Scientia Horticulturae 233 (2018) 479–490

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Scientia Horticulturae
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scihorti

The influence of pre-harvest factors on the quality of globe artichoke T

a a a,b,⁎
Sara Lombardo , Gaetano Pandino , Giovanni Mauromicale
a
Dipartimento di Agricoltura, Alimentazione e Ambiente (Di3A), University of Catania, via Valdisavoia 5, 95123 Catania, Italy
b
CNR – IVALSA, UoS Catania, via P. Gaifami 18, Catania, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The globe artichoke, a species native to the Mediterranean Basin, makes a significant contribution to the region’s
Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus agricultural economy. Its increasing popularity has extended into northern Europe, the Americas and parts of
Genotype Asia. To an extent, the increased interest in the crop reflects the perceived beneficial health effects of its in-
Environment clusion in the human diet, flowing mainly from its high content of polyphenols and inulin in the immature
Crop management
inflorescence (also called head or capitulum). The accumulation of these compounds, together with the head’s
Sugar composition
appearance and size, is an important determinant of quality at harvest and hence, of consumer preference. The
Phytochemicals
Polyphenols purpose of this review is to collate the state of current knowledge regarding the major pre-harvest factors which
affect globe artichoke at harvest quality, including aspects of genotype, the growing environment and crop
management. The literature suggests that the at harvest quality of globe artichoke depends on a complex of
interactions between this group of factors. In conclusion, this review establishes a departure point for manip-
ulating some of these factors to maximize globe artichoke at harvest quality.

1. Introduction consumption or are industrially processed as frozen, cooked and canned

The globe artichoke [Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus (L.)
Fiori = C. scolymus L.] is an economically important herbaceous per-
ennial C3 plant species native to the Mediterranean Basin (Mauro et al.,
2009). It belongs to the family Asteraceae (ex Compositae). Its pro-
duction, long limited to its native region, has in the last decades become
globally quite widely dispersed, although the bulk of its production
remains in the Mediterranean region, which harvests 1.26 Mt of edible
product (the immature inflorescence, which is composed of a receptacle
surrounded by thickened bracts, and is generally referred to as the
capitulum or head) per year from some 98 Kha of land. The main pro-
ducer countries are Italy (43 Kha), Spain (16 Kha) and Egypt (15 Kha)
(FAOSTAT, 2012–2014). The crop is currently also grown in the
Americas and Asia (Portis et al., 2014).
Globe artichoke plant produces heads with different size: the largest
(called as primary head) is formed at the apex of the central stem, while
the smaller heads (secondary) develop on the central branches.
Depending on cultivar and harvest time, single head range in weight
from 120 g to 600 g, and the ratio of edible fraction to the total head
weight is 10–18% for the lower part (only receptacle) and about 40%
for the internal parts (including receptacle and inner bracts).
The heads were manually harvested when they reached commercial
maturity (at this stage the length of the central global flower buds is
≤2 mm) (Mauromicale and Ierna, 2000). They are destined to the fresh
product (Ciancolini, 2012). Currently, consumer’s needs for added-
value fresh products, in terms of quality, convenience, nutritional value
and ease of preparation (Colelli and Calabrese, 2009), have increased
the industrial production of fresh-cut globe artichoke heads. The heads,
as fresh or processed form, are used as ingredient in many typical re-
cipes in the Mediterranean countries.While largely appreciated for its
culinary value, due to a balance between bitterness and sweetness, and
between fleshiness and tenderness (Di Salvo et al., 2014), its ther-
apeutic properties have also been recognized for many centuries (Coinu
et al., 2007; Fantini et al., 2011).
Globe artichoke cultivation and industrial processing also generate
a high proportion (nearly 80% of the total biomass) of by-products,
among which the stems if properly prepared could be eaten. Such by-
products may be used: (i) for the industrial extraction of food additives
and bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols and inulin (Ceccarelli
et al., 2010a; Christaki et al., 2012; Lattanzio et al., 2009); (ii) as raw
material in the green chemal industry for paper-pulp production, bio-
fuels or plant dyes (De Falco and di Novella, 2011); (iii) as a forage
(particularly stems and leaves) (Christaki et al., 2012). In addition,
flowers contain some proteolytic enzymes that could be used as natural
coagulants for cheese making (Amato et al., 2011).
As for many vegetable species, globe artichoke at harvest quality
has both a product- and a consumer-dependent dimension (Huyskens-
Keil and Schreiner, 2003), in which the interaction between many

⁎
Corresponding author at: Dipartimento di Agricoltura, Alimentazione e Ambiente (Di3A), University of Catania, via Valdisavoia 5, 95123 Catania, Italy.
E-mail address: g.mauromicale@unict.it (G. Mauromicale).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2017.12.036
Received 7 June 2017; Received in revised form 6 December 2017; Accepted 18 December 2017
0304-4238/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Lombardo et al.
aspects contributes to the overall acceptance of the product (Schreiner
et al., 2013). While the intrinsic aspects can be objectively quantified,
reflecting its sensory, nutritional and safety properties, the extrinsic
ones are less quantifiable, since they are governed by issues of dis-
tribution, pricing, communication policies and advertising (Scharf
et al., 2009). In the present review, the focus is limited to intrinsic at
harvest quality traits.
Some objective criteria applied to quantify the quality at harvest of
fresh heads have been established in Europe under regulation EC 1466/
2003. The EU marketing standards classify heads into three commercial
categories (extra, first and second classes) on the basis of some quali-
tative traits (e.g. calibre, homogeneity) and the presence of any defects
or damages. In addition, the heads must be sold entire, hygienically
packaged and labelled with information on the cultivation origin
(Piazza and Caccioni, 2009). However, these standards ignore other
qualitative traits such as flavour and the content of any bioactive
compounds. Given the growing consumer-led demand for food pro-
viding both nutritional and health benefits, these aspects of quality
should not be neglected for heads destined for fresh market. The quality
of processed globe artichoke heads depends on several quality indices,
among which processing yield, product visual appearance, weight loss,
pH, browning proneness and microbiological stability are the most
important for this specific crop (Del Nobile et al., 2009).
The nutritional value of globe artichoke is attributable to its low fat
content and its high content of minerals, fibre, vitamins and bioactive
compounds (Lattanzio et al., 2009; Lutz et al., 2011; Pandino et al.,
2011a,b; Petropoulos et al., 2017). The literature suggests that heads
are composed on average of 132 g kg−1 of dry matter (DM),
760 g kg−1 DM carbohydrate, 196 g kg−1 DM protein, 20.3 g kg−1 DM
crude fat and 8.6 g kg−1 DM ash (Table 1); they also provide a dietary
source of vitamin C, the minerals potassium (K), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe)
and zinc (Zn), inulin and various polyphenols (Gil-Izquierdo et al.,
2001; Lombardo et al., 2012a; Pandino et al., 2011a,b). It is the inulin
(a fructan polysaccharide) and polyphenols which are thought to con-
tribute most to the hepatoprotective, anticarcinogenic, prebiotic and
antioxidant activities of globe artichoke extracts (De Falco et al., 2015;
Gebhardt and Fausel, 1997; Jimènez-Escrig et al., 2003). The biological
role of polyphenols is largely to defend against biotic (bacterial, fungal
and viral pathogens) and abiotic (extreme temperature, UV radiation,
moisture deficit) stresses, but some of these compounds also contribute
to the plant’s growth and reproduction (Bravo, 1998). Although not
classed as essential in the diet, it is known that a sufficient intake is
beneficial to human health and well-being, specifically reducing the
incidence of cardiovascular disease and certain forms of cancer (Holst
and Williamson, 2008; Martínez-Ballesta et al., 2008). The potential
contribution of globe artichoke to dietary polyphenol is significant
since the head harbours more polyphenols than do other vegetables
(Brat et al., 2006). The predominant class of polyphenol compounds in
the head are the mono- and di-caffeoylquinic acids (among which
chlorogenic acid and cynarin), along with a range of flavonoids derived
from apigenin and luteolin. Abu-Reidah et al. have identified the pre-
sence in globe artichoke of over 60 different polyphenols.
Table 1
The proximate composition of globe artichoke head.
Range Mean Reference
−1
Dry matter (DM) (g kg ) 107–169 132 Lombardo et al. (2012a)
Ash (g kg−1 DM) 74–105 86 Pandino et al. (2011a)
Crude fat (g kg−1 DM)a 14.2–25.7 20.3 Petropoulos et al.
(2017)
Protein (g kg−1 DM) 189–260 196 Pandino et al. (2011b)
Total carbohydrates (g kg−1 725–832 760 Petropoulos et al.
DM)a (2017)
a
The values were calculated from those on a fresh matter basis reported by the lit-
erature reference.
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Scientia Horticulturae 233 (2018) 479–490
Inulin represents 18.9–36.2% of head DM (Lattanzio et al., 2009).
Variation in its polymerization status influences its water-solubility,
thermal stability and prebiotic activity (De Falco et al., 2015). In ad-
dition the inulin contributes to the sweetness of the product, while the
bitterness of globe artichoke derives from a set of sesquiterpene lac-
tones, dominated by cynaropicrin with a contribution, at lower con-
centrations, of grosheimin and its derivatives (Cravotto et al., 2005;
Fritsche et al., 2002). From a microbiological point of view, the product
is considered as a safe food (Lombardo et al., 2015b; Restuccia et al.,
2014), because its major post-harvest pathogens [primarily Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum (white mould) (Marcucci et al., 2010), Botrytis cinerea (grey
mould) (Larran et al., 2004), and Verticillium dahliae (Amenduni et al.,
2005)], could be reduced by sanitizing treatments (e.g. ozonisation).
Moreover due to its morphology, the edible fraction of the head, being
internally situated, is protected by several pests.
This review focuses on the effect on quality at harvest of the most
important pre-harvest factors, which comprise genotype, the climatic
and edaphic environment and the management of the crop. Global as-
pects of quality at harvest are addressed with a view to bringing to-
gether the available literature covering individual and/or specific
qualitative traits (Ceccarelli et al., 2010a; Lattanzio et al., 2009;
Pandino et al., 2012a).
2. Pre-harvest factors that affect at harvest quality
2.1. Genetic factors
The crop is typically propagated vegetatively (by offshoots, stumps,
or dried shoots harvested from commercial fields at the end of the
growing cycle), and a substantial level of genetic diversity has been
retained both within and between commercial and landrace varieties
cultivated in the Mediterranean basin (Mauro et al., 2009) (Fig. 1). The
100–120 known cultivated types have been grouped on the basis of
their harvest time (‘early’ or ‘late’) and head morphology (shape, colour
of the external bracts and presence/absence of spines) (Mauro et al.,
2009; Mauromicale, 1987; Rottemberg and Zohary, 1996). Early cul-
tivars are typically autumn-winter crops and continue to produce until
around spring, while late ones produce in spring. Porceddu et al. (1976)
have suggested four distinct germplasm groups, namely: 1) the ‘Spinosi’
(for example ‘Spinoso di Palermo’ and ‘Spinoso Sardo’), containing
cultivars with long sharp spines on bracts and leaves; 2) the ‘Violetti’
(for example ‘Violetto di Toscana’ and ‘Nostrano’), with medium-sized
violet-coloured heads; 3) the ‘Romaneschi’ (for example ‘Castellamare’
and ‘Tondo di Paestum’), to which belongs cultivars with spherical or
sub-spherical shape; 4) the ‘Catanesi’ (for example ‘Violetto di Sicilia’
and ‘Violet de Provence’), with relatively small and elongated heads.
Another classification is adopted in France, and includes two groups:
Breton (with large green heads) and Midi (with smaller pigmented
heads) (De Falco et al., 2015). However, the number of commercially
important varieties is only twelve (i.e. ‘Green globe’, ‘Blanca de Espãna’,
‘Opera’, ‘Violetto di Sicilia’, ‘Violet de Provence’, ‘Camus de Bretagne’,
‘Tema’, ‘Spinoso sardo’, ‘Opal’, Madrigal’, ‘Romanesco’, ‘Madrigal’).
Apart from these major groupings, many traditional landraces were
cultivated in small holdings. They typically yield less than the com-
mercial varieties, but are well suited for specific final uses, tolerant of
environmental stress and adapted to a low input farming system (Mauro
et al., 2009).
As abovementioned, globe artichoke cultivation is traditionally
based on vegetatively propagated cultivars, but the effectiveness of
asexual reproduction is limited due to the low rate of multiplication and
the build-up of pathogens. For these reasons, during the last decades
seed-propagated cultivars were increasingly introduced in the globe
artichoke cultivation. Gamic propagation can be performed using open
pollinated genotypes, inbreed lines, F1 hybrids and synthetic varieties
(Ciancolini, 2012). Among the inbred and open pollinated seed pro-
pagated cultivars there are ‘Imperial Star’, ‘Green Globe’ and ‘Colorado’.
S. Lombardo et al.
Fig. 1. Genetic variation for head shape and colour in globe artichoke germplasm collected at University of Catania (photos from Mauromicale G. and Longo A.M.G.).
F1 hybrids such as HU #044, HU 137 and HU #223 were developed
since the 1980s by Basnizki and Zohary (1994). Other hybrids (such as
‘Romano’, ‘Napoleone’, ‘Romolo’, ‘Orlando’, ‘Madrigal’, ‘Simphony’,
‘Harmony’, ‘Concerto’, ‘Opal’, ‘Tempo’, ‘Nun 4021 F1’ and ‘Nun 4051
F1’) have been recently introduced, and present many advantages in
overcoming inbreeding problems and showing positive effects of het-
erosis (Zaniboni, 2009). Recently, seed-propagated cultivars have
gained in economic importance due to several advantages, such as: 1)
reduction of labour and agricultural management costs; 2) conversion
of globe artichoke into an annuallygrown crop and its introduction in
crop rotations; 3) efficient use of both moisture and fertilizers; 4) high
protection from pathogens and pests; 5) possible production under or-
ganic farming due to their vigorous and healthy growth of the plant
under low chemical inputs. However, spread of the seed-propagated
cultivars is untilnow limited by their adaptability to different cultiva-
tion environment, the cost of seeds, the production (late or medium-late
harvest) and commercialization calendars (Lo Bianco et al., 2012).
Mauro et al. (2011) stated that integration among traditional genotypes
and recently released hybrid cultivars could broaden the zone of globe
artichoke cultivation and extend the seasonal availability of heads.
Indeed, the seed-propagated cultivars are interesting since they are
distinguished from commercial cultivars by plant morphology (plant
height, leaf shape, etc.), the head shape, the colour of bracts, the ear-
liness of maturity and uses of the final product (fresh consumption or
processing) (Ciancolini et al., 2012).
Some progress has been made in defining the suitability of the
various varieties for fresh consumption as opposed to industrial pro-
cessing. In a comparison of eight entries, Petropoulos et al. (2017) were
able to establish significant differences with respect to the head’s con-
tent of water, fat, ash, protein and carbohydrate and the level of
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Scientia Horticulturae 233 (2018) 479–490
antioxidants present. Although the same set of minerals is present in all
varieties, there can be considerable quantitative inter-varietal varia-
tion: for example, the ‘Madrigal F1’ seed-propagated variety accumu-
lates a more substantial amount of P and K than does a number of ve-
getatively propagated varieties (Bonasia et al., 2010). The floral stems
of ‘Madrigal F1’ are also rich in Fe, while those of ‘Tempo F1’ feature a
relatively high content of both K and copper (Cu) (Lombardo et al.,
2013a). According to Pandino et al. (2011a), the cultivars Blanc
Hyerois, ‘Harmony F1’, ‘Madrigal F1’ and ‘Violetto di Provenza’ are all
particularly effective accumulators of both macro- and micro-minerals.
De Pascale et al., 2016 compared the yield, mineral and polyphenolic
composition of two seed-propagated F1 hybrids, namely ‘Istar’ and
‘Romolo’. The latter was more productive and richest in terms of K and
polyphenolic content than the former.
A number of studies have identified genetic variation for the content
and profile of polyphenols (Lombardo et al., 2013b; Negro et al., 2012b;
Pandino et al., 2012c). While a high abundance of these compounds is
of nutritional benefit in the fresh product, it also promotes the un-
desirable tendency of the head to discolour during processing (Bonasia
et al., 2010). As a result, the capacity to accumulate polyphenols can be
used as a quality selection criterion at harvest, as suggested in a screen
of 17 cultivars conducted by Lombardo et al. (2012a). Differences be-
tween entries with respect to their phenolic profile have been identified
when the component parts of the head (receptacle, inner and outer
bracts) are analysed separately (Dabbou et al., 2015; Fratianni et al.,
2007; Pandino et al., 2012b). A survey of six entries conducted by
Negro et al. (2012b) concluded that ‘Violet de Provence‘ accumulated
the highest quantity of polyphenols in the head. The polyphenol con-
tent significantly different between traditional cultivars and new seed-
propagated ones. The lower polyphenol content of seed-propagated
S. Lombardo et al. Scientia Horticulturae 233 (2018) 479–490

cultivars brings them the advantage of lower browning phenomena
during storage, so minimizing the use of antioxidant treatments in
processing steps (Bonasia et al., 2010).
Some authors reported as polyphenols level depend on plant part.
Particularly, Pandino et al. (2011c) demonstrated that total poly-
phenols increased from external to internal parts of the head (outer
bracts < inner bracts < receptacle), while for caffeoylquinic acids the
opposite trend was observed since they are involved in the lignification
process of the outer bracts which take place during the maturation
process. Romani et al. (2006), in both cv. Violetto di Toscana and
‘Terom’ reported caffeoylquinic acids in leaves and stems, with 1,5-O-
caffeoylquinic acid as the most abundant compound. Higher levels of
chlorogenic acid were found in the inner bracts of cvs. Tondo di
Paestum, ‘Bianco di Pertosa’ and ‘Violet de Provence’ (Fratianni et al.,
2007). Also Romani et al. (2006) found that flavonoids are present at
higher amounts in leaves followed by heads, while flavonoids are quite
absent in the floral stems. According to Pandino et al. (2011d), for each
plant part the antioxidant capacity of the extract depend on a specific
class of polyphenols; as an instance, the antioxidant capacity of the
leaves was correlated with luteolin content, whereas in the floral stem
with caffeoylquinic acids. The potential of globe artichoke to represent
a dietary source of beneficial polyphenol compounds is summarized in
Table 2 (data obtained from Lombardo et al., 2010, 2012a and Pandino
et al., 2011c).
Few studies were focussed on the anthocyanins, a group of pig-
mented polyphenols whose intake is thought to reduce the risk of cer-
tain human diseases (Lila, 2004). Variation in anthocyanin content
among globe artichoke genotypes has been documented by Schütz et al.
(2006).
There have also been reported differences between plant parts for
other substances. Salata et al. (2012), from a 3 years study, concluded
that L-ascorbic acid, total protein and total sugar levels were higher in
receptacle than in bracts, while the opposite tendency was revealed for
crude fibre. Di Venere et al. (2005), Pandino et al. (2011a,b,c,d) and
Schütz et al. (2006) have all demonstrated, in both the whole head and
receptacle, a genotypic contribution to variation in inulin. In the former
case, a scan of 35 varieties revealed a range between 10 (‘Hyerois’) and
60 g kg−1 of fresh weight (‘Centofoglie’, ‘Bayrampasa’ and ‘Mazza-
ferrata’). The content of other sugars, notably glucose, fructose and
sucrose, has also proved to be variable, lying in the range, respectively,
3.2–16.7, 3.8–15.6 and 4.0–12.8 g kg−1 of fresh weight (Schütz et al.,
2006). Romo-Hualde et al. (2012) have highlighted intervarietal
differences in the content of both vitamin E and lutein, as well as in the
levels of glucose, polyphenols and antioxidants. A comparison of two
varieties (‘Violet d’Hyéres’ and ‘Blanc d’Oran’) revealed heterogeneity
for the content of volatiles, mainly sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and
non-terpene derivatives, in both head and by-products (outer bracts,
floral stem and leaves) (Dabbou et al., 2016, 2017). In leaves the cy-
naropicrin, the main sequiterpene lactone in globe artichoke, varied
from 4.5 to 1274 mg 100 g−1 of fresh weight among 19 varieties under
study (Rouphael et al., 2016). The specific absence of cynaropicrin in
floral parts could be considered a result of globe artichoke domestica-
tion, since the bitterness of this substance is considered negative under
a sensory perspective (Menin et al., 2012). In addition, differences in
the content of caffeoylquinic acid and Fe emerged between seed-
(‘Harmony F1’ and ‘Madrigal F1’) and vegetatively-propagated (‘Vio-
letto di Provenza’ and ‘Violetto di Sicilia’) varieties (Lombardo et al.,
2012b).
The morphology of the head has long been used as a basis for de-
scribing varieties. An analysis of three Italian landraces (‘Montelupone
A’, ‘Precoce di Jesi’ and ‘Violetto di Pesaro’) identified head fresh
weight, its length/width ratio, the colour of the outer bracts and the
presence/absence of spines as being highly genotype-dependent
(Cappelletti et al., 2013). When the three cultivars Violetto di Sicilia,
‘Violet de Provence’ and ‘Tema 2000’, which each produce heads during
the same period of the year (November to April-May), were compared
by Ierna et al. (2013), a number of differences were noted with respect
to head fresh weight, length/width ratio, outer bract colour and spi-
niness. Lombardo et al. (2012a,b) have similarly observed an extensive
variability with respect to head size and length/diameter ratio and the
colour of both the inner and outer bracts (Table 3). As an example, the
hue of the outer bracts can vary from deep green (e.g. ‘Blanc Hyérois’)
to deep purple (‘Tema 2000’ and ‘Concerto’), while the inner bracts are
either yellow (‘Nobre’), green/yellow (‘Blanc Hyérois’, ‘Violetto di Si-
cilia clone 4/8’) or purple (‘Tema 2000’).
Finally, at present, the quality of a variety is assessed mainly on the
basis of a set of traits which are visible to the consumer. However, if
properly communicated to consumers, the nutritional value of globe
artichoke may well encourage its fresh consumption.
2.2. Effect of the growing environment
The growing environment, many aspects of which are not con-
trollable for a field-grown crop, is likely to contribute substantially to

Table 2
−1
Cultivar variation for the polyphenol content (mg kg of DM) of the globe artichoke receptacle.

Cultivar TMP 5 CQA 1,5 di-CQA Tot CQA Lut glr Tot Lut Api glr Tot Api Reference

Blanc Hyèrois 3404 232 83 315 266 266 2181 2823 A

Camard 3794 116 530 646 112 274 1920 2874 B
Camerys 4386 91 500 621 – 48 2686 3150 B
Concerto 7011 889 360 1694 72 355 3648 4962 C
Empolese 3096 165 393 558 60 4 2215 2474 B
Harmony F1 4792 82 50 149 352 500 2474 4143 C
Locale di Mola 2431 560 761 1321 – – 902 1110 B
Madrigal F1 3666 268 181 816 318 381 1794 2469 C
Nobre 2396 trace 105 105 – – 1151 2291 C
Opal 6655 758 1818 2637 274 60 2633 3601 B
Romanesco clone C3 9327 288 241 947 1683 1747 6298 6633 A
Spinoso di Palermo 5848 976 2375 3459 506 trace 1559 1883 B
Tema 2000 6004 474 133 607 – – 3844 5397 A
Tempo F1 4421 267 137 404 455 485 2253 3532 A
Tondo di Paestum 5993 2278 1986 4264 – 620 731 1109 A
Violetto di Provenza 2370 492 182 1084 60 85 832 1201
Violetto di Sicilia 5248 2080 1061 3141 278 278 1489 1829

DM: dry matter; TMP: total measured polyphenols (as the sum of all polyphenolic compounds detected); 5 CQA: 5-O-caffeoylquinic acid (or chlorogenic acid); 1,5 di-CQA: 1,5-di-O-
caffeoylquinic acid; Tot CQA: total caffeoylquinic acids (as the sum of both mono- and di-caffeoylquinic acids detected); Lut glr: luteolin 7-O-glucuronide; Tot Lut: total luteolin (as the
sum of all luteolin derivatives detected); Api glr: apigenin 7-O-glucuronide; Tot Api: total apigenin (as the sum of all apigenin derivatives detected).
A: Pandino et al. (2011c); B: Lombardo et al. (2012a); C: Lombardo et al. (2010).

482
S. Lombardo et al. Scientia Horticulturae 233 (2018) 479–490

Table 3
Cultivar variation for some important head traits.

Cultivar Mean fresh weight (g) L/D Colour of outer bracts Colour of inner bracts Reference

Apollo 251 0.81 Purple with green shades Yellow with purple shades A
Blanc Hyérois 197 1.20 Green Yellow-greenish B
Blanca de Tudela 164 1.38 Green Yellow C
Calico 470 0.85 Green Yellow C
Camard 186 0.89 Green with purple shades Yellow-greenish with purple shades B
Camerys 173 0.98 Green with purple shades Yellow-purple B
Camus de Bretagne 145 1.02 Green Yellowish-green D
Concerto 201 1.25 Deep purple Yellowish-green B
Empolese 216 1.20 Purple with green shades Yellow with purple shades B
Exploter 187 1.25 Purple with green shades Yellow with purple shades A
Harmony F1 225 1.15 Green Yellow B
Locale di Mola 163 1.42 Purple with green shades Yellow with purple shades B
Madrigal F1 219 1.15 Green Yellow B
Nobre 147 1.03 Green Yellow B
Opal 195 1.20 Purple with green shades Yellowish-green B
Romanesco clone C3 144 1.05 Purple with green shades Yellow-greenish with purple shades B
Salambo 400 0.88 Deep purple with green shades Yellow with purple shades C
Spinoso di Palermo 153 1.48 Green with purple shades or purple with green shades Yellowish-green with purple shades B
Spinoso sardo 101 1.39 Green with purple shades Yellow D
Symphony 411 1.47 Green Yellow E
Tema 2000 167 1.25 Deep purple Yellow with purple shades B
Tempo 176 1.30 Purple with green shades Yellow-purple B
Tondo di Paestum 210 1.00 Purple with light green shades Yellow-purple B
Violetto di Provenza 125 1.45 Purple with green shades Yellow-purple B
Violetto di Sicilia clone 4/8 117 1.50 Green with purple shades Yellow-greenish B

L/D: length/diameter ratio of head.

A: Cappelletti et al. (2016); B: Lombardo et al. (2012a); C: García-Martínez et al. (2017); D: Lahoz et al. (2004); E: Hernández-Pérez et al. (2013).

Table 4
Positive (+) and negative (−) effects of environmental factors on end-use quality traits of globe artichoke head.

Quality traits Environmental factors Reference

Altitude Season Low temperature Pollution Rainfall Rainfall and high

temperature
high low winter spring

antioxidant activity + Ricci et al. (2013)

carotenoid content
chlorogenic acid content
crude protein
dry matter
Fe content
fibre content
flavonoids content
inulin content
K content
L-ascorbic acid content
Na content
polyphenoloxidase activity
total phenolic content
total sugars content
sensory and texture attributes
visual appearance
Zn content
− + Yousefi and Yadegari (2016)
+ − Yousefi and Yadegari (2016)
− + Melilli et al. (2014)
+ Salata et al. (2012)
Pandino et al. (2011b)
+ Salata et al. (2012)
+ Zeipiņa et al. (2016)
− + Melilli et al. (2014)
Pandino et al. (2011b)
+ Salata et al. (2012)
− + Yousefi and Yadegari (2016)
+ − Todaro et al. (2010)
− + + + Di Venere et al. (2005); Lombardo et al.
(2009, 2010)
+ Salata et al. (2012)
+ − Di Salvo et al. (2014)
+ Ricci et al. (2013)
+ + Pandino et al. (2011b)

quality at harvest. Little attention has, however, been paid to detailing
effects of envirionmental factors, the most significant of which are
thought to be solar radiation, air temperature and precipitation
(Table 4). According to both Di Venere et al. (2005) and Ricci et al.
(2013), low air temperatures during head development favour its
overall appearance (expessed as presence of visual defects on a score
scale), its polyphenol content and its level of antioxidants, suiting the
product's use for fresh-cut processing. The tendency of the cut product
to discolour reflects a balance between the level of polyphenoloxidase
activity present, the content of antioxidants and membrane integrity
(Lattanzio, 1994). Todaro et al. (2010) have noted that poly-
phenoloxidase activity decreases as the season progresses (that is, as the
air temperature rises), while the tendency to discolour increases. The
content of chlorogenic acid in the head has been shown to be positively
correlated with the altitude of the growing site and negatively corre-
lated with the site's mean annual temperature, while the opposite was
the case for head DM, fresh weight and the content of Na and car-
otenoids (Yousefi and Yadegari, 2016). The inulin and crude protein
content of the receptacle also responds to altitude, with lower sites
favouring higher contents (Melilli et al., 2014). In addition, the inulin
content appears to be linked to the temperature, since in both outer
bracts and heads it rises in cold weather and fell when the temperature
increased (Almela et al., 2005). This behaviour could be explained by
the photosynthesis activity, as observed by Muñoz et al. (1999) in a

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previous work.
Season-to-season variability has a major impact on quality at har-
vest. Lombardo et al. (2009) noted a large difference in head poly-
phenol content between materials of the same variety harvested in two
seasons; the basis for the variation was attributed to differences in
temperature and rainfall. A similar response has been observed for head
dry weight, and the content of L-ascorbic acid, fibre, protein and sugar
(Salata et al., 2012). However, Macua et al. (2007) were unable to es-
tablish any effect of either air temperature or planting date on head
weight. According to Zeipiņa et al. (2016), the volume of precipitation
experienced by the crop does affect the head’s flavonoid content. A
close relationship between rainfall, above all if concentrated over a
short period, and the level of some mineral elements (K, Na, Zn and Fe)
existed; while crops grown in the vicinity of extensive industrial activity
tend to accumulate high levels of Zn in the heads (Pandino et al.,
2011a,b,c,d).
As observed, both positive and negative effects of environmental
stresses on the quality at harvest of globe artichoke occurred, even if
literature reports sometimes appeared to be contradictory in relation to
the same stress investigated. In spite of this complexity, some general
trends were observed, such as a stimulation of secondary metabolites in
response to the climatic changes. This information could be useful to
enhance such qualitative trait of globe artichoke heads by stimulating
positive stress effects or limiting those negative on the biosynthesis of
these bio-compounds.

2.3. Effect of the harvesting period

Lombardo et al. (2010) have demonstrated that the polyphenol

content is higher in spring-harvested than in winter-harvested material,
although the extent of the relative increase varies from plant part to
Fig. 2. The content of various polyphenols (g kg−1 DM) in (a) the bracts and (b) the
plant part. Pandino et al. (2013a,b) observed significant seasonal receptacle in heads harvested in winter and in spring (adapted from Pandino et al.,
fluctuations in both polyphenol quantity and composition, which have 2013a).
been attributed to a combination of ambient air temperature and solar
radiation (Fig. 2). The chlorogenic acid content varied in relation to the
to our knowledge, its effect on globe artichoke quality has been not
physiological stages, increasing from vegetative leaves to productive
investigated. Untill now, only few reports are available on some quality
one (Negro et al., 2012a). Also for morphological aspects, it has been
traits of leaves of both globe artichoke and cardoon grown in a floating
reported changes in relation to the harvest time. ‘Spinoso di Sardegna’
system (Borgognone et al., 2016; Colla et al., 2013). In relation to the
heads harvested during the winter months (December–February) tend
micropropagation system, also little attention has focused on the
to be more desirable on account of their superior tenderness, taste,
quality at harvest of globe artichoke. Cappelletti et al. (2016) provided
astringency and texture than are those harvested during the spring
an interesting comparison in terms of qualitative and nutritional char-
months (March–April), while opposite is the case for hardness (Di Salvo
acteristics between three commercial cultivars and one micro-
et al., 2014). The cynaropicrin progressively decreased during the in-
propagated landrace. The latter showed a relatively high total anti-
florescence development (Eljounaidi et al., 2015). The pappus lenght,
oxidant capacity across all of the flower heads, along with its high total
and both the head DM and fibre content was found to rise between
polyphenol content. On the contrary, the soluble solids were not sig-
materials harvested in early spring (March) to late spring (May)
nificantly different among the studied cultivars. Cavallaro et al. (2013)
(Calabrese et al., 2007).
reported that the main head characteristics between the micro-
propagation plants and vegetative propagated ones were similar. A
2.4. Crop management
recent work reported the effect of combining micropropagation and
mycorrhization on the polyphenol profile of different part of globe ar-
2.4.1. Micropropagation, soilless growing system, arbuscular mycorrhizal
tichoke plant (Pandino et al., 2017). Overall, it was observed an en-
and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
hanced level of both caffeoylquinic acids and flavones in all treated
Micropropagation of globe artichoke has significantly contributed to
globe artichoke plant, although some specific compounds responded
production of large-scale, phenotypically homogeneous and disease-
negatively to the micropropagation-mycorrhization treatment. Similar
free plants, particularly for spring cultivars, and to provide propagation
results were previously obtained by Palermo et al. (2013). According to
material to farmers (Morone Fortunato et al., 1981; Ancora et al., 1981;
Ceccarelli et al. (2010b), the abundance of specific polyphenols may
Rey et al., 2013). One concern with micropropagation methods is that
respond to the quality of the arbuscular mycorrhizum species sym-
the resulting plants may not possess the same properties as the parents,
biosis. In particular, plants inoculated with Glomus mix or with G. in-
due to somatic mutagenesis. In this respect, Cardarelli et al. (2005)
traradices showed a higher total polyphenol content and antiradical
proposed a propagation system based on transplanting first the pa-
power value than plants inoculated with G. mosseae, as well as the
thogen-free micropropagated plantlets in a soilless culture and rooting
weight of main flower heads. Colonna et al. (2016) assessed the effect of
the cuttings at the end of spring, in order to preserve the plant uni-
two commercial inoculants containing arbuscular mycorrhizum alone
formity. Among cultivation soilless systems the floating system is the
or in combination with plant growth promoting bacteria on quality at
most diffused and represents an alternative to traditional agriculture,
harvest of globe artichoke. They highlighted that the highest fresh
since it allows a precise control of plant nutrition and the maximization
weight was recorded in both inoculation treatments, as well as for the P
of yield and quality of the product (Tomasi et al., 2015). Nevertheless,

484
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content, whereas the highest nitrate content was reported in the sample
treated with arbuscular mycorrhizum. Also Rouphael et al., 2017
evaluated the effect of the co-inoculation on the quality of globe arti-
choke. In particular, these authors treated two artichoke seed-propa-
gated hybrids (‘Romolo’ and ‘Istar’) with arbuscular mycorrhizum and
Trichoderma atroviride, and revealed that the inoculated plants accu-
mulated more both caffeoylquinic acids and apigenin derivatives than
the non-inoculated ones, as well as a highest total polyphenol content.
The influence of micropropagation, arbuscular mycorrhizal and plant
growth promoting rhizobacteria on globe artichoke quality should be
linked to the interaction of them with the roots of land plants by in-
ducing changes in physiological mechanism, such as stimulating the
plant growth and the accumulation of phytochemicals as reported in
other crops (Lambais et al., 2003; Kavatagi and Lakshman, 2014).
2.4.2. Grafting, thinning
Grafting is the union of two or more pieces of living plant tissue
with a stress-tolerant rootstock. This technique could be used to reduce
infections caused by soil pathogens (Lee, 1994), to tolerate abiotic
stress, such as resistance against low and high temperatures (Rivero
et al., 2003; Venema et al., 2008) and alkalinity tolerance (Colla et al.,
2010a), as well as to enhance nutrient uptake (Ruiz et al., 1997; Colla
et al., 2010b). It is mainly and efficiently practiced on Solanaceae and
Cucurbitaceae crops, although there are several conflicting reports on
changes in quality at harvest due to grafting (Rouphael et al., 2010).
However, to our knowledge research on quality at harvest of globe
artichoke has been not investigated up till now. Limited research has
been done on graft compatibility, yield and Verticillium wilt resistance in
globe artichoke (Ciccarese et al., 2012, Temperini et al., 2013; Pandozy
et al., 2016).
Thinning is a cultural practice consisting in leaving one or two
suckers per plant of globe artichoke in order to both compensate the
plant mortality and keep under control the plant density. From quality
at harvest standpoint, the data available in literature are very scanty
and limited to the total yield and head size of globe artichoke. Clearly,
from non-thinning plants the head size is higher than thinning ones, but
total yield decreases (Gatti et al., 1995). Similar results were obtained
from García et al. (2005), even if they reported that the effect was
genotype-dependent.
Grafting and thinning are important agronomic practices now being
expanded, but their effect on important quality traits, including phy-
sical properties, flavour and content of healthy compounds remain re-
latively unknown, and as a consequence, the physiological, biochemical
and molecular processes involved.
2.4.3. Planting density
Planting density has a significant impact on yield in globe artichoke,
as in other crops. Over-densely planted crops (above 10,000 plants per
ha) produce smaller heads, presumably as a result of competition be-
tween the plants for nutrient, water and light. Thus the recommenda-
tion is that 8500 plants per ha be considered as the upper limit for
planting density (Mauro et al., 2011; Pisanu et al., 2012). Surprisingly,
the effect on head weight of sowing density in crops raised from seed
appears to be somewhat genotype-dependent (Miguel et al., 2004).
Similar results were observed by Jani et al. (2005). For instance, they
reported that the yield quality, expressed as percentage of heads in class
‘A’ (< 100 g), ‘B’ (> 100 g and < 200 g) and ‘C’ (> 200 g), was mainly
influenced by plant densities and arrangements in cultivar Castellamare
respect to ‘Talpiot’. According to Lombardo et al. (2009), the poly-
phenol content of the inner bracts and receptacle (Table 5) is also in-
fluenced by planting density: low density crops accumulate less poly-
phenol in both parts of the head (by, respectively, 52% and 13%) than
do conventional density crops. A similar effect was noted with respect
to varying the planting pattern, with twin row crops accumulating more
polyphenol in the head than single row ones (Table 5) (Lombardo et al.,
2009). On the other hand, planting pattern had no effect on either head
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Scientia Horticulturae 233 (2018) 479–490
Table 5
The effects of varying the planting density on the polyphenol content (chlorogenic acid
equivalent − g kg−1 fresh weight) of the head in relation to planting pattern and com-
ponents of the head (adapted from Lombardo et al., 2009).
Plant density (plants per m−2) Mean
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.8
Head parts
Inner bracts 4.0 6.0 6.3 8.4 6.2
Receptacle 5.0 4.6 5.5 5.8 5.2
Plant arrangement
Single rows 4.8 4.9 4.8 5.5 5.0
Twin rows 4.1 5.0 5.7 7.9 5.7
weight or the weight of its edible portion (Mauro et al., 2011).
Overall, the plant competition appear to accentuate the biosynthesis
of polyphenols, which are responsible for plants growth and develop-
ment, acting probably in concert with growth hormones or themselves
as regulators (Friedman, 1997). In addition, twin rows plant arrange-
ment could be a promising way to match the requirements of a globe
artichoke industrial crop and to predispose a better mechanization of
the cultural practices.
2.4.4. Fertilization
Globe artichoke is a demanding crop in terms of its requirement for
nutrition: both yield and quality at harvest are sensitive to the level of
available nitrogen (N) present in the soil. Commercial farmers apply up
to 700 kg of nitrogenous fertilizer per ha (Magnifico, 1987), leading to
potentially damaging impacts on the local environment (Erhart et al.,
2007). Ierna et al. (2012) have suggested that maintaining high and
stable yields in a sustainable way requires boosting the rate of P2O5
application from 50 to 150 kg per ha, as this allows a 33% reduction in
the amount of nitrogenous fertilizer to be achieved without altering
either the maturity time or the yield of the crop. A substantial research
effort has been devoted to demonstrating the yield benefit achieved by
applying nitrogenous fertilizer (Ierna et al., 2006; Paradiso et al., 2007;
Pomares et al., 1993). Shinohara et al. (2011) observed that the yield
response in globe artichoke did not follow a linear trend of N rates,
indicating a certain dependency with cultivar choice, cultural practices
and climatic conditions. At the same time, the N fertilization may im-
prove globe artichoke quality at harvest. Applying nitrogenous fertilizer
has a positive effect on both head fresh weight and head DM, although
the extent of its effect is dependent on the pre-existing amount of
available N in the soil (Negro et al., 2016). N fertilization was shown by
Ghoneim (2005) to increase head size, receptacle weight and the head
content of soluble solids, carbohydrates and K. However, raising the
application rate of nitrogenous fertilizer from 190 to 380 kg N per ha
did not achieve any improvement for any of these traits (Salamah,
1997). Shinohara et al. (2011) concluded that the rate of nitrogenous
fertilizer application had at best only a minor influence on the content
of either chlorogenic acid or cynarin content, while Negro et al. (2013)
have claimed that the maximal accumulation of caffeoylquinic acids
and luteolin derivatives required the application of 100 kg N per ha,
with the production of apigenin derivatives being stimulated by the
absence of nitrogenous fertilizer. Eich et al. (2000) were able to show
that the content of both caffeoylquinic acids and flavonoids was re-
duced as the rate of fertilizer was raised from 40 to 240 kg N per ha.
Globe artichoke is cultivated on a wide range of soil types (Elia and
Conversa, 2007), many of which have inherently low levels of available
N and P, but tend to provide moderate to high levels of both K and Ca
(Ierna et al., 2012). Little attention has been given to date to revealing
the benefit to quality at harvest of applying combined fertilizers.
Pomares et al. (1993) have described the effect of varying the dosage of
a combined NPK fertilizer on the cv. Blanca de Espana; no significant
response on yield was achieved by raising the dose of N above 200 kg
S. Lombardo et al.
Table 6
Effects of NPK fertilizer regime on the level of sugars and antioxidant compounds in globe
artichoke receptacle (adapted from Lombardo et al., 2015a).
Fertilizer regime
Qualitative trait Balanced
−1
Glucose (g kg of DM) 28.5 a
Fructose (g kg−1 of DM) 29.0 a
Sucrose (g kg−1
of DM) 41.6 a
Inulin (g kg−1 of DM) 182 a
Ascorbic acid (mg kg−1 of DM) 249 a
Total polyphenols (g kg−1 of DM) 28.9 a
Total caffeoylquinic acids (g kg−1 of DM)a 23.4 a
Apigenin 7-O-glucuronide (g kg−1 of DM) 4.6 a
Luteolin 7-O-glucuronide (g kg−1 of DM) 0.7 a
Antioxidant activity (% of DPPH inhibition) 79.1 a
Different letters within each qualitative traits indicate significant differences between the
fertilizer regimes (LSD test, P ≤ .05).
a
Expressed as the sum of the content of the individual mono- and di-caffeoylquinic
acids detected (i.e. 1-O-caffeoylquinic acid, 3-O-caffeoylquinic acid; 5-O-caffeoylquinic
acid; 3,4-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid; 3,5-di-O-caffeoylquinic acid and 1,5-di-O-caffeoyl-
quinic acid).
per ha, while manipulating the levels of P or of K had no effect on yield.
More recently, Lombardo et al. (2015a) have suggested that dressing
with 200, 180 and 200 kg ha−1 of N, K2O and P2O5, respectively, fa-
vours the accumulation of sucrose, inulin, ascorbic acid and the poly-
phenols 1,5-di- and 5-O- caffeoylquinic acids and apigenin 7-O-glu-
curonide in the edible portion of the head, while a more generous
formulation (500, 250 and 250 kg ha−1 of N, K2O and P2O5, respec-
tively) did not (Table 6). This result was explained by invoking the
carbon/nutrient balance hypothesis, which predicts that the con-
centration of both soluble sugars and secondary metabolites depends on
the availability of light, carbon and minerals (Bryant et al., 1983).
Under the moderate fertilizer regime, the heightened accumulation of
sugar would tend to encourage the synthesis of carbon-based secondary
metabolites, such as the polyphenols (Mohd et al., 2011); while under
the excessive fertilizer regime, polyphenol accumulation tends to be
suppressed as a result of the greater degree of vegetative growth, which
induces self-shading and a consequent reduction in photosynthetic ef-
ficiency and sugar translocation. While optimizing the supply of NPK
could therefore enhance the nutraceutical value of the crop, this effect
is modulated by both genotype and soil type. Literature data also sug-
gest a significant interaction between genotype and fertilization treat-
ments. In particular, since plants of seed-propagated cultivars are able
to utilize an higher soil volume increasing water and nutrient uptake
(Basnizki and Zohary, 1994), it is reasonable to presume that they may
be cultivated with lower farming inputs with respect to vegetatively
propagated ones.
Little is known regarding the response to organic fertilizer provision
under an organic farming regime. A study conducted by Al Mohandes
Dridi et al. (2012) to evaluate the effect of four compost types on the
performance of the cv. Violet d’Hyéres failed to detect any response in
either head weight, length or diameter. On the contrary, Fateh et al.
2013 concluded that organic and integrated fertilizing systems pro-
duced the most chlorogenic acid content in leaves and bracts as com-
pared to a conventional fertilizer system. This could be attributed to the
fact that animal manure can improve both the physical and chemical
properties of soil and, hence, may have stimulated chlorogenic acid
biosynthesis under sustainable cropping systems.
Spanu et al., 2017 studied the effect of one typical conventional
system and two alternative cropping ones; the latter based on the re-
covery of soil physical and chemical qualities by means of fertility
building crops (leguminous species and cover crops), of annual or
biannual rotations use, crop residues management and without che-
mical fertilizers application. In conclusion, the results of such research
confirmed that the eco-sustainable cropping systems were able to
Scientia Horticulturae 233 (2018) 479–490
obtain acceptable commercial yields and a good quality (in terms of
minerals and polyphenols content) of ‘Spinoso sardo’. In our opinion,
further investigation are necessary, in a long term perspective, to assess
the effects of alternative cropping system (e.g. organic farming) on
globe artichoke yield and quality at harvest.
Excessive
2.4.5. Irrigation
28.2 a
28.3 a Limited water supply is a major abiotic stress influencing physio-
31.4 b logical and metabolic processes in plant (Zeipiņa et al., 2016). In par-
174 b ticular, water stress level and its duration induces crop maturity, as a
160 b drought avoidance mechanism of plants (Alinian and Razmjoo, 2014).
18.9 b
Consequently, water stress can significantly reduce plant height, shoot
15.0 b
3.7 b and root dry weight. Prolonged episodes of moisture stress inhibit the
0.3 b crop’s photosynthetic activity, its level of antioxidants and its vitamin C
73.2 b content, while at the same time enhancing the accumulation of proline
in the leaves (Tanha et al., 2014). A moderate water stress reduces the
DM content of the head, while increasing both its polyphenol content
and level of antioxidants in the leaves and heads (Nouraei et al., 2016).
DM content and consequently moisture content of globe artichoke
heads are influenced by head morphology, since thicker outer bracts
and compactness of head may prevent water losses (El Sohaimy, 2009).
Better plant growth, development and yield can be obtained if the op-
timal water supply is ensured. In an experiment with 3 different water
irrigation levels (i.e. daily supplied 85, 100, and 115% from evapora-
tion amount) the best results, in both term of vegetative parameters and
marketable yield, were obtained with 115% irrigation.
Shinohara et al. (2011) have shown that the head’s polyphenol
content is raised when crops are provided with inadequate irrigation.
Stress induced by moisture deficits tends to encourage the synthesis of
reactive oxygen species, resulting in the peroxidation of membrane li-
pids and subsequent damage to DNA. A common defence response is to
generate antioxidants, specifically an array of phenols and flavonoids
(Farooq et al., 2009). Different mechanisms for the increase in phenolic
compounds in plants grown under water deficit were proposed in lit-
erature. We suggest that reasonably the increase in phenolic and fla-
vonoid compounds in heads might be due to the balance between
carbohydrate sources and sinks (Herrmann and Weaver, 1999). Indeed,
the shikimate pathway is responsible for converting simple carbohy-
drate precursors to aromatic amino acids (Ghasemzadeh et al., 2010)
Since water stress induced crop maturity, the transition from the ve-
getative to the reproductive phase can lead to transport of higher
amounts of soluble carbohydrates from the leaves to the heads, which
presented higher amount of phenolics (Nouraei et al., 2016).
Garnica et al. (2004) revealed that moisture deficit tends to boost
the production of rough fibre and to reduce head fresh weight; how-
ever, Pomares et al. (2004) were unable to confirm that head mean
weight was influenced by the irrigation regime.
Since water used for irrigation can be somewhat saline in many of
the areas where globe artichoke is cultivated, the effect of soil salinity
on the crop’s performance has been investigated in some detail. Salinity
generates an oxidative stress in plant tissues, leading to the generation
of reactive oxygen species (ROS) The literature suggests that the globe
artichoke is a moderately salinity tolerant species (Francois, 1995). The
two commonest adaptations to soil salinity are the establishment of an
osmotic gradient by the production of small charged compounds, and
the active exclusion of Na+ ions from living cytoplasm (Greenway and
Munns, 1980). Moreover, in plants grown under salt stress conditions,
the accumulation of proline can reduce symptoms of stress injury by
contributing to osmotic adjustment, protecting proteins and mem-
branes, and scavenging ROS (Kong-Ngern et al., 2012). Proline and Na
have the same role in the presence of salt stress, since they are both
involved in osmoregulation within plant tissues in the presence of salts
(Mokhamed et al., 2006). Salt stress also induced activation of anti-
oxidant enzymes and accumulation of antioxidant compounds
(Borgognone et al., 2014). The latter may be connected to the increase
in activity of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), the key enzyme of
486
S. Lombardo et al.
phenylpropanoid synthesis (Montanari et al., 2008).
Among the responses to moderate salinity is an increase in head DM,
while neither the head diameter/length ratio nor the percentage of
edible and waste fractions are altered (Cantore et al., 2007). Soil sali-
nity can reduce the head’s Ca2+ content (Boari et al., 2012). This mi-
neral plays a significant role for plant growth, since it is involved in
membrane stabilization and ion channel formation (Nedjimi and
Daoud, 2009), as well as in inducing plant secondary metabolite pro-
duction (Zhao et al., 2005).
Salt stress can be a useful tool to improve secondary metabolites
biosynthesis. Borgognone et al. (2014), evaluating the productive and
qualitative effects of chloride salts (NaCl, KCl and CaCl2) in leaves of
globe artichoke grown in a floating system, found that application of
KCl can be considered an effective way to produce leaves with high
quality (more total phenolic and flavonoid contents, antioxidant ac-
tivity and target polyphenols) during the whole cropping cycle, al-
though resulting in a 30% reduction in plant biomass. Colla et al.
(2013) have noted that, in hydronopics-grown plants, increasing the
severity of the salinity stress can boost the accumulation in the leaf of
ascorbic acid, polyphenols, chlorogenic acid and luteolin. By contrast,
they also confirmed that higher salinity in the nutrient solution reduces
plant growth parameters, such as leaf dry biomass and leaf number.
2.4.6. Control of growth and earliness through the use of chemical
regulators
Gibberellins are the major class growth regulators used in globe
artichoke cultivation. The most important compound is GA3, a form of
gibberellic acid which stimulates both cell elongation and division. The
exogenous supply of GA3 is used to accelerate and synchronize flow-
ering and to enhance yield (Foury, 1977; Maroto, 2007; Mauromicale
and Ierna, 1995, 2000). The effectiveness of GA3 treatment is influ-
enced by genotype, sowing/planting date, the concentration of the
active compound and the frequency of application (Baixauli et al.,
2007; Maroto, 2007; Sharaf-Eldin et al., 2003). Bianco (1990) have
emphasized the critical importance of timing: ideally in the cv. Cata-
nese, the treatment should be given as close as possible to the switch
from vegetative to reproductive growth, while in the cv. Romanesco, it
should be given prior to the switch. Foury (1974) have noted that ap-
plying an overly high concentration of GA3 can boost the production of
secondary heads, which, because they are smaller than the primary
ones, results in a reduction in the crop’s commercial value. However,
such secondary heads are widely utilized for processing as canned,
frozen and ready-to-eat products. Some attention has been given to the
effect of GA3 treatment on quality at harvest. Generally its effect is
negative, since the head’s accelerated growth results in a reduction in
its final weight, an increase in the length of its bracts and, in some
cases, to a deformation in its shape (Basnizki, 1985). Heads produced
by plants subjected to GA3 treatment tend to be more watery than those
produced by non-treated plants, and are also more liable to damage as a
result of low temperature or pathogen attack (Bianco, 1990). They tend
to have a shorter shelf life in terms of both pigmentation and shape.
According to Paradiso et al. (2007), these problems can be mitigated by
adjusting the rate and timing of nitrogenous fertilizer. GA3 treatment
appears to affect the receptacle's content of neither inulin nor sugar (El-
Zohiri, 2015). Sharaf-Eldin et al. (2003) also failed to detect any in-
fluence of GA3 treatment on the accumulation of protein, and possibly
also on that of carbohydrate. El-Abagy et al. (2010) have attributed the
enhanced accumulation of K induced by GA3 treatment to its promotion
of the cells' ability to absorb assimilate.
Given the negative consequences GA3 treatment, the use of other
growth regulators has been investigated. For example, El-Abagy et al.
(2010) compared the effect of various concentrations of putrescine
(50–200 mg per L), GA3 (50–200 mg per L) and salicylic acid
(100–400 mg per L) on both production and quality traits of the variety
‘Herious’. The putrescine treatment boosted the level of both N and P in
the head more effectively than did any of the other treatments. Ashour
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Scientia Horticulturae 233 (2018) 479–490
et al. (2016) evaluated the potential of combining thidiazuron with GA3
to regulate the growth of the cvs. Violetto di Chioggia and ‘French
Heryous’; their conclusion was that the combined treatment had the
potential to increase both yield and quality at harvest. Treatment with
5 ppm thidiazuron followed by the application of 25 ppm paclobutrazol
boosted the inulin content of the head, and thus enhanced the nutri-
tional value of the product. Most recently, Martínez-Esplá (2017) have
demonstrated that foliar spraying with oxalic acid can stimulate the
accumulation of both caffeoylquinic acids and luteolin.
3. Conclusions and future perspectives
It is clear that the quality at harvest of the globe artichoke is de-
termined by an interaction between genotype, climatic and edaphic
factors and the management of the crop. Some of the environmentally-
generated positive effects on quality can be offset by a negative effect
on yield, which complicates any attempt to optimize crop production.
Therefore, finding the best combinations of those factors to maximize
the quality at harvest will be a challenge in the future. The lack of a
history of intensive selection has left globe artichoke germplasm with a
relatively high level of genetic diversity, as shown by the range of re-
sponses shown by the crop to variation in its growing environment and
management. There remains considerable potential to improve the crop
through scientifically based breeding and selection, and this should
enable progress to be made in mitigating the influence of abiotic stress.
Currently efforts are being made to integrate the clonal selection ap-
proach, which may be the optimum route for enhancing current land-
races, into breeding programme, a powerful tool to manipulate the pool
gene (Pandino et al., 2012c; Portis et al., 2005). Such clones can rapidly
multiplied via micro-propagation technology (Morone Fortunato et al.,
2005). The opportunity is now in place for a comprehensive effort to
define those factors which are under human control (including agr-
onomy, and breeding) to make significant advances in the quality at
harvest of the nutritionally attractive crop globe artichoke. Never-
theless, due to the global environmental changes, certain stress factors
such as heat, drought, salinity, ozone and excess UV radiation might
become even more prevalent in the coming decades.
In addition, deep investigation should be conducted with the aim of
providing knowledge on the variation in globe artichoke quality at
harvest due to grafting, thinning and floating system, since in the lit-
erature no reports are available.
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