The pH Concept
by Doris Kolb
"If pH is a measure of acidity, then how is it that pH goes up when the
acidity goes down?"
Many students find this concept confusing at first, and that
is hardly surprising. Not only is the relationship hetween pH
and aciditv an inverse one. hut also it is a lorarithmic one. A
decrease <;fa single pH unit corresponds to a :en-fold increase
in aciditv, and when WHeoes down hv two units, aciditv in-
creases ;1 a factor ofi00:'lt sometimes takes a while fo;stu-
dents to avwreciate the simwlicitv
. - of the wH concewt and to
realize how;ery useful it is.
Acidity in water solution is due to the presence of hydrogen
ions (H+).This fact was first recognized by Svante Arrhenius
(1884) and is an important feature of his acid-base theory.
Degree of acidity is therefore expressed in terms of H+ con-
centration. With brackets to symbolize "moles per liter", [H+]
revresents the molar concentration of H+ ions in a solution.
and is thus a quantitative description of its acidity.
The hydrogen ions in a solution are not free-floating pro-
tons, of course. They are actually attached to molecules of the
solvent. For this reason H+ ions in water are often written as
hydronium ions, HsO+, with acidity expressed as [HsO+].
(Even this is a simplification, since the aqueous H + ion is most
likely bonded to 'cluster of water mol&ules.) For purposes
of this discussion, hydrogen ions are written simply as H+ and
acidity as [H+], with the understanding that H + ions in solu-
tion are always solvated.
What Is pH?
The p H concept originated in 1909 with the Danish bio-
chemist S. P. L. Skensen. He had been working on some
problems connected with the brewing of beer (in which control
of acidity is important), and it occurred to him that it was
needlessly cumhersome to have to say "the concentration of
hydrogen ion in this solution is one hundred-thousandth of
a mole wer liter" when IH+1 = 0.00001 (or 1 X lO-% Whvnot
simply iefer to the soluhn'as having '$H 5"? ~$re&enc h e d
the vH of a solution its "hvdro~enion exoonent". Orieinallv
he wrote it asp". or pH+ dllt shplified i't later to p ~ ' i s m a i l
"The pH Concept" is part of a
series of substantive reviews of
chemical principles taught first in
high school chemistry courses.
Dr. Kolb received a BS degree
Rom the University of Louisville
and both MS and PhD degrees
from The Ohio State University.
She has been employed as a
chemist at the Standard Oil Corn-
pany and as a television lecturer in
I into ions.
a series "Spotlight on Research."
She has served on the staffs of
Corning Community College and
Doris Kolb Bradley University. Since 1967,
lllinois Central College
she has been professor of Chem-
East Peoria, Illinois 61635 istry at Illinois Central College.
Illinois Central College
p, capital H). The H stood for "hydrogen ion" and the p for
"puissance" (French), "Potenz" (German), or "power".
As S$rensen defined it, p H was the Briggsian (base 10)
logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ion with its
sign changed in order that pH values should normally be
positive.
1
pH = log -
IH+l = --log[H+]
. ,
Restated in the following way, pH is more clearly identified
as the "negative exponent of the hydrogen ion concentra-
.
tion."
[Ht] = 10-sn
When [H+] is 0.01, which is 1 0 P , then the p H is 2; and when
[H+] is 0.0001, or then the pH is 4.
S6rensen's original definition of pH is still the one most
widely used, hut it is not completely satisfactory in all cases.
As [H+]increases, the effective concentration of H+ ions be-
comes progressively less than might he expected, hecause ol
increased interionic attraction a t the higher concentrations
A more precise definition of pH is
where IXH+ is the hydrogen ion actiuity (or the effective Hi
concentration). The H+ activity is obtained by multiplying
H+ concentration by a suitable activity coefficient. (Activit)
coefficients are correction factors based on thermodynamic
measurements. They approach 1.00 for very dilute solution!
hut get smaller as concentration increases.) Highly precise pH
calculations require the use of activity coefficients, but ordi
narily pH is calculated from the simple relationship pH = -log
[Ht], even though it tends to become less valid a t highe
concentrations.
The pH Scale
. . the WHscale extends from 0 t~
For most wractical wurwoses
14. The midpoint of the scale a t pH 7 represents neutrality
with values below 7 heine increasinelv .. " acidic and those abovt
7 increasingly basic. ~ a i u e greater
s than 14 are possible fo
concentrated strong bases, and negative pH values are possihh
for concentrated strong acids, hut it is for dilute solutions tha
the pH scale is most useful. Approximate pH values for somc
common materials are given in Table 1.
The numbers on the pH scale were not chosen arhitraril:
but result from the natural equilihrium that exists hetweet
H + and OH- ions in water solution. Even in pure water, whicl
is a non-electrolvte. there is a verv small wercentaee of ionizer
molecules (ah& 2 parts per hiiion). &r every500 milliol
H9O molecules in a samde of wure water. one molecule is swli
HaO = Hi +OH-
The ions and undissociated molecules are in equilihrium, ant
according to the law of chemical equilihrium, the followinl
condition must he satisfied
where K is the equilibrium constant. A liter of water a t 25O(
Volume 56, Number 1. January 1979 1 4s
 Table 1. pH Scale for Some Common Materials [H+] and [OH-] and between pH and pOH was created some
years ago by Prof. Hubert N. Alyea and is used here with his
concentrated lye permission. (Copyright: Armchair Chemistry, Princeton
5% NaOH
University, 1971.)
lime water
photodeveloper
)creasing
basicity household ammonia
soap
milk of magnesia
borax
baking soda
sea water
blood
htrality -----..-water
milk
rain water

cotfee
beer The visual impact of the diagram is to emphasize the fact
>creasing orange juice that all water solutions contain both H+ and OH- ions and
wine
acidity vinegar that the two must he in equilihrium. In neutral solutions [H+]
lemon juice and [OH-] are both equal to 10-7, but as one of the concen-
gaShic juice trations increases, the other must decrease accordingly.
5% HCI
Imaginary vertical lines drawn at various points along the
diagram illustrate the fact that [H+][OH-] = lo-'* and that
batterv acid +
nH DOH = 14.
It siould be noted thatKu, like all equilibrium constants,
varies with temDerature and is eaual to 10-14 onlv around
room temperatire (25°C). When water is near its freezing
point, K, is closer to 10-15, and at 60°C the value of K , is
10-'3. This means that neutral solutions a t 60°C have a pH
geighs 997 g, so the molar concentration of water in a pure +
of 6.5 instead of 7.0 and that pH pOH = 13a t that temper-
;ample is 997 gI18 g, or 55.3 M. This is a very large molar ature. (At the temperature of the human body, about 37'C,
:oncentration, and it changes only slightly when solutes are +
neutrality occurs a t pH 6.8, and pH pOH = 13.6.)
added to the water.[H20] can therefore be considered a con-
Calculating pH from [H+]
stant and incorporated into the equilibrium constant.
Since pH = -log [H+],or [H+] = 10-pH, m e nwd only write
KIHpO]= [H+][OH-] [H+] in terms of 10 to some power in order to convert it to pH.
31 In 0.001 M nitric acid the [H+] equals 0.001, or so the pH
is 3. Bht what if [H+] = 0.0027 When a number is not an in-
K, = [H+][OH-] tegral power of 10, its logarithm is a fractional number, and
K, is the "ion product" constant for water. the fractional portion is what is found in log tables. A simpli-
In a sample of pure water at 25'C the concentration of H+ fied "1-place" log table is given in Table 2. According to this
(and also that of OH-, since the two must be identical) is Table 2. Table of Logarithms
0.0000001 molh, or 1X 10-7 M. Substituting this value in the
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
equation ahove permits calculation of K,.
LW 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.8$ 0.9 0.g5
K, = (1X 10-")(I x lo-") = 1X 10-l4
abbreviated table, the log of 2 is 0.3, which means that 2 =
This means that in any water solution a t 25OC i t must he true 100.3. If [H+] = 0.002 = 2 X 10-3 then [H+] = lo0 X =
that 10-2.7 and the pH = 2.7. (To multiply exponential numbers,
[HC][OH-] = lo-" simply add the exponents, but note that these exponents are
opposite in sign.) In the case of asolution with [H+] = 0.0005,
No matter how acidic or basic a solution might he, i t must the pH would he 3.3, obtained as follows:
always contain both H+ and OH- ions, and the product of
their effective molar concentrations must equal K., [H+] = 0.0005 = 5 X lo-' = lo0." X lo-' = 10V3\pH
The small p in pH can be translated "negative logarithm Since pH depends on [H+], the first step in calculating the
of'and i t applies t o quantities other than H+ concentration. pH of a solution is to determine its [H+].Monoprotic strong
The term pOH, for example, represents the negative log of acids, such as HCI or HN03, are essentially 100% ionized in
OH- ion concentration, and pK, is the negative log of the ion water, so [H+] can be considered equal to the molar concen-
product constant for water. If we start with the equilibrium tration of the acid. Most acids are weak, however, and only
expression for water partially ionized. A 0.1 M solution of acetic acid is only about
[H+][OH-] = K , = 10W4 1% ionized, so its [H+] = (0.1)(0.01) = 0.001, or and its
and then take the negative logarithm of each term, we obtain
.
nH- --is ahout 3. whereas the nH of 0.1 M HC1 is about 1. I t
would appear, then, that to determine [H+]for a weak acid one
another useful relationship. need merelv look UD. its . ~ e r c e nionization:
t but it is usually not
pH + pOH = pK, = 14 that simple.
Calculating pH for Weak Acids
This should also explain the 0-14 range of the pH scale. (There
is a pOH scale just like the pH scale except that pOH values The percent ionization of a weak acid changes as its con-
below 7 are basic and those ahove 7 acidic. Ordinarily pH is centration changes-the more dilute the solution, the greater
used for reporting both acidity and alkalinity, even though the degree of ionization. The same acid mav he 1% ionized in
pOH might sometimes seem more convenient for bases.) n 10% ionized in aU.O1 M k u t i o n . l'he dis-
a l . ~ ~ . k l u t i ohut
A simple diagram for summarizing the relationship between sociation of a weak acid in water isan equilibrium phenome-

50 / Journal of Chemical Education

non, so the system is best described in terms of its equilibrium
constant. Using HA as the general formula for any weak acid,
we can write the following equation for its ionization in
water
HA=H++A- and by neglectingx in the 0.005 - X term, we can simplify the
equation to
and the expression for its ionization constant, K., is

K. values are available in tables (usually measured at 25OC),

and when K, and the acid concentration are both known, then
[H+] can be calculated algebraically.
Suppose we want to know the DH of a 0.01 M solution of
hypochlorous acid, HC10. First we must determine its [H+].
The K, for HClO is listed as 3.0 X 10-8.
HClO = H+ + CIO-
0.01 - x (x) (x)
If we let x = [H+], then [CIO-] must also = x, and the con-
centration of unionized HClO molecules = 0.01 - x. Starting
with the equilibrium expression for the ionization reaction
[Hf] [ClO-]
K. =
[HCIO]
we can make substitutions as follows
The determination of x from this expression involves the so-
lution of a quadratic equation, but the operation can be greatly
simplified if we neglect the x in the 0.01 - x term. (We are
justified in doing this if x is very small as compared with 0.01.)
The expression then becomes
3.0 X =z
Since x = [OH-],
[OH-] = 3.0 X 10-4 = loo5X lo-' =
pOH = 3.5
and
pH = 14 - 3.5 = 10.5
Calculating pH for Salt Solutions
Salts derived from strong acids and strong bases (e.g., NaCl
or KN03) are neutral, and their solutions exhibit a pH of
about 7 at all concentrations. But the salts of strong acids with
weak hases (e.g., NH&1) are somewhat acidic, and salts of
weak acids with strong bases (e.g., NaC~H302)are somewhat
basic. Solutions of such salts can he treated just like those of
weak acids or bases, since, in fact, the salt of a weak base is
really the conjugate acid of that base, and the salt of a weak
acid is the conjugate base of that acid.
As an example, let us calculate the pH of a 0.1 M solution
of sodium nitrite. This solution should he slightly basic, since
it is the salt of a strong base (NaOH) and a weak acid (HN02).
In water NaN02 breaks up into Na+ and N02- ions. The Na+
ions are stable in water, but the NOz- ions react with water,
producing OH- ions which cause the solution to he basic.

which can be simplified to

NO2- + HOH = HN02 + OH-
Since NOz- is the conjugate base of HN02, this reaction is
3.0 X 10-lo = x2 really the dissociation of a weak base, and so we need its dis-
sociation constant, Kb. The Kb for NOz- is not listed in most
Taking the square root of each side of the equation yields tables of dissociation constants, hut it can easily be deter-
1.7 X 10V = r mined from the K. value for HNOz (which is listed as 5 X
For any conjugate acid-base pair, where water is the
and, since x = [H+], then solvent, the followina relations hi^ exists
[H+] = 1.7 X 10-5 = 100.2 X 10-5 = 10-4-8
and the pH is 4.8.
Calculating pH for Bases
With bases it is usually easiest to calculate pOH and then and so, for theN02- ion,
subtract it from 14 to obtain pH. The pH of 0.01 M KOH 1x 10-14
might be determined as follows: Kb = --- = 0.2 X 10-l0 = 2 X lo-"
5 X 10W
[OH-] = 0.01 = 10-2 therefore pOH = 2 Starting with the equilibrium expression for Kb,
(and since pH + pOH = 14, or pH = 14 - OH)
pH=14-2=12
and lettingx equal the concentration of hydroxide ion, for 0.1
In the case of 0.005 M NaOH solution, M NaNOz we end up with the equation
[OH-] = 0.005 = 5 X 10W = X 10V3= 10-2.3
therefore pOH = 2.3 and pH = 14 - 2.3 = 11.7. Since strong
hases (such as the alkali metal hydroxides) dissociate com- which can be simplified to
pletely into ions in water, the [OH-] of a strong base is ob-
tained directly from its molar concentration, but weak bases,
like weak acids, are only slightly ionized. The [OH-] for a weak r = 1.4 X 10-6
base is usually calculated from its ionization constant, Kb. The Since x = [OH-], then
pH of a 0.005 M solution of ammonia (Kb = 1.8 X 10-5)
might be determined as follows, letting x = [OH-] [OH-] = 1.4 X lo-" looJ X 10W = 10-5.9

NHs + HOH = NH4+ + OH-

(0.005 - x ) (.) (x) POH = 5.9 and pH = 14 - 5.9 = 8.1

Volume 56, Number 1, January 1979 1 51


An interesting thing happens when a solution of a weak acid
(or hase) and its salt are mixed (or when a weak acid or hase
is partially neutralized, so that part of i t is converted to its
salt). The mixture oroduced has the unusual ahilitv to with-
stand small arlditions of strong acid or hase without appre-
cialdr rhanre in pH. Such mixtures arecalled huffcrrdolu-
tions, or bu~fers;hecausethey are protected (or ;'buffered")
against changes in pH.
To show how a huffer works, let us first consider a simple
solution of acetic acid. A weak acid such as acetic is only
slightly ionized in water, so the equation for its ionization
might be written
Nhen a salt of that same weak acid (e.g., sodium acetate) is
tdded to the solution. the concentration of the A- ion (ace-
ate) is greatly incrcwed, whilr the H* nmcentration remains
ow. In fact, the concentnition of Hf hecomes even smaller
.han i t was originally, since the added A- ion causes the
:quilihrium to shift to the left (common ion effect). The new
quilibrium in the acid-salt mixture might he represented as
hllows
This is the kind of system that can act as a buffer. When small
amounts of acid are poured into such a mixture, the equilih-
rium shifts to the left. The added H+ ions react with some of
the abundant A- ions to form more HA molecules until
equilihrium is restored, so as to satisfy the expression
. .
The net result is that [A-] decreases a little, and [HA] in-
creases a little, hut the change in [H+]is so slight that pH re-
mains essentially constant. In the case of additions of hase,
the added OH- ions react with the H+ ions to form water, thus
removing H+ ions from the system and causing the equilih-
rium to shift to the right. More HA molecules are ionized to
H+ and A- ions until the state of equilihrium is restored.
Again, the [H+] a t the new point of equilihrium is ahout the
same as it was originally, so there is no significant change in
pH.
There is a limit to how much acid or hase can he added to
a given huffer mixture. Once its reservoir of weak acid or salt
has been depleted, i t can no longer function as a buffer. The
more concentrated the weak acid (or hase) and its salt, the
greater the buffering capacity of the solution.
The pH of a huffer depends mainly on what weak acid or
hase i t contains. Since
then
[salt]
pK. =pH-log- lA-1 = pH -log -
[HA1 [acid]
and therefore
[salt]
pH=pK.+log-
[acid]
(This is sometimes called the Henderson-Hasselhalch equa-
tion.) For a given total concentration of acid or base, a huffer
solution ha; optimum buffering capacity when it eontains
equal molar amounts of the weak acid and its salt. The salt/
acid ratio in this case is 1, and its log is 0,so the pH of the
buffer is simply the pK, of the weak acid.
Buffers are important wherever there is a need to hold pH
constant, hut especially in the area of hiochemistry. Perhaps
52 1 Journal of Chemical Education
the most vital of all buffer systems, to humans at least, are the
ones operating in the hlood. The normal pH of the hlood is
about 7.2 (at body temperature), or 7.4 as measured a t room
temperature. Variation in the pH of the hlood by even one-
tenth of a pH unit can mean serious healthprohlems. A drop
of several tenths of a pH unit can result in coma, perhaps in
death. In the hlood there are bicarbonate, phosphate, and
protein huffer systems, all acting to maintain the constancy
of its pH.
Measuring pH
When H+ ion concentration is known, or can he obtained
from solution composition, pH can he calculated, hut for most
samples the only way to determine pH is to measurejt ex-
perimentally. There are two standard methods for measuring
pH, one involving the use of color indicators, the other re-
quiring a pH meter.
Color Indicators
'I'herr are certain organic dyes which are weak acids or bases
and which exhihit different colors dewndine. on whether thrv
are in their acid or conjugate hase foim. ~ h i iuse
r dates hack
to the exoeriments of Robert Bovle (1663) with olant iuices.
such as..&rup ofviolets", that t&ned red in arid andbluish
in base. 'l'hrs wovided the iirst detwndable criterion fur dif-
ferentiating b&ng a<.ids,bases, and neutral substanres. Grape
iuie, rilsoherries, red cabbage, and virtually all kinds of f l w e r
b e t a ~ contain
s such indicator dyes.
The indicator that most students know best is litmus, since
paper impregnated with it is used in almost all elementary
chemistry classes. (Bases turn it blue and acids red.) Litmus
happens to change color around pH 7 (pH 5 4 ,hut that is not
true for all color indicators. Several hundred acid-base indi-
cators are known, and they vary widely both in the colors they
exhibit and in the pH ranges of their color transitions (see
Table 3). In choosing an indicator for an acid-base titration,
it is nwessary to knuw the approximate pH at the equivalence
point so that it winrides with the transition range of the in-
dicator.
The P H of a solution can he measured by comparing a
sample (plus a drop of indicator) with the colors in a set of
standardized buffers containing the same indicator. By using
a series of different indicators and huffer standards, i t is
possible to cover the entire pH scale. A typical set of indicator
standards might comorise dozens of individual cornoarison
tubes. ~olorimetersand spectrophotometers have also been
used in pH determination.
One interesting device for measuring pH was the "color
wedge" of Niels Bjerrum (1914). A long rectangular box with
glass sides and a diagonal glass partition, it contained a solu-
tion of an indicator in its acid color in one compartment and
a similar solution in its alkaline color in the other.
Acid Alkaline
color color
t
line of vision
An unknown sample containing the same concentration of
indicator could he moved along the wedge until the colors
matched up exactly. The pH of the sample could then he de-
termined hy the equation
thickness B
pH = pK log thickness A
+
where pK is the negative log of the ionization constant of the
indicator and thicknesses B and A refer to the basic and acidic
solutions. Colorimetric techniques were once important
methods for making precise pH determinations, hut today
they have been largely superseded by the pH meter.
The pH Meter
The pH meter is a special kind of voltmeter connected to
a pair of electrodes-one that is pH-sensitive, and another
 Table 3. Color Chanoes lor Some Selected Indicators
yellow 0 blueqreen Malachite green
I yelbw Paramethyl red
blw I red Conga red
yellow I purple BrOmCresoI purple
Litmus red 0 blue
a-NapMhoIphlhalein rose 0 green
Phenolphlhalein colorless 0 red
Alizarin yellow yellow I red
Tropeolin 0 yellow I orange
that is used for reference. The reference electrode is usually
made up of a layer of calomel (Hg2CI2)in contact with mer-
cury and a KC1 solution. Its most important feature is its
constant voltage. Among pH-sensing electrodes the primary
standard is the hydrogen electrode, in which a stream of hy-
drogen gas is bubbled over platinized platinum, or some other
activated noble metal. Hydrogen electrodes have been used
to measure changes in acidity ever since W. Bottger (1897)
first discovered that their voltages depended on the acid
concentration of the solutions contacting them. However,
hydrogen electrodes are inconvenient for routine use, and they
cannot be used with certain kinds of samples, either because
the samples are reduced by the H d P t systemor because they
- "noison"
mieht . the electrode. A number of other electrodes
have been developed for measuring pH, such as the quinhy-
drone electrode and the antimonv electrode. but bv- far the
most successful one has been the glass electhde.
The first glass electrode was built in 1909 (the same year
that Spkensen introduced the pH concept) in the laboratory
of Fritz Haber (the same German chemist who later won the
Nobel prize for his ammonia process). I t was based on an ob-
servation made a few years earlier by a biologist named
Cremer, who noted that a voltage developed across a thin glass
harrier separating two different acid solutions. Using very thin
elass bulbs containing one electrolvte and divnine into an-
other, Haber and ~1ed;ensiewiczfo&d that the ;olGge across
the elass membrane varied with the aciditv of the outer so-
lutitrn in much the samt. way as with n hydrogen electrode.
Studies made durinr the next 25 sears indicated that alans
electrodes were superior in many'ways, but they remajned
impractical because the high resistance of the glass mem-
branes made the cell voltages difficult to measure. Electronic
voltmeters of very high input resistance, suitable for use with
glass electrodes, did not become available until about 1935.
Since then there have been many improvements in glass
electrodes and in the desien
~ ~
. meters. The extreme oon-
.. of DH
uliirity of pH meters in modern laboratories i* mainly due to
. .
the convenwnce, reliability. and versatility of the glass elec-
trode.
A pH meter is basically an electrochemical cell, and its
voltage is related to solution pH by the relationship
RT
E=K--ln[H+]
F fornis.
where E is the measured electromotive force of the cell, K
includes the e.m.f.'s of the glass and reference electrodes, R
is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, and F is the
Faraday constant. (For greater accuracy, [H+] should be re-
placed
E = K - (8'32)(298' (2.303) log [H+] = K + 0.0592 pH
96.500
Modern pH meters come in many styles and sizes, from tiny
battery-operated field kits to large digital-readout instru-
ments that can carrv out radd automatic titrations. Often the
glass elcrtrode and refereire electrode are combined; the
romhrnorion e / ~ c t r o d ris easier t,, handle. Some flat models
can even be used to meawre pH on solid surfaces, such as skin,
samples in pt,tri dishes, etc. hlembrane electrodes specific for
ions other than H* ha\^ also been develoved. There are now
ion-selective electrodes for measuring chloride, cyanide, ni-
trate, sodium, ammonium, and other ions.
The accuracy of a pH meter reading ultimately depends on
how carefully the instrument has been calibrated. A pH meter
should be checked frequently against standard buffer solu-
tions of known pH. Modern pH meters include electronic in-
struments of such precision that they can provide pH values
reproducible within a few thousandths of a pH unit. In fact,
the precision with which pH values can now be measured ex-
ceeds the ability of our theories to interpret exactly what the
numbers mean.
Anernatives to pH
Over the years the pH scale has been criticized because of
the inverse relationship between pH and [H+] and because
concentrated solutions of strong acids exhibit negative pH
values. Some of the critics have recommended substitute
scales of their own.
However, none of these acidity scales ever achieved wide
acceotance. I t seems that efforts at trvine to imnrove on the
pH kale have usually made it more"co&plicaied and less
satisfactory. The simplicity and practicality of the pH concept
is probably never more evident than when one has just ex-
amined the alternatives.
Todny the mri~surem~nt of acidity has hecomr routine not
onlv in research and control lahorau,ries, but also in industrial
plants, schools, hospitals, clinics, environmental stations,
swimming pools, etc. Almost invariably acidity is measured
and reported as pH, even if it is an inverse logarithm!
Far coffeeit's 5; for tomatoes it's 4;
While household ammonia's 11or more.
It's 7 for water, if in a pure state,
But rain water's 6, and sea water is 8.
It's basic at 10, quite acidic at 2,
And well above 7 when litmus turns blue.
Some find it a puzzlement. Doubtless their fog
Has something to do with that negative log.
References
Alyes, H. N.. "Aeid-Bare Equilibria, pH", J. CHEM EDUC.,41.A61 (1960.
Bates, R. G.,"Determination of pH: Theory and Practice", 2nd edition, John Wiley,New
York, 1973.
Crane, F. E.,Jr.. 'IsTherean Alternative to pH?", J. CHEM. EDUC., 38.365 (1961).
Clark, W. M.."The Determination of Hydrogen Ions". 3rd edition, Williams and Wilkins
Baltimore, 1928.
Joyce,R. J.. "pH SimplifieP,ScienceSupply News,Marhson Science, Ine.,DelMar,Csli-
Koltoff. I. M., "The Colorimehic and Potentiometric Datermination of pH", John Wiley
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