool changing are:
• back-up tools can be stored in the magazine
• tools are changed very quickly
• tools may be arranged in any order.

Automatie tool ehanging using turrets

There are several automatie damping arrangements used to locate and
secure tool-holders. These modular damping systems require the machine
to have a dedicated tool-changer which takes the worn or broken tool,
complete with holder, out of the turret and replaces it with a tool that has
been pre-set. These tool changes may be arranged using data gathered
from past cutting times and conditions or they may be commanded by the
machine control unit. The MCU would be acting upon data gathered by
sensors on the machine tool, monitoring cutting forces, surface finish, tool

20
wear and so forth. The setter/operator must be able to re-set the part
program with the correct tool offsets should a machining operation have to
stop for a broken tool.

Task 6.1 Tool selection: turning

Select from the tools available those most suitable to turn the
component shown in Figure 6.1 . Place the tools into a turret in the
sequence which will give optimum tool-changing conditions.
Remember to allow for the rotation of the turret, and for possible
interference with the component or the chuck from adjacent tools,
such as aboring bar next to a long drill.

Task 6.2 Tool selection: milling

Select from the tools available those most suitable to mill the
component shown in Figure 6.2. Place tools into the carousel, or
chain conveyor if available, in the most economical tool-changing
sequence. Remember to allow for the rotation of the carousel, and for
the diameter of adjacent cutters - large-diameter cutters may overlap
into the adjacent tool's space.

.... Figure 6.1 Task 6.1

70

~_ _--<~ 2 mm lead

o
N
<Sl

Bore 10 mm Dia 25 mm deep

All dimenSions In mm

.... Figure 6.2 Task 6.2

tO 0
L!) co
012

L!)
N

96
Top view

R100

oC')

120
Front view
L
21
 Additional information
Modern turning centres, as weil as having modular tooling and twin
turrets, may be fitted with driven tooling. These are tools such as slot-type
milling cutters or drills that are driven through the turret to enable them to
be programmed to cut aseries of slots or drill holes at a single setting - for
example, holes spaced radially on a pitch circle diameter (PCD). You need
to be able to pre-set this type of tool and enter the relevant tool settings
into the MCU. Whenever tools are changed, you must ensure that the data
for new tools corresponds exactly with the data in use, especially da ta such
as tool nose radius compensation (see page 30).

V) ADDITIONAL TASK
~
V)
Using first a turning centre and then a milling machinc, work through
~ the sequence of actions to be taken in the event of a broken tool, as
folIows:
1 Stop the programmed cutting sequence.
2 Note the sequence number of the program.
3 Return the tool to the tool change position.
4 Replace the too1.
5 Set the correct tool offsets.
6 Re-set the program to tool change prior to the noted sequence
number.
7 Start the machining sequence.

22
Learning Assignment 7
Tooloffset facilities: turning
The shapes and sizes of cutting tools used by CNC machines vary
considerably. When a cutting tool is mounted in a CNC machine turret or
carousel for the first time, it is necessary to determine its exact position
relative to the machine datums.
If a cutter wears through use, or if it is replaced in a tool-holder, its
shape and/or position relative to the machine datums will alter slightly. If
no action is taken, corresponding inaccuracies in the machine workpiece
will appear. POl TS TO NOTE
Tool offset facilities are provided by CNC control to enable the operator Too! offset facilities enable ace
to enter the initial tool data, and subsequent variations, into a permanent machine operator to achieve very
memory within the system. Programmed tool selections and movements precise limit of size on a finished
will then refer to this stored data, automatically adjusting positional co- workpiece. They also provide a rapid
ordinates and thus eliminating inaccuracies in the workpiece. and effective means of correcting
minor errors arising from roo! wear
or tip replacement.
Programming information
Tool offsets are located in a CNC control system memory by a number,
typically 01 to 16 or 01 to 64. USEFUL OBSERVATION
An offset number is normally selected and set according to the location
of the associated tool in the machine turret or carousel; for instance, a tool Search the memory locations for each
located in position 7 in a turretlcarousel would be allocated offset number tool offset in your CNC control system
and note the typical values that should
7. This would result in a programmed tool change being executed by the be anticipated.
part program command T0707. The first 07 represents the tool location,
and the second 07 the offset. This convention helps to avoid confusion, Remember that the relatively small val-
but you can use any of the offset numbers available with tools in any ues normally found represent variations
turretlcarousel location, providing that they are pre-set accordingly. from fairly accurate nominal sizes and
positions. Any !arge values that appear
lt is also convention that the offset value will be seen to increase to
(0.5 mm and above) should be treated
compensate for a test cut which is less than the programmed diameter, and with caution.
to decrease if the test cut is oversize.

~ Task 7.1 Setting a tool offset in the X axis

Cf)

~ To complete this task, you will need to have access to a CNC turning
machine with an outer profile right-hand knife turning tool in the
toolpostlturret. Mount a suitable piece of round bar in the machine
spindie. Enter a proven test program, appropriate to the the tool and
workpiece available, into the CNC control system. Set the tool and
program at the start position.
1 Check carefully that it is safe to proceed. Then execute the
program, which should complete a simple test cut producing a
programmed diameter on the workpiece. Return the tool to the
start position (Figure 7.1 ).

chuck

cutllng
tool

cutter path

.... Figure 7.1 Programmed test cut

23

A POINT TO NOTE
Most commercial CNC systems rec-
ognise X readings as diameter val-
ues, in both program and offset data.
~ Figure 7.2 Measuring the test diameter
24
2 Measure the diameter of the test cut, using aprecision micrometer
or any other suitably accurate method (Figure 7.2). Record the
value.
3 Compare the measured diameter value with that specified in the
test program and determine any difference. (If this test cut
produces a diameter which is less than the programmed value, you
may need to use a new workpiece, or amend the program to
produce a smaller test diameter.)
4 Select the offset mode on the CNC control system and the offset
number designated for the tool specified in the test program.
5 Select the offset for the X axis. The current value should appear on
the system digital display.
6 Add the difference between the programmed diameter and the
measured diameter to the current offset reading. Enter this new
value, using the data input method appropriate to your system.
7 Check that the tool and program are re-set to the start position.
Then re-execute the test program.
8 Again measure and re cord the diameter of the test cut. If this
differs from the programmed value, repeat the procedure for
adjusting the X offset value.
_ workplece
test diameter
Learning Assignment 8
Toollength offsets: milling
When several milling cutters are to be used in sequence to machine a
workpiece, the distance from the machine spindie datum to the job datum
has to be fixed. It would be poor engineering practice to attempt to set all
the tools to the same length in their holders. Instead, the tools are set to
their best operational length, taking into account the workpiece, c1amps
and so on. The tool length offset (TLO) facility allows the variations in
toollength to be entered into the MCU offset register. When a particular
tool is selected in apart program a Geode is used, together with the
corresponding offset register number to assign the value stored. This
stored value compensates for the length differenee between the chosen and
the datum tool (Figure 8.1). For example, in the block G44 H04, G44
seleets the tool offset funetion and H04 selects the value stored in tool
offset register number 4.
The datum tool is often chosen to be the longest, so that all offset values
and corresponding movements are in the same direction.

tooll tool2
(datum)

tool engtn
- offseI
component

r-------~~------------------~--~ 2=0

l-
~
--- .... Figure 8.1 Toollength offsets

Methods of tool offset measurement

For ßlanual setting of a TLO, the procedure is as folIows:
1 Place the longest tool in the machine spindie.
2 Set the Z origin register to zero at the maehine datum position.
3 In manual mode, move the tool down to touch a reference block.
4 Note the distance moved in the Z direction.
5 Carry out steps 1 to 4 for eaeh tool to be used .
The difference between the length of a tool and the length of the longest
tool measured is the TLO value for that tool. The TLO values are entered
into the MCU, offset register to eorrespond to the tool numbers. The
disadvantage of this method is that the machine has to lie idle whilst tools
are being set. TLOs may be set away from the machine as folIows:
1 Plaee the tool to be measured (usually the longest tool) in a tool setting
fixture (Figure 8.2) .
2 Note the measured distance. This is the referenee value.
3 Measure all tools to be used from the same reference point.
4 Find the value of the offset for each tool by deducting eaeh tool
measurement from the reference value. • Figure 8.2 Tool setting

25

A POINT TO l OTE
When new rools have been used the
workpiece will need ro be inspected.
This may be done either away from
the machinc, or du ring manufacturc
using in pecrion probing. Wh ich-
ever method is used, any error
caused by the too1 length can easily
b rectified by making the nece sary
alteration to the TLO value for that
tool.
~ Figure 8.3 '1'001 setting by table-
m<luntcd probe
26
The setting fixture is designed so that aB tool-holders are held at a set
position equivalent to the spindie datum on the machine.
Automatie setting of the TLOs on a machine is carried out as foBows:
1 Place the rool to be measured into the machine spindie.
2 Activate the table-mounted tool-setting probe (Figure 8.3 ) .
3 Move the 1001 down to touch the probe.
4 Enter the value into the appropriate 1001 offset register.
A smaB part program may be used 10 carry out steps 3 and 4, that is, to
move the 1001 to touch the table-mounted probe and to enter the resulting
offset value automatically into the offset register.
You should only carry out the automatic setting procedure if you have
been properly trained in the use of probes. Probing routines often use
customised subroutines and coding which require special knowledge. If
you use them incorrectly, you may damage relatively fragile instruments.
Task 8.1 Setting TLO values manually on a machine
Measure the tool length offset for three tools using steps 1 10 4 in the
first method described above. Calculate the corresponding offsets and
enter the values into their positions in the MCU tool offset register.
Task 8.2 Setting TLO values away from the machine
Select three 100ls of different lengths. Measure the longest tool in a
tool-setting fixture and note the length. Now measure the remaining
tools and calculate their offsets in relation to the first tool.
Enter all three values into their respective positions in the MCU
tool offset register.
ADDITIONAL TASK
Using a previously prepared program, measure the TLOs of three
milling cutters using a table-mounted probe. Note the values
transferred to the MCU tool offset register.
Learning Assignment 9
Tool setting
In a CNC turning centre, the distance from the spindie datum to the turret
datum is a known fixed value, but this value is not easily used within apart
program. The distance from the tool tip to the work datum is a much
more usable value. To determine this distance you have to take into
account the Z axis setting value and the X axis setting value. These values
position the tool tip in relation to the turret datum in the X and Z axes
(Figure 9. 1) . (Milling tools are catered for in the part program by the tool
length offset and the cutter diameter compensation facilities.)
There are three principal methods of determining the X and Z setting
values. Once determined, these values are either entered into the MCU as
setting values to be automatically accounted for, or incorporated into G50
preparatory code X and Z values. Note that the setting value of aboring
bar tool will be negative (Figure 9.2).
Tools may be either pre-set or set on the machine. Alternatively,
qualified tools may be used.

.... Figure 9.1 X, Z setting values (turning)

turre datum

----;r---+_ - - -

Q)
:::l
ro tool-holder
>
Cl
§
Q)
(f)

cuttlng toD I tlp /1-----.. ,

Z setting va1ue

.... Figure 9.2 Boring tool X setting

(turning)

turret datum

turret ......-'

27
~ Figure 9.3 '1'001 setting on the machine
(turning)

Pre-setting
To set tools by this method a setting fixture is used. This places the tool-
holder relative to a datum position equivalent to the datum position in the
machine turret. The distance from the tool tip to the datum location is
measured either using a vernier height gauge or optically, using a
microscope. The vertical distance corresponds to the Z setting value and
the horizontal distance to the X setting value. Specially manufactured tool-
measuring fixtures often incorporate a microscope as an integral part of
the fixture.

Setting on the machine (turning)

1 Set jaws and grip the component in the chuck.
2 Select the datum tool (usually a rough turning tool).
3 Use the jog control and hand wheel to either:
• face the component to length, or
• touch the tool on the face of shaft finished to length (known as a
qualified bar), or
• touch the tool on the face of a tool setting probe on the machine
(Figure 9.3).
4 With the tool touching the finished face, zero the display.
S Move the tool away from the work to the zero datum position. Note the
distance travelled - this will be the G50 Z value.
Carry out a similar procedure for the X value by cutting or touching the
bar in the X plane. Measure the diameter and add this value to the
distance travelled, back to the zero datum position. This will be the G50 X
value.
Optical pre-setting of tools is available on some machines. In this case
the tool is traversed to the measuring position under the microscope and
the setting values are automatically read into the MCU.

Qualified tooling
All qualified tools are manufactured so that the cutting point of the tool is
a fixed (qualified) distance from the end, front and back of the tool shank
(Figure 9.4).

28
 Letter
Quallflcatlon of tool SKetch
symbol

Q Back and end qualified tool

!! ty I,±OOO
.1

F Front and end quallf,ed tool

~j ~
1I\ y--'
--'"
/1 ± 0,08
.1

B Back. front and end qualif,ed tool

~I ~j ~1I\
--'"
y--'
/1 ± 0,08
.1
.... Figure 9.4 Qualified tooling

The tools must be mounted into the tool-holder with the shank located
from the qualified faces. This method of tooling allows tools to be changed
without re-setting. Now that CNC machine controllers have tool-setting
facilities, the advantages of qualified tooling are reduced. But the tool
setting must be re-set in the MCU when tools are changed.

Cf) T as k91P re-settmg too 1s usmg a fixture

~
Cf)
Using a tool-setting fixture, measure the tools listed in Figure 9.5
~ (with tool-holders), and complete the table of setting values.

....Figure 9.5
Tools to be set X setting value Z setting value

Rough turning

Grooving tool

Drill

Boring tool

External threading

Task 9.2 Pre-setting tools by measurement on

machine
Use the procedure described above to measure the tools listed in
Figure 9.6 (with tool-holders), and complete the table of setting values.
.... Figure 9.6
Tools to be set X setting value Z setting value

Rough turning

Grooving tool

Drill

Boring tool

External threading

29
 Tool no se radius compensation(TNRC)
The tips of turning tools vary considerably in their radii, depending on the
tool type. When the radius is small (0.4 mm or less) its value can be
neglected except when extreme accuracy is required. Tools with a large tip
radius require compensation to allow for cutting away from the tip in both
the Z and the X planes (Figure 9.7). With most modern turning centres,
the too! tip radius va!ue may be entered as too! data into the MCU. Use of
the appropriate G codes in the part program then allows the machine
controller to compensate automatically for the tip radius.
Both the tip radius va!ue and the appropriate too! quadrant must be
entered into the MCU (Figure 9.8). The quadrant that the tool is using
determines the direction in which the compensation is applied.

~ Figure 9.7 Tool nose radius

compensation
direction of
feed
~
/
r distances to turret
datum vary according
to angle 01 contact

E~
iJ=== distances to
turret datum
in Z axis

-- -i=O~PO"CI
points of
cutting
contact

half-profile

~ Figure 9.8 Tool quadrants

2nd quadrant 1st quadrant
X-, y+ X+, y+

3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

X-, y- X+, y-

30
Learning Assignment 10
Ne program listing and analysis
The aim of apart program is to produce a component of the required
quality using optimum cutting conditions. If you are to playa full part in
this process, you must understand the programming format. The format
used in this book is called the word address format. The programming
data is conveyed by blocks of words, in which each word has an
idcntifying letter address. This preceding letter defines the function of the
word. A block of information that defines an operation may contain several
words or just a single word. If a function is to be repeated in the next
block the word need not be entered again; it remains active. It is said to be
modal (that is, remembered).
A typical section of apart program with blocks containing modal
information would bc.
Sampie block N50 GOO X20.0 Y40.0 Z1.0
Next block N55 G01 X20.0 Y40.0 Z-6.0 F250
Next block N60 GOO X20.0 Y40.0 Z1.0

Since the X and Y information is repeated, this could read

N50 GOO X20.0 Y40.0 Z1.0
N55 G01 Z-6.0 F250
N60 GOO Zl.0

Also with somc MCUs it is not necessary to complete a full word format.
Instead, some of the zeros be fore and after the numerical information can
be omitted. Thus the block
X0223.350 Y-0015.000 Z100.000

could be written as
X223.35 Y-15. Z100.

with the MCU said to ha\'c 'Ieading and trailing suppression'.

An MCU rcads a full block of data in advance, whilst acting upon the
eurrent block of data. It is not necessary to arrange words in a specifie
order, but program cheeking is easier if a regular format is used for writing
programs.
The format for word address programming is shown as follows:
N5 G2 X+-43 Y+-43 R43 A+-33 Z+-43 1+-43 J+-43 K+-43 F4 S4 T2 M2

Here N is the sequenee number (maximum 5 digits)

Gis the preparatory function (maximum 2 digits)
X, Y and Z are movements in the respective axes, either positive or
negative, with 4 digits before and 3 digits after the decimal point
R is radius of are
A is angular rotation, with 3 digits before and 3 after the decimal
point
I, J and Kare secondary functions of X, Y and Z respectively
Fis the feedrate in mm per minute or mm per rev (depending upon
the preparatory function used)
S is the spindie speed in revs per minute, or the surface speed in
metres per minute (depending upon the preparatory function
used)
T is the tool address
M is the miscellaneous code.
To achieve efficient machining you have to be aware of all methods of
reducing non-cutting time and methods of achieving the best eutting
conditions with optimum speeds and feeds. Moreover, to analyse a
program you must also be thoroughly fa miliar with all programming

31
 techniques, such as the use of subroutines, loops and macros. This is
important for the safe proving and operation of such programs. (For
further information, refer to Chapter 5 in the core book of this series.)

Additional information
Many MCUs can display the cutting time for each operation, with this
information being used in assessing production times. The more advanced
CNC machines can also sense the cutting forces and then adjust the
cutting conditions to suit. But in general it is the setter/operator who has
the ultimate control of the machining conditions.

Task 10.1 Pro gram analYSIS

Sketch the two component shapes machined by Programs 10A
Ca turning pro gram) and lOB Ca milling program).
~ Program 10A
01212 N140 T0707
N10 G21 N150 GOO X42.0 22.0
N20 M42 N160 G92 X36.0 2-60.0
N30 G50 X2 71. 0 2117.0 "0.2
N40 G50 X2 71. 0 2117.0 N170 X32.0 2-40.0
S4000 N180 X28.0
N50 T0303 N190 X25.0
N60 G96 S120 N200 X21.0 2-20.0
N70 M03 N210 X17.0
N80 GOO X42.0 20.0 N220 GOO X243.2 2137.4
N90 GOI X-2.0 FO.2 N230 T0700
N100 GOO 22.0 N240 M05
N110 GOO X271.0 2117.0 N250 M30
N120 T0300
N130 G50 X243.2 2137.4

~ Pro gram lOB

02323 N60 GOI 2-4.5 Fl80
N10 GOO G90 G94 G2l G80 N65 X95.0 F360
G49 N70 GOO 21.0
N15 G92 X-305.0 Y293.0 N75 Y-33.0
2237.6 N80 GOl 2-4.5 F180
N20 T03 M06 N85 X12.0 "360
N25 G44 H03 N90 Y-45.0
N30 S1485 M03 N95 GOO 21.0
N35 GOO X20.0 Y-15.0 21.0 N100 G49
N40 GOl X20.0 Y-15.0 Z- N10S M05
4.5 Fl80 N110 G28 X12.0 Y-45.0
N45 GOI X45.0 Y-15.0 2- 2100.0
4.5 E'360 N1l5 M30
N50 GOO X45.0 Y-15.0 21.0
N55 GOO X65. 0 Y-20. 0 21. 0

Task 10.2 Pro gram efficiency

Tooling and work-holding considerations List points that you
need to consider to maximise program efficiency, under the headings
'Tooling', 'Work-holding' and 'Cutter paths'.

Documentation Analyse the components shown in Figures 10.1

and 10.2. List the tooling, work-holding information and additional
documentation you would need to set up and machine the two
components successfully.

32
 92
78
70
60
4

- -- - - - - Y+,tI4''/~r +-----{J

22

All dimensions in mm.

.... Figure 10.1 Task 10.2

: Tl
106
• 30
70 .1
50
datum 30
-I
T" +
i
i
0
(\J

co
0
C")
0
'<t
i
0
<D
AT A

R15

106
120 2 dowe! holes
05
I I

!WM!
I I
! f01;j3
I
section on A-A
All undimensioned radii 5 mm. All dimensions are in mm.
..... Figure 10.2 Task 10.2

33
Learning Assignment 11
Input, edit and store data
Part programs may be input directly into the MCU using the manual data
input (MDI) facility. This process is time-consuming and costly, in both
operation time and machine downtime. The MDI facility is therefore
normally used to edit the program as required, after it has been transferred
to the machine. Its main function is its use for viewing, editing and setting
the MCU parameters.
The MCU is also capable of storing programs, but this is a limited
facility used to store programs in current use, custom macros or
commonly used subroutines such as probing programs.
Part programs mayaiso be stored in binary coded form on paper tape or
computer discs. If the part program is stored on paper tape it may be read
directly into the machine using a local tape reader. Alternatively the paper
tape may be read using a tape reader away from the machine and the data
transferred to the MCU using standard communication networks. It is
useful to have some means of switching between the tape reader and the
machine, to divert the program to any available machine. This enables
several machines to be downloaded with programs read at one source.
Similarly part programs stored on disc may be transferred to machines
using a network.
Whichever way the data is transferred to the machine, the start and end
of every program must be identified with unique identifying characters.
The start of apart program is often identified by the letter '0' or a colon
(:), followed by a four-digit number. The character marking the end of a
program is the '%' sign.

Task 11.1 Data storage

1 Use a computer to enter and store Program 11A on to a magnetic
disc and paper tape.
2 Connect a tape reader to the machine and set the machine to read
the program.
3 Transfer the program.
4 Edit the program at the MCU to read as Program 11B.
5 Transfer the program back to the tape reader and produce a new
tape.

02222 N140 T0707

NIO G21 N150 GOO X42.0 Z2.0
N20 M42 N160 G92 X36.0 Z-60.0
N30 G50 X271.0 Z1l7.0 FO.2
N40 G50 X2 71. 0 Z1l7.0 N170 X32.0 Z-40.0
S4000 NIBO X2B.0
N50 r0303 N190 X25.0
N60 G96 S120 N200 X21.0 Z-20.0
N70 M03 N210 X17.0
NBO GOO X42.0 ZO.O N220 X16.0
N90 GOI X-2.0 FO.2 N230 GOO X273.2 Z1l7.4
NIOO GOO Z2.0 N240 T0700
NllO GOO X271.0 Z1l7.0 N250 M05
N120 T0300 N260 M30
N130 G50 X273.2 Zl17.4 %
~ Program HA

34
 022 22 N180 X28.0
N10 G21 N190 X25.0
N20 M42 N200 X21.0 2 -20 .0
N30 G50 X271 . 0 2117.0 N2 1 0 X17.0
N40 G50 X27 1.0 2117 . 0 S4000 N220 X16.0
N50 T0303 N230 GOO X273.2 Z117.4
N60 G96 S120 N240 T0700
N70 M03 N250 G50 X22 0.0 Z164.0
N80 GOO X42.0 20.0 N260 T0606
N90 G01 X-2.0 F O. 2 N270 G96 S 1 00
N100 GOO Z2.0 N280 GOO Z-7 0 . 0 X42 . 0
N110 GOO X27l. 0 Z117 .0 N290 G01 X-2.0 FO.15
N120 T0300 N300 GOO X220.0 2164.0
N130 G50 X273. 2 2117 .4 N310 T0600
N14 0 T0707 N320 M05
N150 GOO X42.0 22.0 N330 M3 0
N160 G92 X36.0 Z- 60.0 F O. 2 ~
N1 70 X32.0 Z-40.0
..... Program llB

Task 11.2 Data transfer POINTS TO NOTE

If a pro gram is writtcn on a com-
Following the steps listed in Task 11.1, transfer the program from puter using a text editor (non-docu-
disc to a machine and back to the computer. ment file), it can be stored within the
compurer memory. It can then be
ADDITIONAL TASK saved, edited and transferred to a
machine whenever nece sary. The
Delete the letter 0 from the first line of Program 11 A. Try to transfer stored data can also bc readily con-
it as you did in Task 11.1 and Task 11.2. Note the results. verted into a paper tape if and when
required.

Computer software is available to

Additional infonnation allow the stored pro gram to b pro-
cessed and the cutter paths simulated
Machines are interfaced with computers for data transfer using shielded on a VDU. This allows the part pro-
cable and RS232 connectors. The speed of data transfer for sending data gram to be checked and edited before
being transferred to the MCU, thus
has to be set at the computer, and that für receiving data at the Meu. The
saving valuable machine downtime.
rate of transfer, the baud rate, is measured in bits per second.

35
Learning Assignment 12
Program proving
Once apart program has been written and the supporting documentation
prepared, it is loaded into the machine and the documentation supplied to
the operator. The program and all relevant information must be checked,
either by viewing the program displayed on the MeU screen, or by using
a software package on a computer and then proving the program on the
machine. Errors that may be detected include the following:
errors in the part program:
• typing errors
• incorrect sign
• program omissions;
errors in the supporting details
• tool offsets
• feeds and speeds
• centres of arc.
Graphic simulation (see below) compares the programmed shape with the
required component shape (Figure 12.1). It doesn't check for correct
speeds, feedrates, tools and possible crash conditions. The part program
must be proof-tested on the machine by any of the following methods
before production starts; in fact, it is a good idea (and often necessary) to
prove the pro gram by more than one method.

~ Figure 12.1 Graphie simulation of a tool

path (milling)
Seq 1 FHC FVC SPINDLE Work Clearp Feed M/C time
View 1 500 250 3000 -4.00 mm 1.0 7.68
Sca 1.88

K11

36
Testing method 1: Dry run
For this method of testing the part program is loaded into the MCU and
then run either block by block or in continuous mode with the feedrate
greatly reduced. For safety's sake it is run without a component blank in
position or, alternatively, without cutting tools in the tool-holders. This is a
satisfactory method for checking tool movements, but it does not allow for
checking the component size or the material removal rates.
A block of rigid plastic foam may be used in place of a component. This
allows the component shape to be cut, and so checked, without the risk of
damage to the taol.
The main disadvantage of this method is that it takes up valuable
machine production time.

Testing method 2: Step through block by block

With this method the machine is set to single block mode. That is, each SPECIAL SAFETY NOTE:
In rapid traverse mode the machine
time the start button is pressed the machine carries out the instructions in moves at 45° for as long as possible
the next pro gram block only. It then stops, waiting for the next program (that is, equally in each axis simultan-
block to be activated. If this single step execution is carried out with the eously) and then in a straight lme in
rapid override set to low, you can test the part program safely. The the remaining axis. This is of special
advantage of this method is that the component can be checked for size importance when drilling holes within
after the proving run. a recess. If an error condition occurs,
you must alter the programmed path
Remember that in methods 1 and 2 it is the part program in the MCU that on the machine and correct the
master program (Figure 12.2).
is tested, not the tape or the text file.

Testing method 3: Graphie simulation

Some machines are fitted with the facility to simulate the cutter path on
the machine VDU (Figure 12.1). Several views are available, allowing you
to view not only the completed shape but also the depths of cut and drilled
holes. This process can rcduce machine downtime because the graphie
simulation may be carried out away from the machine using computer
software. Some software packages can identify crash conditions, view
sectioned parts of the component and verify dimensions.

.... Figure 12.2 Tool path in rapid traverse

actual route B

B
I
I

actual route
_ _ _ shortes route
from A 10 B
I
I
I
I

A I
I

I
I

37
 ~ Task 12.1 Pro gram proving
Cf)

~
03434
N10 G90 G94 G7l GOO G80 G49
N20 G92 X-350.0 Y240.0 Z120.0
N30 T10 M06
N40 G43 H10
N50 S2385 M03
N60 GOO X20.0 Y-53.75 Zl.O
N70 G8l X20.0 Y-53.75 Z-lO.O F235
N80 Y86.25
N90 X3.75 Y-70.0
N100 X36.25
NllO G80
N120 G49
N130 G28 X36.25 Y-70.0 ZlOO.O
N140 M05
N150 TOl M06
N160 M30
%
~ Prograrn 12A

Prove Program 12A using each of methods 1 to 3 in turn.

Task 12.2 Program proving and correction

03535
N10 G90 G94 G7l GOO G80 G49
N20 G92 X-350.0 Y240.0 Z120.0
N30 T10 M06
N40 G43 H10
N50 S2000 M03
N60 M98 P1OlO
N70 TOl M06
N80 M30
%
01010 (SUBROUTINE)
N10 GOO X-15.0 Y10.0 Zl.O
N20 G4l 026
N30 GOl Z-lO.O F135
N40 GOl YO.O
N50 X90.0 F270
N60 Y-44.0
N70 G02 X70.0 Y-66.0 R20.0
N80 GOl X56.77
N90 GOO Zl.O
N100 G40
NllO GOO Y-75.0
N120 G49
N130 G28 X100.O Y-75.0 ZlOO.O
N140 M99
~ Prograrn 12B

Run Program 12B using single step mode. Stop the program at line
N30 of the subroutine, change the Z value to Z-8.0 and re-run the
program.

Additional information
When computer-aided part programming software has been used to
prepare apart program, the cutter paths will have been post-processed to
suit a particular machine. It may not always be possible to run the part
program on the designated machine, so the program da ta may be
downloaded to the next most suitable machine. In this case, the part
program may have to be altered before it can be proved. The most likely

38
problems would be with available tooling or codes; if the machine
capacities are different, the feedrates and speeds may also require
modifying.
The cutting speeds and feedrates are calculated using selected data
concerning the properties of the tool material and workpiece material.
These optimum values are then included in the part program. When you
prove the program you may need to alter this cutting data, perhaps
because of excessive vibration or because the material is not homogeneous.
You can temporarily adjust these feeds and speeds at the control and then
edit the values in the program if required. Optimum speeds and feeds may
be reduced (with a resulting increase in cutting time), but they must not be
increased. This would result in a rapid reduction of tool life and poor
surface finish.

39
Learning Assignment 13
Tape handling
Part programs are often written away from the machine. This allows the
machine to be fully employed for production. The programs may be
transferred to the MCU, either via a direct computer link or by a punched
tape. Similarly, when the machining is completed the part program is often
stored for future use, either on computer discs or on punched tape.
The tape used is of standard size and may be made from paper, plastic
(M ylar), paper/plastic laminate or foil, depending upon ib intended usage.
Tape does not have the information storage capacity of computer discs but
it is much more robust for use in the workshop. It is available in different
colours and these coloured tapes are often used to relate to different types
of machine. It has several advantages in use:
• practical and reliable method of data storage
• may be used in most environments if kept dry
• damage can be easily identified
• data may be transferred from remote reader, or may be read directly by
machine tape reader.
Tape has certain disadvantages, too, however:
• not ideal for storing large amounts of data (it becomes bulky)
• editing the tape is difficult and time-consuming
• relatively slow for data transfer
• must be re-wound be fore being re-used.
It is possible to edit tape by splicing and patching but this is an inefficient
method. It is not often used nowadays because electronic tape punches
have combined tape readers, which make editing and production of tape
much easier. The tape to be edited is fed through the tape reader and, with
the tape punch and teletypewriter switched on, a new tape and a print-out
can be produced simultaneously (Figure 13.1 ).

~ Figure 13.1 Teletypewriter

40
 optlcal reader
light souree

capstan rollers

directlon of tape read

AUTO REEL ON

r--© ~REVERSEJ
I REEL OFF
FORWARD STOP REWIND
o 0 0

~ Figure 13.2 Photoelectric tape reader

When the part of the tape which requires editing is near, the tape is fed
through one line at a time. Then follow this procedure:
1 Switch the tape reader off.
2 Use the typewriter to input the correct code(s).
3 Switch the tape punch off and the tape reader on.
4 Feed the incorrect portion of tape through the reader.
S Switch the tape punch on and continue to produce new tape.
Always check whether the tape being produced is of ISO or EIA format
and whether the correct parity setting is being used. Use even parity in
track 8 for ISO standard tape code, and odd parity in track 5 for EIA
standard tape code.
When apart program has been proved it may be stored on tape and,
together with the necessary documentation of identity, saved until
required. When required the tape is read by a photoelectric reader (Figure
13.2) and the stored data is transferred electronically to the Meu.

Task 13.1 Tape editing

Use a tape punch to produce paper tape of Program BA (drilIed
holes).

01234
N5 G90 G71 G80 G49 GOO G94
N10 G92 X-250.0 Y200.0 Z300.0
N15 T04 M06
N20 G44 H04
N25 S2300 M03
N30 GOO X10.0 Y-15.0 Z1.0
N35 G81 X10.0 Y-15.0 Z-8.0 F180
N40 X20.0 Y-25.0 Z-13.0
N45 X30.0 Y-35.0 Z-16.0
N50 G80
N60 (continue with new tape and complete the program)
~ Progr8nl BA

Edit the tape to change the Z depth from Z-8.0 to Z-12.0, Z-13.0 to
Z-15.0, and Z-16.0 to Z-19.0 respectively. Use the punch editing
facility. The procedure is as folIows:
1 Load the tape through the tape reader until you reach the first data
to be edited and at the same time punch a duplicate tape.
2 Switch off the tape reader.

41
 CI) 3 Type the new data you need.
~ 4 Switch the tape punch off and the tape reader on.
E:S 5 Step through the data on the old tape that has been amended.
6 Switch the tape punch on and start the tape reader to read to the
next edit position that has been amended. Repeat steps 1 to 4.
7 Feed the new tape through the tape reader to type your copy of the
corrected part program.
When computer software is used to produce apart program the cutting
data is post-processed to produce a tape file for a specific machine contro!.
This tape file can be transferred directly to the MCV or used to produce a
paper tape.
If the tape is loaded into the machine via the machine tape reader the
data are checked. The tape is then re-wound and the data verified.
Opaque paper tape must be used with optical tape readers, otherwise
reading errors will occur.
The speed that the tape is passed through the reader determines the
baud rate for reading the data (300 or 1200 bits per second, say).
It is always possible that errors may occur in transmitting data, whatever
method is used. This is why programs must be proved whenever they are
re-used.

Task 13.2 Tape loading and re-winding

Complete the tape of Program 13A, with the last block reading M30.
Place the tape into a machine tape reader and load the program into
an MCV by feeding the tape through the tape reader. Observe the
result.
Now edit this tape to delete the M30 code in the last block. Feed
the tape through the reader as before, and again note the result.

42
Learning Assignment 14

CNC machine controllers use data in binary coded form - that is, using
numbers with a base of 2. This means the system uses only two digits, 0
and 1. This is ideally suited to the electronic switching used by computers,
known as digital switching. A CNC machine control unit uses digital
switching for data transfer.
With conventional binary co ding the numbers, and hence also the words
and blocks of information, would be long, with large numbers producing
long words. To use such words would require an unmanageably wide tape.
This problem is overcome by using a technique called binary coded
decimal (BCD). With this method each digit or letter in a programmed
word is given its own bit pattern. For example:
• true binary code: 111001 (= 57 denary)
• number transferred to tape in BCD: 5 101
7 111

Code standards for punched tape

The tape illustrated in Figure 14.1 has eight tracks, with the digit 1 being
shown by a perforation (hole). Since the introduction of CNC several code
standards have been used. The three principal standards (Figures 14.2 and
14.3) in use are:
• EIA (Electronic Industries Association)
• ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
• ISO (International Standards Organization)
Standard eight-track tape, punched with specimen characters using ISO
format, is shown in Figure 14.4. Standard paper tape is 25 mm wide with
10 characters per 25 mm of length.

Sequence Preparatory Co-ordinates Feed SpInd ie M.se

No funetlon I--..,.X""-""-'-'Y-,...--=Z----r---,R::---I rale speed fune

Nl G8l 12500 Y04800 F61l 8517 M03

• ••••• •••••••
••• •• ••••• ••••• •
•• •••••••••••••• • ••• •••• • ••
••••••• ••
• • • ••
• • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • •• •
• • • • • • • • ••
• • •• • •••
•• •• • • ••
• ••
••••• • •••••••• e;;'d
N 1 G 8 1 X 1 2 5 0 0 Y 0 4 8 0 0 F 6 1 1 S 5 17M 0 3
characler ~ 01
block
bloCk
.... Figure 14.1 Example of punched paper
tape

43
 EIA code ISO code ASCII code

Tracks 1- 4 Tracks 1-4 Tracks 1- 4

used for digits combined with 5-6: combined with 5-6:
0-9 digits 0-9 digits 0-9

Track 5 parity Tracks 1-5 & 7 Track 8 parity

letters A-Z

Track 6 for 0 Tracks 1-4, 6: Tracks 1- 7:

characters letters and
characters
Tracks 7,8,1- 4: Track 8 parity
~ Figure 14.2 Coding for eight-track letters and
paper tape characters

TAPE CODE

~ Figure 14.3 C"ding for eight-track

paper tape

254mm c aracter

o
cooe channels
I! 88 8ffi 88
o 00'00 00
0 E
E
transportalion
t
~

T
o
U")
channel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N

00
code channels
n o
o 00
channel numbers
~ Figure 14.4 Standard paper tape layout

44
Preparing the paper tape
The prepared part program is transferred to the paper tape using a
teletypewriter (shown in Figure 13.1, page 40). This is an electronic-
mechanical device which operates as a typewriter in producing a typescript
of the part program whilst at the same time producing a punched paper
tape. Switching allows tape to be produced of whatever code or parity
required. Some teletypewriters will store a limited amount of the typed
program so that the typescript can be checked be fore that section of tape is
punched.

Task 14.1 Tape preparation

Produce a paper tape of Pro gram 14A with even parity code.
(Previously, co-ordinates have been spaced out in program print-outs,
for clarity's sake. In Program 14A this practice has not been followed.
This is because in tape preparation data is always entered without
extra spaces or tabulation.)

03333
N10G21G90G94GOO Set preparatory codes for
start
N20G92X-285.0Y378.0Z237.0 Transfer to component
datum
N30T05M06 Load tool no 5
N40G44H05 Select tool length offset
for tool no 5
N50S2000M03 Start spindle
N60GOOX40.0Y10.OZ1.O Rapid to first hole
N70G81Z-5.0F250 Select canned cycle, hole
depth and feedrate
N80X10.OY40.0 Co-ordinates of holes
(Note that co-ordinates
are modal and need not be
N90X40.0Y70.0 repeated)
N100X100.OY70.0
NllOX70.0Y40.0
N120X100.OYlO.O
N130X100.OY40.0
N140X1l5.0
N150Yl4.02
N160Y65.98
N170X55.0Y65.98
N180Yl4.02 Co-ordinates of last hole
N190G49G80 Cancel TLO; cancel canned
cycle
N200M05 Stop spindle
N210G28X55.0Y25.0Z100.0 Return to tool change
position through
reference point
N220M30 End of tape; re-wind
%
.... Prograrn 14A

Use the prepared tape to identify:

• a digit
• a word
• a block of information
• the direction in which the tape should be read
• the 'start program' character
• the 'end program' character.

45
 Additional information
Electronic data transfer can be carried out at different speeds (baud rates).
Data transfer using paper tape is generally slower than transfer from
computer. Whichever method is used, every effort must be made to
eliminate errors during transfer.
The chart in Figure 14.2 shows that in all formats one of the eight tracks
is used for a parity check. In the format used for ISO-coded tape, each line
will contain an even number of holes. If the coded character only requires
an odd number, then an extra hole is automatically punched in track 8.
When the coded data is read by the tape reader, an error code is generated
if the reader detects a line with an odd number of holes, and the tape
reader will stop. A similar error-checking format is used for ASCII-coded
tape. EIA tape uses odd parity, with the parity hole being punched in
track 5.

46
Glossary

Absolute programming Programming using words indicating a

dimension or movement from the datum position of a co-ordinate
system
Adaptive control A control system that adjusts its response according
to the conditions detected during operation
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange, a data
transmission code
Axis A direction in which a member may move in a linear or rotary mode

BCD (Binary coded decimal) A system in which individualletters and

numbers are represented by a row of binary digits
Bit Binary digit
Block A word or group of words considered as a unit and separated
from other blocks by an end-of-block character
Block format The arrangement of words and characters in a block of a
program

CAM (Computer-aided manufacture) The use of computers to aid

any or all phases of manufacture
Canned (fixed) cyc1e Apre-set series of conditions which direct machine
axis movements or cause a spindIe operation to complete such actions as
boring, drilling or tapping.
CNC (Computer numerical control) A system wherein a dedicated
computer is used to perform some or all of the basic numerical control
functions related to machine manufacturing
Computer-assisted part programming The preparation of apart
program for a CNC machine using a computer and an appropriate
processor and post-processor
Control tape A tape on which a machine program is stored
Cutter compensation A displacement normal to the cutter path to adjust
for the difference between actual and programmed cutter diameters

Digit A character in a numbering system

EIA An American standard for numerical control

Incremental programming Programming using words indicating a

dimension or movement from the preceding point.
ISO (International Standards Organization) International
organization for standardization of units of measurement and technical
terminology, including numerical control code

Machine zero Origin of the co-ordinates in the machine system

Manual part programming The manual preparation of a machine
program
Miscellaneous function A word which controls discrete functions of a
machine or control system Ce.g. coolant off, spindIe on)
Modal Information which is retained by a control system until replaced
by new information

Numerical control system A system in which actions are controlled by

the direct insertion of numerical data at some point

Offset A dis placement in the direction of the tool axis which represents
the difference between the tool length and the programmed tool length

47
 Optimisation The arrangement of instructions in numerical control or
computer applications to obtain the best balance between the operating
efficiency and the use of the hardware

Parity check An error-checking device for binary transmitted data;

applied to punched tape by counting the number of holes across the tape
Part program An ordered set of instructions in a language and in a
format which will cause operations to be effected under automatie
control; may be written in the form of a machine program, or prepared
with input data for processing in a computer to obtain a machine
program
Part programmer A person who prepares the planned sequence of
events for the operation of a numerically controlled machine
Preparatory function A word which establishes a functioning mode of
machine or control system; e.g. interpolation type, fixed cycle
Pre-set tooling A system of setting tooling away from the machine
Punched tape A medium for the permanent storage and loading of part
programs

Qualified tooling Cutting tools on which the position of the cutting

edge is guaranteed

Software Computer programs used to assist part programming or the

control of the machine

Toollength offset A tool offset used in conjunction with a rotary tool in

which the dis placement is along the Z axis and equal to the offset value

Word address format Addressing each word in a block by one or more

characters which identify the meaning of the word

48
Index
absolute co-ordinates 5-6
adaptive control 9, 19
axes 4-7
baud rate 35, 42
binary coded decimal 43
blocks 31
Cartesian co-ordinate system
clamping 14-16, 20
clamping sensors 8
code standards (tape) 43-4
cutter paths see tool paths
data storage 34, 35
data transfer 35
datum tool 28
datums
transfer 11-13
see also machine datum; work datum
degrees of freedom 14
digital switching 43
discs 34
documentation 32
door interlocks 8
editing programs 34, 39
editing tape 40-42
end-of-program character
fixtures 15-16
setting 28, 29
G codes 25
guards 8-10
incremental co-ordinates 5-6
interlock guards 8, 10
M codes 14
machine control unit (MCU) 7, 34
machine datums 6, 11-13
manual data input (MDI) 34
modal functions 31
modular clamps 15, 16, 20
observation panels 8
offset numbers 23
overload protection 8, 9
parity check 45, 46
powered tooling 18
pre-set tooling 27-8
program analysis 32
program efficiency 32
programming protocol, safety aspects 8
protective clothing 8
proving programs 9, 36-9
qualified tools 27, 28-9
rapid traverse mode 37
robot sensors 8
4-5 rotary axes 7
safety 3, 6, 37
see also guards
sensors 8, 9
single block mode 37
spindie datums 11
spindie motor protection 9
spring cut 19
start-of-program character 34
swarf guards 8
table datums 11
table travel, limits 7
tape 34
handling 40-42
preparation 43-6
tape reader 40-41
teletypewriter 40, 45
tool carousels 20, 21
34 toollength offsets 11, 25-6
tool magazines 20
tool nose radius compensation 22, 30
tool offsets 23-4
tool paths 38
simulation 35, 36, 37
tool positioning 7
tool quadrants 30
tool setting probes 26, 28
tool travel, restricted 8
tools 17-19, 32
changing 20-22
driven 22
qualified 27, 28-9
setting 27-30
tips 17, 18, 30
turret datums 11
word address format 31
work co-ordinate systems 12-13
work datums 6, 13
work-handling sensors 8
work-holding 14-16, 32
working practices 17
Z axis lock 9
49