This article was downloaded by: [University of Arizona]

On: 08 June 2014, At: 04:35

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number:
1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street,
London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Plant Nutrition

Publication details, including instructions for
authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lpla20

Automated management
of nutrient solutions
based on target electrical
conductivity, ph, and
nutrient concentration
ratios
a b
Dimitrios Savvas & Konstantinos Adamidis
a
Faculty of Agricultural Technology ,
Technological Education Institute (T.E.I.) of
Epirus , P.O. Box 110, Arta, 47100, Greece
b
Department of Mathematics , University of
Ioannina , Ioannina, 45110, Greece
Published online: 21 Nov 2008.

To cite this article: Dimitrios Savvas & Konstantinos Adamidis (1999)

Automated management of nutrient solutions based on target electrical
conductivity, ph, and nutrient concentration ratios, Journal of Plant Nutrition,
22:9, 1415-1432, DOI: 10.1080/01904169909365723

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01904169909365723

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of

all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications
on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our
licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the
accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content.
Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions
and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by
 Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied
upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of
information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses,
actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages,
and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly
or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use
of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study
purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution,
reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access
and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014
 JOURNAL OF PLANT NUTRITION, 22(9), 1415-1432 (1999)

Automated Management of Nutrient

Solutions Based on Target Electrical
Conductivity, pH, and Nutrient
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

Concentration Ratios

Dimitrios Savvasa and Konstantinos Adamidisb

a
Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Technological Education Institute (T.E.I.)
of Epirus, P.O. Box 110, 47100 Arta, Greece
b
Department of Mathematics, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece

ABSTRACT

An algorithm to automatically formulate the composition and prepare nutrient

solutions for soilless cultures based on desired characteristics given as target
values is proposed. To formulate the complete ionic composition of a nutrient
solution, standard recommendations referring to the following solution
characteristics should be available: (i) electrical conductivity (EC), (ii) pH, (iii)
concentration ratios of macronutrients (meq basis), and (iv) micronutrient
concentrations. Moreover, the mineral composition of the water used to prepare
the nutrient solution should be taken into account. To develop the main steps
of the algorithm, the total salt concentration (meq L-1) of the nutrient solution
is related to the desired electrical conductivity. The target pH indicates the
concentration of HCO3- in the nutrient solution, whereas the absolute
concentration of each macronutrient is derived from the desired concentration
ratios and the total salt concentration. The necessary calculations are
standardized through the development of formulae. Furthermore, the
differences in nutrient concentrations between desired levels in the solution

1415

Copyright © 1999 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. www.dekker.com

 1416 S A WAS AND AD AMIDIS

and those found in the tap water represent the amounts of nutrients per
volume nutrient solution (meq L-1) which should be added through fertilizers.
The above described steps of the algorithm have been tabulated to facilitate
their implementation. Moreover, a numerical example concerning the
composition of a nutrient solution for cucumbers is given. In the final steps of
the algorithm, two standard formulae are used to calculate the quantities of
individual macronutrient and micronutrients fertilizers needed to prepare
particular volumes of stock solutions. Alternatively, when stock solutions of
single fertilizers having known concentrations are used, the composition of
the nutrient solution can be automatically adapted to new target values. This
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

task can be performed without replacing the existing stock solutions by

rearranging the formulae used in the last steps of the algorithm to calculate
dilution ratios instead of fertilizer quantities.

INTRODUCTION

The response of plants to a nutrient solution is mainly determined by total salt

concentration, pH, and nutrient concentration ratios (Steiner, 1961; De Rijck and
Schrevens, 1995). Therefore, me recommendations aimed at optimizing the nutrient
solution composition refer to these solution characteristics.
The total salt concentration of the nutrient solutions used in soilless culture is
one of the most important characteristics. Too high levels induce salinity toxicity,
while too low values are mostly accompanied by nutrient deficiencies (Sonneveld,
1989). Several attempts have been made to establish optimal ranges of total ionic
concentration in the nutrient solution for particular crops (Moustafa and Morgan,
1983;EhretandHo, 1986; Sonneveld and Welles, 1988; Holder and Christensen,
1988;Adams, 1991;Sawas, 1992; Sonneveld and Voogt, 1993). In most cases, the
EC was used as an estimate for the total ionic concentration, since it can be readily
and accurately measured even in commercial glasshouses, using portable
instruments (Cooper, 1977).
The pH of a nutrient solution is a property of major significance for plant growth,
since it influences the availability of most nutrients (Islam etal., 1980; Willumsen,
1980), and should, therefore, be maintained within optimum range. As suggested
by Jones (1982) the nutrient solutions supplied to the most soilless cultivated
crops should have a pH between 5-6 (usually 5.5) in order to maintain apH between
6-6.5 in the root environment. The pH of the nutrient solution is influenced by its
ionic composition (Steiner, 196 l;De Rijck and Schrevens, 1997a, 1997b). Therefore,
the target pH of a nutrient solution should be taken into account when its ionic
composition is formulated.
Many studies dealt with plant growth responses to nutrient solutions having
different nutrient concentration ratios. In most of these investigations, different
concentration ratios between nutrient anions (Steiner, 1966; Shima et al., 1996),
K:Ca (Voogt, 1988a, 1988b; Nukaya etal., 1995), K:Ca:Mg (Steiner, 1966; Sonneveld
 AUTOMATED MANAGEMENT OF NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS 1417

andVoogt, 1985; Willumsenetal., 1996), N:K (Wilson, 1980) and ammonium to total
N(Feigin, 1990;Heuer, 1991; Stensvand and Gislerod, 1992;Eliaetal., 1996) in the
nutrient solution have been compared. Moreover, in some papers dealing with
uptake ratios of nutrients by the plants, specific ratios of nutrient concentrations
in the nutrient solution were recommended for particular crops (Adams and Massey,
1984; Van Gooretal., 1988; Savvas and Lenz, 1995). As proposed by Schrevens
and Cornell (1993), reliable results concerning optimal concentration ratios in the
nutrient solutions can be obtained, if experimental designs based on mixture theory
are applied.
The concentrations of micronutrients in the nutrient solution constitute another
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

factor markedly influencing plant growth in hydroponics. Recommendations

concerning target micronutrient concentrations in the nutrient solution for specific
plants are available (Hoagland and Arnon, 1952; Hewitt, 1966; Cooper, 1979;
Sonneveld and Welles, 1984; Sonneveld and Straver, 1994; De Kreij et al., 1997).
Despite the adequacy of recommendations concerning one or more of the previously
cited solution characteristics, information on how to combine them to formulate a
complete nutrient solution composition is limited. The main difficulty in this process
arises from the fact that any attempt to add a macronutrient ion in a nutrient
solution is obligatorily accompanied by the supply of another macronutrient ion of
the opposite charge, since all fertilizers, when dissolved in the water, yield one
anion and one cation. Moreover, the mineral composition of the water used to
prepare the nutrient solution should also be taken into account, since it contains
substantial amounts of Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, SO42", HCO3', Cl" and some micronutrients.
Finally, the acid added to adjust the pH of the solution involves dissociation
reactions which influence the concentration of phosphate and bicarbonate (De
Rijck and Schrevens, 1997a), thus significantly complicating the calculations. Hence,
in the past and even in today's soilless culture practice, recipes chosen largely at
random or developed empirically are often used to prepare nutrient solutions (De
Rijck and Schrevens, 1995).
The determination of the ionic composition which corresponds to desired values
of EC, pH, and nutrient ratios in hydroponics, and the calculation of the fertilizer
amounts needed to prepare a nutrient solution could be simplified, if they are
performed using a standard algorithm. Furthermore, such an algorithm could
facilitate automated preparation of nutrient solutions having any desired
composition through an installation controlled by a computer program, according
to given target values of EC, pH, and nutrient concentration ratios. Nevertheless,
the latter is feasible, provided that each fertilizer used to prepare the nutrient
solution is available as a separate stock solution.
In this study, an algorithm is proposed to formulate, prepare and adapt nutrient
solution compositions when aiming at given EC, pH, macronutrient concentration
ratios, and micronutrient concentrations. Moreover, some results from research
carried out to establish certain mathematical and statistical relationships included
in the algorithm are outlined.
 1418 SAWASANDADAMIDIS

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Most of inorganic salts and acids used as macronutrient fertilizers to prepare

nutrient solutions for soilless culture, when dissolved in water, dissociate into two
different nutrient ions, one cation and one anion. By definition, when dissolving
electrolytes in water, the ratio of cations and anions added is 1:1 in terms of
"equivalents". Obviously, the chemical calculations are considerably simplified
by the assumption that each fertilizer dissolved in water releases cations and
anions at a constant ionic ratio of 1:1, regardless of the valence of the ions.
Therefore, the algorithm proposed in the present paper is based on macronutrient
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

concentrations and ratios that are expressed in terms of meq L"1 and meq meq'1,
respectively.
To automatically formulate or adapt the composition of a nutrient solution through
the algorithm presented in this paper, target values for the following solution
characteristics should be available: (i) EC of the nutrient solution (dS nr 1 ), (ii) pH
of the nutrient solution, (iii) concentration ratios between K:Ca:Mg, (iv)
concentration ratios between N:K, (v) concentration ratio of P to total nutrient
anions, (vi) concentration ratio of NH4+ to total nitrogen (NO3" + NH4+), and (vii)
micronutrient concentrations. Moreover, the mineral composition of the water
used to prepare the nutrient solution should be known through a chemical analysis.
The target values of EC, pH, nutrient concentrations and concentration ratios as
well as the mineral composition of the tap water are input data for the algorithm.
The water analysis should be precise thereby resulting in values that are
consistent with the constraint of anion to cation balance which imposes that the
sum of cation equivalents is equal to the sum of anion equivalents. The results of
the water analysis should be taken into account when specifying the target values
of EC and nutrient concentration ratios.
To calculate the individual nutrient concentrations which correspond to the
desired solution characteristics, the target EC of the nutrient solution should be
converted into total meq L"1 of diluted salts through a proper relationship. To
obtain this relationship, 24 samples of nutrient solutions were analyzed to determine
the Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, NH4+, Na+, SO42", NO3", mineral P, HCO/ and Cl" concentrations.
The 24 nutrient solutions were prescribed for supplying various crop species and
had, therefore, different ionic compositions. Moreover, most of them were prepared
by using tap water of different origins. Then, the results obtained from the chemical
analysis were used to estimate their total salt concentration in meq L"1 by calculating
the average of measured total anion and total cation concentrations. The
concentrations of micronutrients and any other ions that may be present in nutrient
solutions (e.g., ions of Al, Ni, F, etc.) were not taken into account since they are
normally negligible compared to those of macronutrients. Furthermore, the electrical
conductivity of each sample was measured at 25°C. Thus, using regression
analysis, a relationship between equivalent total salt concentration and EC of the
nutrient solutions was established.
 AUTOMATED MANAGEMENT OF NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS 1419

In almost all cases, the tap water used to prepare nutrient solutions for
hydroponics contains bicarbonates. The bicarbonate concentration of an aqueous
solution is influenced by its pH and is related to the H2CO3 and CO32" concentration
(De Rijck and Schrevens, 1997a). To test the possibility of using this relationship
to predict the HCO3" concentration of a nutrient solution for any particular target
pH, these parameters were determined in 10 nutrient solutions having different
ionic compositions and the results were compared with the theoretically expected
values.
The total equivalent concentration derived from the target EC is further used in
a sequence of mathematical equations in combination with the target macronutrient
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

ratios to determine the macronutrient concentrations in the desired nutrient solution.

Thereafter, for each individual nutrient, the amount of equivalents that should be
added per litter water to obtain the target nutrient solution composition is estimated
by subtracting the concentration of the nutrient in the tap water from the desired
concentration in the solution. The values obtained are then used to estimate the
dosages (meq L"1) of the macronutrient fertilizers that should be added to tap water
to obtain a nutrient solution composition having the target pH, EC and
macronutrient concentration ratios. Finally, based on the calculated dosages of
fertilizers, two alternative tasks can be performed through the algorithm. The
output generated by the algorithm in each case is described below.
If certain amounts of stock solutions should be prepared, the weights of the
fertilizers needed are automatically calculated through two additional equations
incorporated in the algorithm. For this, the desired volumes of stock solutions and
the ratios in which they should be diluted with tap water are also given as input
data.
When single fertilizer stock solutions having known concentrations are used,
the algorithm allows for the calculation of the ratios in which they should be
diluted with tap water to produce a nutrient solution composition corresponding
to the desired characteristics. In the latter case, using a computer controlled
system it is possible to automatically adjust the dilution ratios of the stock solutions
up to the values calculated through the algorithm. As a result, nutrient solutions
of any desired EC, pH, and nutrient concentration ratios may be automatically
prepared without changing the fertilizer concentrations in the stock solutions. To
calculate the dilution ratios, the additional input data needed by the algorithm are
the fertilizer concentrations in the stock solutions.
Taking into account the common practice in commercial hydroponics, the
algorithm is based on the assumptions that no Na+, Cl", HCO3", and Si are added to
the nutrient solution through fertilizers and only ammonium nitrate is used to
supply NH4+. Moreover, it is assumed that no calcium sulfate, calcium phosphate
and magnesium phosphate are used as fertilizers, because of their insufficient
solubility in water. However, the algorithm is capable of further extension to make
provision for Na+, Cl' and Si addition as well as for the supply of ammonium and
phosphorus in form of (NH4)2SO4 or NH4H2PO4.
 1420 SAWASANDADAMIDIS

Analyses of the nutrient solution samples were performed according to Eaton et

al. (1995). The concentrations of K+ and Na+ were measured by flame photometry
(Jenway PFP7), whereas Ca2+ and Mg2+ were determined by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry (GBC 932 A/A). Mineral phosphate was estimated
colorimetrically at 880 nm by the ascorbic acid method. Nitrate was reduced to
nitrite by cadmium and determined colorimetrically at 543 nm by the diazo-method.
The colorimetric determinations of P and N-NO3" were performed by using a Hitachi
U-2001 spectrophotometer. NH4+ was determined by distillation and titration with
H2SO4. SO42" was measured by gravimetric analysis, HCCy by titration with H2SO4
and Cl" by silver nitrate precipitation.
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

Hereinafter [•] will be denoting a value in meq L 1 of the ion or fertilizer in the
argument while the subscripts t, w, and / will be indicating target concentration,
concentration in tap water, and dosage of ion to be added through fertilizers,
respectively. Moreover, H2PO4" will be denoting total mineral P, unless differently
specified.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Relationship Between Total Salt Concentration and Electrical Conductivity
A simple relationship between concentration (meq L 1 ) of total diluted salts and
the corresponding EC is considered in the range 0.8-4.0 dS nr1 using data from 24
nutrient solutions of various ionic compositions. Part of Figure 1 represents a
scatter diagram of total salt concentration ( Q versus EC (E) for these data. Clearly,
the scatter diagram suggests a linear relationship between the two variables. Indeed,
full regression analysis revealed that the data are adequately described by the first
order model:
C=98.19£-1.462 [1]
and that all the assumptions underlying the fit were met; the graph of the model is
included in Figure 1.
Normally, the recommended EC values for the nutrient solutions involved in the
soilless cultivation of vegetable and ornamental plants range between 0.8 and 3.7
dSm'CSonneveldandStraver, 1994;DeKreijetal., 1997). In this range, the EC of
single salt solutions is almost linearly related to the corresponding salt concentration
in meq L 1 (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954), whereas for each salt a different
relationship is obtained. In the present study, the nutrient solutions analyzed
contained mixtures of salts at different concentrations. However, the nutrient
solutions used in commercial soilless culture have a similar composition pattern
regarding nutrient concentration ratios (Table 1). Hence, using regression analysis
a strong linear relationship between C and E could be obtained which is valid for
balanced nutrient solutions. Certainly, a small discrepancy between the actual
total salt concentration and the value estimated through [1] is likely to occur in
 AUTOMATED MANAGEMENT OF NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS 1421

- 40- Y = 9.819 X-1.462

R ! = 0.997

o 30- p-slope < 5x10""

c
g p-intercept<5x10"
to
|20H

I
1 10-
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

2o

0 1 2 3 4
Electrical conductivity (£, dS m')

FIGURE 1. Scatter diagram for the total salt concentrations in 24 nutrient solutions
having various ionic compositions as related to the EC and the line of best fit.

some cases. However, in commercial hydroponics, EC is used to approximately

indicate the total salt concentration of the nutrient solutions and, therefore, small
discrepancies are acceptable. Consequently, it is possible to use [1] to estimate
the total salt concentration in meq I 1 which corresponds to the target EC of a
nutrient solution.

TABLE 1. Means ( x ) of percentages of individual cation and anion

concentrations (meq L"1) to total anion and cation concentration, respectively,
from 24 nutrient solutions used to supply various vegetabel and ornamental
crops. For each mean, the standard deviation (s) is given to indicate the
magnitude of variance in ion concentration ratios that can be foound among
various nutrient solutions used in commercial hydroponics.

Cation
X (%)
S Anion
X (%) s
38.35 5.55 [SO/1 18.67 5.87
ion
16.10 4.65 [NO/] 65.06 7.91
[Jfi 34.18 5.74 WiPO/] 5.96 1.09
[NHS] 4.69 1.95 [HCOi] 3.67 2.84
[Na+] 6.69 4.29 [Ct] 6.64 4.75
 1422 SAW AS AND ADAMIDIS

Relationship Between pH and Bicarbonate Concentration

In aqueous solutions there is a chemical equilibrium between carbonate,
bicarbonate, and carbonic acid (in fact, dissolved CO2):
HCO3+H3O+ H2CO3+H2O K3
HCO3+H2OH3O++CO32- ^
The fraction HCO3" is calculated as a function of pH ([//3O+1) through the equation:

[HiO*]B
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

where: B^l+KJHp'^+KJCJHp*-]4 (De Rijck and Schrevens, 1997a) and all

concentrations are expressed in meq I 1 .
If the values of [HCO3] and [H3O+] measured in the tap water are substituted in
equation [2], it is possible to calculate the sum of concentrations of carbonic acid,
bicarbonate and carbonate ions. Then, since the latter is known, equation [2] can
be used again to calculate the HCO3' concentration corresponding to the target pH
of the nutrient solution, which will be denoted by Cb.
The 10 experimental nutrient solutions used to measure pH and HCO3"
concentration were prepared by using tap water having pH 7.63 and containing 3.7
meq I/ 1 of bicarbonate. These values were substituted in [2] to estimate the HCO3"
concentrations of the 10 nutrient solutions (Figure 2). Results suggest that the
bicarbonate concentrations measured were in agreement with those predicted by
[2]. Thus, when the composition of a nutrient solution is formulated, the pH and
the HCO3" concentration measured in the tap water can be substituted in [2] to
predict the HCO3" concentration corresponding to the particular target solution
pH.

Formulating the Nutrient Solution Composition

The target nutrient solution will contain Ct meq L"1 of total diluted salts, as
estimated by [1]. Consequently, due to the cation to anion balance constraint, the
nutrient solution will contain C, meq L"1 of cations and C, meq L"1 of anions.
Furthermore, in most cases, no fertilizers containing Na and Cl are added when
preparing a nutrient solution and therefore [Na+]w and [C/"]w will be denoting the
concentrations of these ions in both the nutrient solution and tap water. The Na
and Cl input through fertilizer impurities is neglected. Moreover, the nutrient
solution will also contain Cb meq L"1 of bicarbonate, since this HCCy concentration
corresponds to the target pH according to [2].
Furthermore, in most nutrient solutions the only cations being present in
substantial amounts in the nutrient solution are K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, NH4+, and Na+,
thus:
l-[Na+W [3]
X + V +Z
 AUTOMATED MANAGEMENT OF NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS 1423

3.0-,

2.

Io 2.0H
1.5-

S 1.0-1
o"
o
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

x 0.5H

0.0 J
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
pH of nutrient solution

FIGURE 2. Scatter diagram for the bicarbonate concentrations of 10 nutrient solutions as

related to pH and the theoretical curve obrained when the pH and the bicarbonate concentration
of the tap water used to prepare the solutions are 7.63 and 3.7 meg I/ 1 , respectively.

where: X:Y:Z are the target concentration ratios for K to Ca to M g .

By definition, the concentration ratios of total N to K and of ammonium to total
N , w h i c h should b e given as target values, are R=([NO 3 '] t }([K + ] t )"' a n d
N=[NH 4 + ] t ([NO 3 "]+[NH/],)•',respectively. Therefore:

' L \l
and subsequently, using [3] one obtains
X<p,-[Na*1J) [5]
' X + Y + Z + NJVC

However, it should be pointed out that equation [3] suffices for the determination
of [K*],, when an absolute [NH4+](, is given instead of N . As far as [K+]t is
determined, [NH4+]t is readily available upon substitution'to equation [4] and
moreover:

[6]
[7]
[H2PO,-l=Pr(C,-Cb-[Cl-]w\ [8]
2
, -], =C, -[NOH -[HWl -Cb -[Cl-]w, [9]

with Pt being the desired concentration ratio of phosphorus to total concentration

of macronutrient anions in the nutrient solution.
 1424 SAWASANDADAMIDIS

Calculating the Fertilizer Addition Dosages

Using the results of the previous section an algorithm has been developed to
determine the quantities of fertilizers needed to prepare the stock solutions; its
formulation involved steps that are easy to construct conceptually, to program for
calculation, and to fit into computer storage. In the computer implementation of
the algorithm, cation and anion concentrations will be stored in arrays and therefore
it is convenient to present the algorithm using vector and matrix notation. Thus,
for the cation concentrations we define two six-dimensional vectors [c]t and [c]w
with components the target and water concentrations respectively, that is:
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

[c]=(Mlj;j=l,...,6M[Cfa*]t, [A/g*],, [K% {NH;]t, [Na+\,[//+],),

and similarly for [c]w; [H+\ and [//% denote the H3O+ concentration in the nutrient
solution and in the tap water, respectively. Similarly, [a]( and [a]w denote five-
dimensional vectors with components the target and water anion concentrations,
for example:

The algorithm leading to the fertilizers' addition dosages involves the following
steps:
1. Specify [c]w and [a]w according to results of a precise water analysis.
2. Compute Ct using equation [1] and then [c]tand [abusing [4]-[6] and [2],[7], [8],
and [9], respectively, recalling that [ c j ^ c ] ^ , [c]lS =[c]w6_0 (since the target and
the tap water pH are normally higher than 5 and 7, respectively, and,
subsequently, the H3O+ concentration is in both cases negligible), [a] 4=Cb and
[a],5=[a]w5.
3. Compute
M, = <M,;./ = U...jS) = dCauh. Wg1*],, [AT*],, [Aff/],, [Na*]f. [H*1,)
= <M, -[c]^,0, [HCO,-]W -Cb;j=\,...,4)

and

for the addition dosages (meq I'1) of cations and anions to the solution through
fertilizers, respectively.
4. Let [F^flT 7 ]^ r=l,...,6,s=l,...,5) be the matrix with rows the concentrations of
the fertilizers formed by successively combining each cation in [c] f with all the
anions in [a] i.e., the first row is [F]n=[CaSOA], [F] 12 =[Ca^O 3 ) 2 ],...,
[F]l5=[CaCl2], the second row is [F]2rWgSO,l [F\ir[Mg{NOi\],...,[F2r[
AfgC72], and so on. Compute the elements of [F] as follows:
• [F] B =[*]/,.
>M / 2 then [F]n =[c\ft,[F]n =0 and [Flt=[a]n-[c]f2,
 AUTOMATED MANAGEMENT OF.NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS 1425

• If M/i<M/2 then [F] 21 =[a]fu[F]n =[c]fl - [ « ] „ and [F] 31 = 0,

• If phosphorus is added as [F\3 then [F]^ = [a]f3 and [F]a = 0,
• If phosphorus is added as [F\3 then [F]n =0 and [F]a =[a]/3,
• [F]31 = M / 3 - [F] 31 - [F]33,[F]42 =[c] / 4 and [F]a = [c]fi - [ F ] o ,
• \F\n =0 for all other values of (r, s).
A tabular representation of the algorithm is given in Table 2. The first three
columns and rows contain the preliminary computations given in the corresponding
steps of the algorithm. The entries in the remaining (6x5) subtable are the amounts
of fertilizers (meq), which should be added (per liter of water) to achieve the target
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

ionic concentrations, obtained in the fourth step of the algorithm. In Table 3 a

numerical example is given, concerning formulation of a nutrient solution for
cucumbers and calculation of the fertilizer dosages needed to prepare it.
The assumption [H*]=[HCO}~]w-Cb in the third step of the algorithm is valid for
a target pH between 4.6 and 6 since within this pH range HNO3 dissociates
completely, almost no NH4+ dissociates and virtually all mineral phosphate is present
in form of l y O , ; (Steiner, 1961;DeRijckandSchrevens, 1997a). In particular, at pH
4.6 the P of the nutrient solution is completely present in form H2PO4", whereas at
pH 6,94% of total mineral P is in form of H2PO4" and only 6% dissociates further to
HPO42\ The presence of 6% of total P in form of HPO42" results in a lower NCy
supply of about 0.09 meq I"1 compared to the value estimated through equation [7],
assuming that a P concentration of 1.5 meq I"1 in the nutrient solution is calculated
through equation [8]. However, a deviation of this magnitude from the desired
NO3' concentration is negligible in commercial hydroponics.

Calculating the Amounts of Fertilizers Needed to Prepare Stock Solutions

The above scheme can be extended to allow for the calculations of the quantities
of all fertilizers needed to prepare particular amounts of stock solutions. When this
task is performed, it is necessary to specify the desired strength of the stock
solutions as related to the nutrient solution supplied to the crop. The strength
corresponds to a dilution ratio, the latter being defined as the L, A of tap water that
are mixed with 1 L of stock solution when preparing irrigation solution to supply
the crop. In particular, this task is performed by the following additional steps of
the algorithm:
5. Compute the amounts of macronutrient fertilizers, W^ in kg which are needed to
prepare a certain volume Vn in m3 of stock solution using the equation:
Wa = 10- 3 [F] r a £ r a F n ^,r = 1,...,6, s = 1 5,
where En is the equivalent weight of the rsA fertilizer and An denotes the
dilution ratio of the stock solution containing the rs01 fertilizer. The chemical
formula of calcium nitrate that is commercially used as fertilizer is
5[Ca(NO3)22H2O]NH4NO3. Therefore, when using [10] to calculate the weight
 1426 SAWAS AND ADAMIDIS

TABLE 2. A tabular represention of the alogrithm showing the intermediate calculations for
the estimations of the dosages of macronutrient fertilizers needed to obtain the target nutrient
solution composition.

AxAaas/ CCS 4 ccw. 5 CAF. 6 so/ NQ," HaPO4- HOO3- cr

CAS1 po/i cb
CAW. 2 \NOfU
AAE3 [NO/y \HjPozy 0 0
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

CaT \PcT\ 0 [Ca<NO&r 0 0 0

ton.
0 0 0
\KNOsT 0 0
NH4* patsy 0 0 0 0
Na* 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 7 0 0 0
HT pry
M
Concentrations (meq I"1) of anions (CA.S.) and cations ( C C S . ) in the target
nutrient solution (they are denoted by [•], and calculated using 1-9).
25
Concentrations (meq I"1) of anions (CA.W.) and cations(CC.W.) in the tap
water (they are input values denoted by [•]„).
36
Dosages (meq 1 ) of anions (A.A.F.) and cations (C.A.F.) to be added through
fertilizers (they are denoted by [.]/• and, except [H\f, are calculated using [iort\f =
[iori\r[iori\J.
[ } , [ U b
•Dosages (meq 1 ) of the fertilizers in the arguments that should be added to tap
water to prepare the target nutrient solution; they are obtained as follows:
[Ca(NO3>3\ = [QJ^
\MgSO<] - P ^ > if

OifPisaJdedasI^PQ,

of calcium nitrate (Wn), the equivalent weight corresponding to Ca (108.05)

should be introduced as Eir Moreover, to take into account the amount of
NH4NO3 that is included in the commercially used calcium nitrate, [F]42 should
be replaced by [F]42-0.1 [F\n when using [10] to calculate the weight of
ammonium nitrate (W n ).
Especially in case of micronutrient fertilizers, the counter ion consists of
macroelements (e.g., Na+, SO 4 2 ). Since the target concentrations of
macronutrients in the nutrient solutions are hundredfold to thousandfold
 AUTOMATED MANAGEMENT OF NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS 1427

TABLE 3. Calculations* of the dosages" (meq I"1) of macronutrient fertilizers

that should be added to tap water of a particular ionic composition*" to
prepare a nutrient solution for cucumbers whose composition corresponds to
given target values* of pH, EC, and macronutrient concentration ratios.

Anions/ CCS. C.C.W. C.F.A. SO4 NO3' HJPO; HCO," a"

cations
C.A.S. 24.07 2.88 18.50 1.36 0.53 0.80
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

A.CW. 6.00 1.50 0.00 0.00 3.70 0.80

A.F.A. 21.24 1.38 18.50 1.36 0 0

Ca i+ 10.71 3.90 6.81 0 6.81 0 0 0

Mg 2+ 1.95 1.30 0.65 0.65 0 0 0 0

K + 9.74 0.10 9.64 0.73 8.91 0 0 0

NH4 + 0.97 0.00 0.97 0 0.97 0 0 0

Na+ 0.70 0.70 0 0 0 0 0 0

H+ 0.00 0.00 3.17 0 1.81 1.36 0 0

Abbreviations: C.A.S. and C C S . denote concentrations of anions and

cations in the target nutrient solution, respectively; C. A.W. and C.C.W. denote
concentrations of anions and cations in the tap water, respectively; A.A.F.
and A.C.F. denote addition of anions and cations through fertilizers,
respectively (dosages in meq L"1).
"The calculations have been performed as described in Table 2.
" T h e ionic composition of the water and the traget values are the imput
data to the algorithm. In particular, the calculations are based on the following
imput data: i) target E.C=2.60 dS nr 1 ; ii) target pH=5.5; iii) target concentration
ratios (meq/meq); K:Ca:Mg=5:5.5;l, N;K=2, [NH 4 + ]/([NH 4 + ]+[NO 3 -])=0.05,
[H 2 PO 4 -]/([SO 4 2 -]+[NO 3 -]+[H 2 PO 4 -]=0.06; iv)ionic composition of tap water
(meq I"1): Ca=3.9, Mg=1.3, K=0.1, NH 4 + =0, Na=0.7, SO 4 2 =1.50, N O 3 = 0 ,
H 2 PO;=0, HCO 3 -=3.70, Cl"=0.08; v) tap water pH=7.63.
" ' T h e dosages (meq L") of fertilizers to be added constitute the initial
output of the algorithm which can be further used to calculate either the
quantities of fertilizers (kg) for certain amounts of stock solutions or the
dilution ratios of the latter (see materials and methods). The dosage of each
fertilizer is the entry int he crossing point of the row and column denoted by
the particular cation and anion which the fertilizer consists of, respectively
(e.g., Ca(NO 3 ) 2 =6.81 meq L"1, etc.).
 1428 SAWAS AND ADAMIDIS

compared to those of trace elements (Sonneveld and Straver, 1994), the

concentrations of the macroelements in the nutrient solution are hardly affected
by the addition of any micronutrient fertilizer. Consequently, the amount of
each micronutrient fertilizer needed to achieve the target trace element
concentrations when preparing a nutrient solution, can be determined without
reference to all other fertilizers, merely by using a single equation. In particular,
let W.,y=\,..., 6, be the amounts in g of the micronutrient fertilizers containing
Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, and Mo, respectively, which are needed to prepare a certain
volume, V. in m3 of stock solution. Compute
Wj =(103njrllGlJMJVJAJ,j=
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

1.....6. [H]
where [G]. are the differences between the target concentrations of the
micronutrients and their concentrations in the tap water (in nmol I/ 1 ), M. are the
molecular weights of the corresponding micronutrient fertilizers, A. are the
dilution ratios of the stock solutions containing the corresponding micronutrient
fertilizers, and n^ are the gr-atoms of micronutrients included in one mol of each
fertilizer. However, the concentration of Fe in the tap water is not taken into
account when applying [1] to calculate the weight of Fe fertilizer because in
hydroponical nutrient solutions the entire quantity of Fe should be present
in a form of iron-chelate (Wreesmann, 1996).

Automation of Nutrient Solution Preparation and of Composition Adaptation

When separate stock solutions for each individual fertilizer are available and the
corresponding fertilizer concentrations (Wn V^1 in kg nr 3 and W. V:1 in g m 3 ) are
known, [10] and [11] can be solved for Aa and A., respectively. Thus, using a
computer controlled system to inject the stock solutions it is possible to
automatically prepare nutrient solutions of any desired composition. This facility
can be used either to automatically supply more crops through the same stock
solutions or to produce a nutrient solution corresponding to new target values
without replacing the currently used stock solutions, if the results of a chemical
analysis indicate adaptation of its composition.
In either case, the calculation of [F], corresponding to the selected target values
of EC, pH, and macronutrient concentration ratios, is performed by following the
first four steps of the algorithm. For the remaining steps, the equations [10] and
[11], after being solved f o r ^ and A., respectively, are used to compute the ratios
of diluting the stock solutions. If fertilizer dispensers giving a constant injection
rate are used (peristaltic pumps, venturi, etc), the amount of each stock solution
added, when a fresh solution is prepared, is a linear relationship of injection time.
Thus, for each stock solution the injection time can be related to the dilution ratio
(Sawas and Manos, 1999) which has been calculated through the algorithm. The
injection time of the fertilizer dispensers can be readily controlled through the
computer using proper solenoid valves. As a result, using the same stock solutions
 AUTOMATED MANAGEMENT OF NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS 1429

and adapting their dilution ratios through the above described procedure a new
nutrient solution is automatically prepared, whose composition corresponds to
the new target values.

CONCLUSIONS

Using regression analysis to evaluate data from various nutrient solutions, a

linear relationship was established to estimate the total salt concentration in meq
L"1 which corresponds to a certain, desired EC. Moreover, it was shown that the
relationship between the bicarbonate fraction of an aqueous solution and its pH
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

can be used to predict the HCO3' concentration of any particular nutrient solution
for a certain, desired pH, if the HCO3" concentration and the pH of the tap water are
known.
Based on these results, an algorithm has been developed to perform the following
tasks concerning automation of nutrient solution management in hydroponics: to
formulate the complete composition of a nutrient solution based on desired solution
characteristics concerning EC, pH, macronutrient concentration ratios, and
micronutrient concentrations, and to calculate the quantities of fertilizers needed
to prepare particular amounts of stock solutions which, after their dilution with tap
water, render a nutrient solution corresponding to desired values for the solution
characteristics mentioned above, or to automatically prepare a nutrient solution of
any desired composition through a computer controlled installation, merely by
introducing target values for the solution characteristics mentioned above, provided
that each fertilizer is available as a separate stock solution and its concentration is
known. This task is performed by calculating through the algorithm ratios of
diluting the stock solutions which, after being automatically adjusted through a
computer controlled system, result in the preparation of a nutrient solution with
the desired composition.

REFERENCES

Adams, P. 1991. Effects of increasing the salinity of the nutrient solution with major
nutrients or sodium chloride on the yield, quality and composition of tomatoes grown in
rockwool. J. Hort. Sci. 66 (2):201-207.

Adams, P. and D.M. Massey. 1984. Nutrient uptake by tomatoes from recirculating
solutions, pp. 71-79. In: ISOSC, Proceedings 6th International Congress on Soilless
Culture, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Cooper, A.J. 1977. Nutritional control of a nutrient—Film tomato crop. Sci. Hort. 7:189-
195.

Cooper, A.J. 1979. The ABC of NFT. Grower Books, London, England.
 1430 SAWASANDADAMIDIS

De Kreij, C , W. Voogt, A.L. Van Den Bos, and R. Baas. 1997. Voedingsoplossingen
gesloten teeltsystemen (Nutrient solutions for closed cultivation systems). Brochures
1-16. Research Station for Floriculture and Glasshouse Vegetables (PBG), Naaldwijk,
The Netherlands.

De Rijck, G. and E. Schrevens. 1995. Application of mixture-theory for the optimization

of the composition of the nutrient solution. Acta Hort. 401:283-291.

De Rijck, G. and E. Schrevens. 1997a. Elemental bioavailability in nutrient solutions in

relation to dissociation reactions. J. Plant Nutr. 20(7&8):901-910.
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

De Rijck, G. and E. Schrevens. 1997b. pH influenced by the elemental composition of

nutrient solutions. J. Plant Nutr. 20(7&8):911-923.

Eaton, A. D., L. S. Clesceri, and A.E. Greenberg. 1995. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater. 19th ed. American Public Health Association,
Washington, DC.

Ehret, D.L. and L.C. Ho. 1986. The effects of salinity on dry matter partitioning and fruit
growth in tomatoes grown in nutrient film culture. J. Hort. Sci. 61(3):361-367.

Elia, A., G. Conversa, F. Serio, and P. Santamaria. 1996. Response of eggplant to NH4:NO3
ratio, pp. 167-180. In: ISOSC, Proceedings 9th International Congress on Soilless
Culture, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Feigin, A. 1990. Interactive effects of salinity and ammonium/nitrate ratio on growth and
chemical composition of melon plants. J. Plant Nutr. 13(10):1257-1269.

Heuer, B. 1991. Growth, photosynthesis and protein content in cucumber plants as

affected by supplied nitrogen form. J. Plant Nutr. 14(4):363-373.

Hewitt, E.J. 1966. Sand and water culture methods used in the study of plant nutrition.
Technical communication No. 22 (revised). Commonwealth Bureau of Horticulture and
Plantation Crops, East Mailing, Maidstone, Kent, England.

Hoagland, D.R. and D.I. Arnon. 1952. The water culture method for growing plants
without soil. California Agricultural Experiment Station, Circ. 347, Davis, CA.

Holder, R. and M.H. Christensen. 1988. The effect of electrical conductivity on the
growth, yield, and composition of cherry tomatoes grown on rockwool. pp. 213-227.
In: ISOSC, Proceedings 7th International Congress on Soilless Culture, Wageningen,
The Netherlands.

Islam, A.K.M.S., D.G. Edwards, and C.J. Asher. 1980. pH optima for crop growth.
Results of a flowing solution culture experiment with six species. Plant Soil 54:339-357.

Jones, Jr., J.B. 1982. Hydroponics: Its history and use in plant nutrition studies. J. Plant
Nutr. 5(8):1003-1030.
 AUTOMATED MANAGEMENT OF NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS 1431

Moustafa, A.T. and J.V. Morgan. 1983. Influence of solution concentration on growth,
flower quality and nutrient uptake in spray chrysanthemum. Acta Hort. 133:13-24.

Nukaya, A., K. Goto, H. Jang, A. Kano, and K. Ohkawa. 1995. Effect of K/Ca ratio in the
nutrient solution on incidence of blossom-end rot and gold specks of tomato fruit grown
in rockwool. Acta Hort. 396:123-130.

Sawas, D. 1992. Vegetatives und generatives Wachstum bei Auberginen (Solatium melongena
L.) in Hydrokultur in Abhängigkeit von der elektrischen Leitfähigkeit der Nährlösung.
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany.
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

Savvas, D. and F. Lenz. 1995. Nährstoffaufnahme von Aubergine (Solarium melongena L.)
in Hydrokultur (Nutrient uptake by eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) in soilless culture).
Gartenbauwissenschaft 60(1):29-33.

Savvas, D. and G. Manos. 1999. Automated composition control of nutrient solution in

closed soilless culture systems. J. Agric. Engng Res. 73:29-33.

Schrevens, E. and J. Cornell. 1993. Design and analysis of mixture systems: Applications
in hydroponic plant nutrition research. Plant Soil 154:45-52.

Shima, K., Y. Kageyama, and K. Konishi. 1996. Effect of phosphorus application rates
along a nitrogen application curve on growth and cut flower quality in chrysanthemum
in NFT system (in Japanese with English summary). J. Japan. Soc. Hort. Sci. 65(2):355-
361.

Sonneveld, C. 1989. Rockwool as a substrate in protected cultivation. Chronica Hort.

29:33-36.

Sonneveld, C. and N. Straver. 1994. Nutrient solutions for vegetables and flowers grown in
water or substrates. 10th ed. Serie: Voedingsoplossingen Glastuinbouw, No 8. 45 pp.
P.B.G. Naaldwijk—P.B.G. Aalsmeer, The Netherlands.

Sonneveld, C. and W. Voogt. 1985. Growth and cation absorption of some fruit-vegetable
crops grown on rockwool as affected by different cation ratios in the nutrient solution.
J. Plant Nutr. 8(7):585-602.

Sonneveld, C. and W. Voogt. 1993. The concentration of nutrients for growing A nthurium
andreanum in substrate. Acta Hort. 342:61-67.

Sonneveld, C. and G.W.H. Welles. 1984. Growing vegetables in substrates in the Netherlands,
pp. 613-631. In: ISOSC, Proceedings 6th International Congress on Soilless Culture,
Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Sonneveld, C. and G.W.H. Welles. 1988. Yield and quality of rockwool-grown tomatoes as
affected by variations in EC-value and climatic conditions. Plant Soil 111 :37-42.
 1432 SAWAS AND ADAMIDIS

Steiner, A. A. 1961. A universal method for preparing nutrient solutions of a certain desired
composition. Plant Soil 15(2):134-154.

Steiner, A. A. 1966. The influence of the chemical composition of anutrient solution on the
production of tomato plants. Plant Soil 24(3):454-466.

Stensvand, A. and H.R. Gislerod. 1992. The effect of the NO3/NH4 ratio of the nutrient
solution on growth and mineral uptake in Chrysanthemum X morifolium, Passijlora
caerulea, and Cordylinefruticosa. Gartenbauwissenschaft57(4):193-198.

U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff. 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils.
Downloaded by [University of Arizona] at 04:35 08 June 2014

USDA Handbook No. 60, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

Van Goor, B.J., A. De Jager, and W. Voogt. 1988. Nutrient uptake by some horticultural
crops during the growing period, pp 163-176. In: ISOSC, Proceedings 7th International
Congress on Soilless Culture, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Voogt, W. 1988a. The growth of beefsteak tomato as affected by K/Ca ratios in the nutrient
solution. ActaHort. 222:155-165.

Voogt, W. 1988b. K/Ca ratios with butterhead lettuce grown in recirculating water, pp.
469-482. In: ISOSC, Proceedings 7th International Congress on Soilless Culture,
Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Willumsen, J. 1980. pH of the flowing nutrient solution. ActaHort. 98:191-199.

Willumsen, J., K.K. Petersen, and K. Kaack. 1996. Yield and blossom-end rot of tomato as
affected by salinity and cation activity ratios in the root zone. J. Hort. Sci. 71 (1): 81 -98.

Wilson, G.C.S. 1980. Effect of N:K ratio in a hydroponic situation. ActaHort. 98:161-
170.

Wreesmann, C. 1996. Chelated micro-nutrients for soilless culture, pp. 559-572. In:
ISOSC, Proceedings 9th International Congress on Soilless Culture, Wageningen, The
Netherlands.