RETAINING WALLS

These are walls meant to support soil, or materials such as water, coal, ores etc. These walls
are meant to provide or maintain ground at two different levels. They become necessary in
construction of Hill Roads, Embankments, Bridge Abutments, Basement of Buildings,
and Water Reservoirs.

Retaining walls are structures that support backfill and allow for a change in grade. As
illustrated below it can be used to retain fill along a slope or it can be used to support a cut
into a slope.

To understand the importance of a Retaining Wall it is necessary to understand the term

“Angle of Repose”.

Angle of Repose
If agranular material like sand or earth is tipped on the ground, it will pile up in a heap. The
Angle of Repose is defined as the maximum angle made by the exterior face of the material
with the horizontal. It is the maximum slope, measured in degrees, from the horizontal at
which a loose solid granular material will remain without sliding.
A Retaining wall is meant to uphold all the material greater than the Angle of Repose.
Greater the friction between the grains of the Material, Larger will be the Angle of Repose,
Lesser the material to be retained. Lesser the material to be retained, lesser the lateral
pressure exerted by the material on the Retaining Wall.

Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressures

Pressure exerted by a fluid is very easy to compute and is given by the term ωh where ω is
the density of the fluid and his the height of the fluid column, However pressure exerted by
earth or soil or sand cannot be determined in the same way. However Empirical formulae
have been derived based on the Angle of Repose, Height of the material to be retained, and
density of the material to be retained. This Pressure exerted by Earth is very important in the
study of Retaining walls and Rankine’s Theory of Earth Pressures is used to calculate this
and is based on the following,

Basic Assumptions
1. Retained material is homogenous and cohesionless, i.e. the material that is exerting
pressure is free from moisture and is dry
2. Back of the Retaining wall is smooth and the Friction between the Retaining wall and
the Retained material is zero
3. The failure of the retained material takes place along a plane called as the Rupture
Plane.
4. The Retaining Wall is allowed to move(slide) away from the soil it is retaining, so
that the soil expands and evokes full shearing resistance and attains a state of Plastic
Equilibrium. The Pressure thus developed is called as Earth Pressure. Resultant Force
is parallel to the back fill surface,

There are two kinds of Earth Pressures.

1. Active Earth Pressure.
2. Passive Earth Pressure.

Active Earth Pressures - The pressure exerted by the retained material on the retaining
wall is called as Active Earth Pressure. As a result of the Active Earth Pressure, the retaining
wall tends to slide away from the retained earth; the retained earth expands and achieves a
state of plastic equilibrium.

Φ is the angle of repose;ωis density of retained earth, h is the height of the retaining wall

Passive Earth Pressures

When the wall slides away from the retained earth, if there is any earth or soil on the opposite
side of the back fill, this earth will get compressed and the exert a pressure on the retaining
wall which is opposite in direction to the direction of the Active earth pressure.

In order to develop Active Earth Pressure or Passive Earth Pressure, the wall must move, If
the wall does not move a sufficient amount, then full Active or full Passive pressures may not
develop. If the full Active Pressure does not develop, then the pressure will be higher than the
expected Active Pressure.
 Active
pressure

Conditions of Stability for Retaining Wall

1. Wall should not Overturn : Desired Factor of Safety 2
2. Wall should not Slide: Desired Factor of Safety 1.5
3. Wall should not exert pressure at the base greater than the S.B.C of Soil to avoid soil
being crushed. Max Pressure at base < S.B.C
4. Wall should not exert tension at the base to avoid cracking of the soil beneath.
Min Pressure at base > 0 or the eccentricity e of the resultant force should be such that
e<base/6

Stability against Overturning

The Retaining wall has a tendency to overturn on its toe due to the lateral pressure acting on
its vertical face (due to retained material). The Moment due to the lateral force about the toe
is called Overturning Moment (O.T.M.).This is resisted by the weight of the wall as also
weight of part retained material either on toe or heel or both. The moment due to this weight
about the toe is called Restoring Moment or Stabilizing Moment (S.M.).

Types of Retaining Walls

1. Gravity Retaining Walls. The structural action is entirely due to the weight of the
walls.
2. Cantilever Retaining Walls. Consisting of a vertical Stem and Horizontal Base Slab
(toe + heel).
3. Counterfort Type Retaining Walls. The wall is made of an upright slab spanning
across counterforts.
4. Buttress Type Retaining Walls.

Gravity Retaining Walls

As the name suggests these Retaining Walls are so called because it is the inertia of the wall
or the weight due to gravity of the wall that acts against all the forces acting on the wall i.e.
the effects of the forces due to the Retained Material.
1. These are economical up to a height of 6 meters.
 2. These are made of Brick, Stones or Concrete.
3. These walls are so proportioned that the dead weight of the wall provides stability
against the thrust exerted by the backfill including the surcharge.
4. It is very important to remember that no Tensile stresses should develop at any point
or the wall or in any section of the wall under any conditions as the materials that the
walls made have poor Tensile Resistance.

Cantilever Retaining Walls.

A cantilever retaining wall consists of a vertical cantilevering slab called the Stem and a Base slab.
The Base slab consists of a Toe Slab (on the opposite side of the Back Fill) and a Heel Slab
which is under the retained Earth (on the same side of the Back Fill). These are used to retain
earth up to a height of 6 meters. For greater heights a counter fort retaining walls is
constructed. The proportions of the retaining wall are as follows.
1. Top Width of Stem = 200 – 250 mm
2. Bottom Width of Stem = Computed from Bending Moment Considerations.
3. Width of Base Slab = 0.5 to 0.6 times the height of the wall.
4. Toe Projection = 1/6th to 1/3rd of the Base Width
5. Thickness of the Base Slab = Same as Bottom Width of the Stem
though dimensions are assumed at the beginning they shall be checked for Stability
and also for other pressures acting on the wall.

Steps in Designing of Retraining Wall

1. A tentative cross section should be first assumed as per thumb rules given above.
2. For one meter run of the wall, the maximum Bending Moment at the bottom of the
stem is computed and the depth for the same is worked out from the equation
𝑀 = 𝑄. 𝐹𝑐𝑘. 𝑏𝑑 2
Cover to reinforcement is 50mm
3. Base slab thickness = Stem Bottom Depth Computed.
4. Study the stability of the structure similar to Gravity Retaining Walls with respect to
A. Overturning. B. Sliding. C. Maximum and Minimum Pressure At Base.
5. In case of lower F.O.S for sliding, a shear key may be provided at the toe below the
base or vertically below the stem below the base.
6. Reinforcement
a. Stem Reinforcement. The reinforcement is calculated from B.M considerations.
It is provided on the earth side. The reinforcement may be curtailed as we go up as
the stem is a vertical cantilever attached to the base. Distribution steel is generally
provided on both the faces of the stem. Area of distribution steel not to exceed
0.15 % (for Fe 250) and 0.12% (for Fe 450). Cover 40mm – 50mm.

b. Toe Reinforcement. The toe slab is designed as a cantilever acted upon by

upward soil reaction. The depth provided is checked from B.M considerations.
The Main steel is provided for Max B.M and provided at the bottom. Cover 50mm
– 60mm.

c. Heel Reinforcement. The heel slab is also designed as a cantilever acted upon by
upward pressure and also the weight of the soil on the heel, its own self weight,
and superimposed loads or loads due to surcharge. The Main steel is provided for
Max B.M and provided at the top. Cover 50mm – 60mm.

d. Shear Key Reinforcement. The requirement of reinforcement in the shear key is

very small and hence alternate bars from the base slab steel may be bent down and
used. If the shear key is provided at the base of the stem, and in this case alternate
bars from the stem reinforcement may be extended up to the shear key.

e. Shear Reinforcement. Generally no shear reinforcement is provided as the shear

resistance offered by concrete is sufficient to resist shear forces as the width of the
slab (both stem and base) is 1 m (as in slabs, not designed for shear.)

7. Expansion and Contraction Joints. Keyed expansion and contraction joints are
provided at 30 m intervals.
Cantilever Retaining Wall Without Heel Projection.
Sometimes due to boundary restrictions, it may happen that the Wall cannot be provided with
a heel projection. In this case the dead load of the wall will have to be considerably high
since no assistance is available from the soil on the heel.

1. The thickness of the stem may be kept the same throughout and not tapered, to
increase the self weight.
2. Make the base slab thicker than the stem by about a 100mm
3. Instead of the width of the base slab being 0.6h, make it 0.7h
4. Shear key will have to be provided for prevention against sliding.

Cantilever Retaining Wall Without Toe Projection.

 Sometimes due to boundary restrictions, it may happen that the Wall cannot be provided with
a toe projection. This type of wall may be designed as an ordinary Cantilever Retaining Wall
though the base slab may have to be made 100 mm thicker than the bottom width of the stem.

Counter-fort Type Retaining Walls

Retaining walls over 6 meters in height are made of the counterfort Type. The various components of
such a type of wall are as shown in the figure.

1. Upright Slab. This is designed as a continuous slab spanning on the counterforts and
subjected to lateral earth pressure. The lateral pressure is max at bottom and depth
calculated for the slab at the bottom is maintained throughout. The main reinforcement
unlike the cantilever retaining wall runs horizontally being provided away from the earth
side at sections mid way between the counterforts and on the earth side at sections nearer
the counterforts. The slabs are also provided with distribution steel of 0.15% of cross
sectional area placed vertically on both the faces to form a mesh with the horizontal main
bars.
2. The Base Slab. The width of the base slab is 0.6 – 0.7 times the height of the wall and it
comprises of the toe and the heel slab. The toe projection is 1/4th the total width of the
base slab.
The heel slab is designed as a continuous slab with the counterforts as the supports.
2. A. The toe slab is designed in two ways either as a cantilever or as a continuous slab when
front counterforts are provided. In the first case the toe slab is designed as a cantilever
slab subjected to upward soil reaction. But if front counterforts are provided the toe slab
shall be designed as a continuous slab with counterforts as supports.
3. Counterforts - These are spaced at 3 to 3.5 m centre to centre. Or they can be spaced at
h/3 to h/2 where h is the height of the wall. The counterforts are designed as vertical
cantilevers held in position by the base slab. The loading on these counterforts is due to
the lateral earth pressure acting on the upright slab.
WEEP HOLES AND EFFECT OF SURCHARGE
Explain the drainage arrangements in Retaining Walls. Explain why they
are necessary.
Or What are Weep holes and why are they necessary?
Backfill which is saturated with water exerts higher lateral pressure on the retaining wall.
Thus the wall needs to be designed for this higher lateral pressure. When the soil is not
submerged, the Retaining wall is normally designed for earth pressure only and consideration
for increased earth pressure due to seepage of water into this earth or due to rising water table
is not taken into account. Hence regardless of the backfill material, the reduction or
elimination of hydrostatic pressure by draining out the water from the back fill by use of
Weep Holes needs attention.

Different ways of draining water from the back fill are as given below and their use depends
on the type of soil, rainfall in the area, etc.
1. Provide series of Weep Holes of diameter 100 mm or more in the bottom region of the
wall at 1.2 m or 2.0 m apart, vertically and horizontally. Weep holes should always
have some kind of filter material between the wall and the backfill to prevent fines
migration, weep hole clogging, and loss of backfill and caving.
2. A more effective method is to provide an impervious blanket like plain concrete along
the length of the wall. The water from the blanket may be collected either by clay
pipes or perforated metal pipes. This water may be discharged at desired points or
through weep holes at isolated points.
Write a short note on Effects of Surcharge On Retaining Walls.
The soil retained by a Retaining Wall can be in horizontal with the top of the Retaining Wall
or it can be retained in such a way that it makes an angle with the horizontal. This extra
material to be retained is called Surcharge.

The base width for such a surcharged wall is taken as 0.7 H where H= Total height of the
wall. Toe projection may be taken as 1/3rd of base width.

The surcharged load also could be due to parking area provided on the horizontal portion of
the backfill. This parking load would increase the horizontal pressure on the wall and the
Wall design will have to include provision for the same.

Questions
1. Draw a sketch of Mass Retaining Wall showing reinforcement detail and explain terminology
used in mass retaining wall. ( 12 marks)
2. RCC counter fort retaining wall ( 5 marks)
3. Cantilever retaining wall showing reinforcement details (10 marks)
4. Cantilever retaining wall showing thumb rule proportions and reinforcement details (10
marks )
5. Terminology of retaining wall ( 6 marks)
6. RCC retaining wall & its types ( 10 marks)
7. Draw labeled sketch of gravity retaining walls.
8. How does the ground water affect the retaining wall? ( 10 marks )