Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Lalita Udpa
Nondestructive Evaluation Laboratory
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Michigan
c g State
S e University
U ve s y
East Lansing, MI 48824
WCNDT P
Preconference
f W
Workshop,
kh D
Durban,
b A
April
il 15
15, 2012
Outline
• Wheels
• Rivet Holes
• E i
Engines – Impeller
I ll bores
b
• Fuselage skin
Part I - Physical Principles
Part I - Physical
y Principles
p
• Alternating magnetic fields are generated by alternating current
excitation – Maxwell Ampere
p Law
• Magnetic field induces currents (eddy currents) in test specimen –
Maxwell Faraday Law
• Eddy currents establish secondary fields which oppose the primary
fields
• Changes net flux linkage and hence the impedance of the coil
• Anomalies in the test specimen affect the induced field, changing the
net impedance of the coil
Bsecondary
Physical
y Principles
p
Eddy Currents
Test Specimen
Eddy
y Current Inspection
p
W e two
When wo coils
co s aree coup
coupled
ed by a magnetic
g e c field,
e d, they
ey aree subject
subjec too
the effects of a mutual inductance.
12 N 212 21 N121
M 12 M 21
I1 I1 I2 I2
where
h
So e of
Some o magnetic
g e c flux
u lines
es associated
ssoc ed with
w eache c coil
co do not
o couple
coup e
with both coils, those flux lines are called leakage magnetic flux
lines, and they contribute to self-inductance of the coil.
11 N111 22 N 222
L1 L2
I1 I1 I2 I2
Transformer Analog
g ((Cont’d.))
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
An electromotive force (emf) is induced within an electric
circuit whenever the magnetic flux linking with the circuit changes,
and it is proportional to the time rate of change of flux linkage.
linkage
d dI d
emff L N
dt dt dt
J x J o exp( x f ) where δ
1 is called
πfμσ
skin depth
Factors Affecting Eddy Current
Measurements
• Factors affecting eddy current transducers
– Lift-off: Separation between the coil and the specimen surface
• Impedance of the coil changes as the probe is moved from air till it
touches the material surface – liftoff curve
• Minimized by the use of surface-riding probes or multifrequency
measurements
• Can be used to determine the thickness of non-conducting coatings on
conducting surfaces
– Skin effect
• Eddy currents decay exponentially with depth in the material
• Standard depth of penetration: (depth at which eddy currents become
1/e the surface value)
• This limits the sensitivity of eddy current method to the surface of the
conducting specimen
Part II - Eddyy Current Sensors
Part II - Eddy
y Current Sensors
Absolute probe
Differential Bobbin probe
Plus Point & Array Probe
Meandering coil
Eddy Current – Magneto-optic (MOI) sensor
Eddy Current – Magneto-resistive (MR) sensor
Absolute Probe
• Absolute probe: a single coil is used for impedance
measurements
• Disadvantage
– Detects small changes in impedance, factors such as changes in
coil parameters or lift-off may mask this small signal.
Absolute Probe
Impedance plane trajectory of a coil over a ferromagnetic (or
nonferromagnetic ) specimen with and without a discontinuity
11. C
Coil
il in
i air
i 11. C
Coil
il in
i air
i
2. Coil over a nonferromagnetic specimen 2. Coil over a ferromagnetic specimen
containing a discontinuity containing a discontinuity
3. Coil over a nonferromagnetic specimen 3. Coil over a ferromagnetic specimen
containing no discontinuities containing no discontinuities
Differential Bobbin Probe
• Differential bobbin probe
– Two bobbin coils with current in opposite
pp direction
– Resulting signal is a difference signal from two coils
• Flaw signal is more distinguishable from relatively
constant
t t background
b k d signal.
i l
Differential Bobbin Probe
Impedance-plane trajectory of a coil over a conducting
nonferromagnetic
f i test specimen
i
• Abs. mode: one testing bobbin coil, one shielded ref. coil
– gradually varying wall thinning, which could not be detected by diff. mode
Differential coil
Diff. sig.
Axial
ZETEC Bobbin Probes
Absolute mode Metallic Shield
Bobbin Probe Disadvantages
• Merits:
– inexpensive, fast scanning( typ. up to 1m/s )
– Reliably detect and size volumetric flaws, such as
fretting wear and pitting corrosion
• Disadvantage:
– insensitive to circ. oriented flaws, because induced
eddy current parallel to flaws and not perturbed by the
flaws
– limited sensitivity at expansions, U-bend, and support
plates
– low resolution for flaw location and characterization
Rotating Probe - RPC
• Components of RPC:
– Typ. 4~8 surface-riding pancake coils placed around the circumference
– Driven motor, rotating circumferentially and moving forward (helical
pattern)
• Characteristics:
– Capable of both axial and circ
circ. oriented flaws
– Very sensitive to cracking in transition zone
Circ.
Axial
Rotating Probe - Plus Point
Exciting
E citing coil: meander coil
Perpendicular to each o
Receiving coil: mesh coil
S Yamada
S. Yamada, etc.
etc 1995,
1995 Japan and Canada
Planar Coils for Plates
S
Scan li
line perpendicular
di l to t crackk
Scan line parallel to crack
Eddy
y Current – MOI Sensors
K : Kundt's constant
KMd M : Magnetization vector
d : path length of light
Magneto--Optic Sensors
Magneto
Surface to be inspected
Surface to be inspected
Magneto--Optic Imaging
Magneto
Schematic of MOI Instrument
LIGHT SOURCE
ANALYZER
POLARIZER
BIAS COIL
SENSOR
LAP JOINT INDUCTION FOIL
Cracks
Linear null
region
• AG GMR ddevice
i consists
i off two or more llayers off ferromagnetic
f i material
i l (typically
( i ll
NiFe, CoFe or related transition metal alloy) separated by ultra-thin non-magnetic
metal spacer layers (Cu, Au or Ru).
• In the absence of an externally applied field, the magnetic layers alternate in
magnetization, resulting in a high resistance. When a magnetic field is applied, this can
overcome the interlayer coupling and force all of the layers to align with the field and
reduce
d the
h resistance.
i
• Since a magnetic field in either direction will cause alignment of the magnetization, the
resulting R vs. H curve is an even function, symmetric about zero
GMR Sensor
S
• Magneto Resistive (GMR)
Giant Magneto-Resistive
– Decrease in resistance in presence
of a magnetic field
– Uni-polar
i l sensor
• Needs to be biased to measure
sinusoidal (+,-) fields
• GMR sensor kept in a coil
through which a constant DC
current is passed.
• DC fi
field
ld keeps
k the
th GMR sensor
biased during operation
Normal Biased
Operating point
Anomaly free region Defect free rivet region Rivet with defect
Measurement
Region
1 D
1. Driving
i i probe b coil
il excited
it d with
ith a repetitive
titi broadband
b db d pulse,
l
such as a square wave.
2. Broad frequency spectrum is produced in one pulse:
transient/reflected signal contains depth information
3. Pulse is broadened and delayed as it travels deep into the
conducting material
• Flaws or other anomalies close to the surface will affect the eddy
current response earlier
li iin time
i than
h deep
d flaws
fl
M i i
Motivation
Multilayer aircraft structure needs accurate characterization of
hidden corrosions and cracks
Pulsed Eddy Current
Pulsed Excitation
Top Layer
Bottom Layer
Typical
yp Signals
g
A-scan : a transient signal measured under typical test conditions.
Amplitude and the time for zero-crossing is most important features.
Amplitude of voltage
Ti for
Time f zero-crossing
i
Typical
yp Signals
g
B-scan : Image of a linear cross section of C-scan within a time
period.
i d X-axis
i represents the
h probeb location,
l i Y-axis i represents the
h
time, amplitude of signal is displayed in gray value.
Remote Field Eddy Current Testing
Excitation
Direct Path
Coil
Receiver Transmitter
Active or Passive Shield
Test Specimen
IMTT Probe Response Y. Sun, at al
3.0” 3.0” 0.040” Flat-bottom corrosion 0.5” 0.5” 0.040” Flat-bottom corrosion
0 603” Below Surface
0.603 0 603” Below Surface
0.603
C
Corrosion
i SiSize Estimate
E ti t C
Corrosion
i SiSize Estimate
E ti t
.
Part IV - Forward Modeling
What Simulation Models Can Do
• Simulation Models are useful in
– Solution of forward problem – Predict EC probe signals
– Effect of probe wobble, frequency, sludge characteristics on probe
measurements (POD)
– Visualization of field/flaw interaction
– Optimization of sensor/system design
– Test bed for generating defect signatures
– Useful in Probability of Detection (POD) Models at low cost
– Inverse problem solution (Reverse engineering models for finding root
cause)
• Key
ey Advantages
dva ages ofo Simulation
S u a o Model ode
– Provides an inexpensive and fast method to simulate realistic test and
defect geometries
Part IV-
IV- Forward Modeling
• Maxwell's equations: Constitutive relations for linear and isotropic media:
B
E D E B H J E
t
B 0
is the permittivity
D is the permeability
is the conductivity
H, E are the magnetic & electric
fi ld strengths
field t th
B, D are the magnetic & electric
flux densities
J, are the current & charge densities
Finite Element Modeling -Technical Details
The governing equations for the eddy current
excitation in
terms of the magnetic vector potential A and electrical scalar
potential V
1
( A ) j ( A V ) 0 in 1
( j ( A V )) 0 in 1
1
( A ) J S in 2
Step 2.
2 Choose shape functions.
functions (hexahedral element)
N i ( , , ) (1 i )(1 i )(1 i ) i=1,2, . . ., 8
Finite Element Formulation (continued)
Step 3. Compute stiffness matrix and load vector for each element.
Notation
8 24
A N j Axj x N j Ayj y N j Azj z N k Ake
j 1 k 1
8
V N jV je
j 1
N j x k 3j2 Axje k 3j 2
e
Nk N j y k 3 j 1 Ak Ayj
e
k 3 j 1
e
N j z k 3j k 3j
Azj
Finite Element Formulation (continued)
24
1 1
{ (
j 1
e
N
i ) ( N j ) ( N i )( N j )dV } Aej
24 8
{ j
j 1
N
e
i N j dV } A i j
{
e
j N N
j 1
dV }V j
e
e
i 1,2, ,24
1 1
e
N i ( A n)dS
e
N i (n
A)dS N i J S dV
e
24 8
{ j
j 1
N k
e
N j dV } A
{ e
N
j k N j dV
j 1
}V j
e
e
k 1,2, ,8
e
N k ( jA V ) ndS 0
e
[G ]3232 [ A]e
321 [Q ]e
321
Finite Element Formulation (continued)
Resistive
Resistive
Impedance Plane
R ti
Reactive
Modeling
Geometry
Experimental
Comparison of Experimental and Predicted Results for Defects in a support
SGTSIM v1.0 Features - 2008
Predefined geometries ,
Support plate Tube sheet Free span
• Model Enhancements
Probes: + Point Probe
• GUI Enhancements
– New graphical interface:
– 2D and 3D surface plot and Lissajous plots
– Manual Calibration
– D W
Data Writing
i i formats
f
vertical
horizontal vertical horizontal
Simulation
Measured
Real Crack Model - Quantitative Validation –
+ point probe ; 300KHz ; ETSS Data file – Farley
Farley-1
1_25_51
25 51
Simulated signals
Preprocessing
Features
Signal Classification
No Degradation Degradation
Compensation
Defect Characterization
A t
Automated
t d Si
Signall Cl
Classification
ifi ti (ASC)
Preprocessing
• Noise Filtering
• Invariance
• Feature Extraction
Classifier
C ass e
Training • Clustering Algorithms
• Neural Networks
Signal Class
Model--based Inversion for Defect
Model
Characterization
Initial Measured
Defect Profile Probe Signal
Forward Compare
p with
Predicted
P edicted Defect
D f t
Model Response
desired probe
response Profile
Defect Parameterization
y r
d1 d3 d2
x z
Characterization
Typical Results
(i) (ii)
11.4 0.25
11.2
0.2
11
Objectiv e Function
10.8
0.15
r ( mm)
10.6
0.1
10.4
9.8 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 5 10 15
z (mm) Iteration Number
Typical Results
(i) (ii)
11.4 0.25
11.2
0.2
11
Objectivve Function
10.8
0.15
r ((mm)
10.6
0.1
10.4
9.8 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 5 10 15
z (mm) Iteration Number
Test Configuration
d1 d 2 … d8
z
Characterization
Typical Results
N=100
Characterization
Typical Results
N=100
Case study: Steam Generator Tube Inspection
Rotating probe coil EC Data
Free Span Drilled Support Broached Support
Freespan
Noisy Data
After Filtering
Volumetric Indications
8
CWT Analysis
y – RPC Data
1
( , s ) u (t ) * ((t ) / s )dt
s
where τ and s represents translation and scale of the mother wavelet ψ(t)
Property of wavelets to perform multi-scale analysis is exploited for flaw detection
8
CWT – Flaw Detection
• A simple threshold based on statistics of CWT coefficients easily separates out flaw signal
from noise
Flaw
Flaw
8
Compensation: Deconvolution
• Objective
• Development of deconvolution algorithms for removing the response
of the eddy current probe area from the measurements
– Compensation for the finite dimensions of eddy current probes
• Approach
• Deconvolution algorithm using Wiener filter
• System model (time domain)
y i, j d i, j hi, j ni, j
•
• where y(i,j) – measured signal
• d(i,j
,j) – defect
f footprint
f p
h(i,j) – system impulse response (probe footprint)
n(i,j) – noise
* – convolution
l ti
Compensation
T i l Results
Typical R lt
2 2 2
4 4 4
6 6 6
8 8 8
10 10 10
12 12 12
14 14 14
16 16 16
18 18
18
20 20
20
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
6000
4000
2000
-2000
30
Mapping
25
20
25
15 20
10 15
10
5
axial 5
0 0 circum
CALIBRATED DATA
ROI SELECTION
LENGTH ESTIMATION
.
.
.
fi, 300kHz
Axial direction .
.
.
.
.
.
fi,i 200kHz Trained RBF d thi
depth
Feature Matrix
. Network
.
.
.
.
.
fi, 100kHz
.
. Features from line scans in the
.
background region were also
used to map to zero depth
Radial Basis Function (rbf
(rbf)) Approach
= ith basis
b i center,
= radially
di ll symmetric
i basis
b i function
f i with
i h spreadd σ .
A total of p centers (or nodes in hidden layer) are used in basis function expansion
Feature vector
• For 300kHz, 200kHz and 100kHz data, the maximum magnitude and its corresponding phase angle is
computed for each gradation in axial direction of the ROI.
• The phase spread
spread. which is an additional feature
feature, defined as the range for as three phase angles
computed per gradation
• Seven features are thus obtained per gradation in axial direction
15
150 30
10
f1
f2 5
f 100 , 200 , 300 , m100 m200 m300 100,300
.
. 180 0
.
.
fN
210 330
240 300
300 kHz
270 200 kHz
100 kHz
9
Radial basis neural network method
1
TRAINING MODULE
2 Length
.
. Estimation Nx7
. (N Axial scans) Feature Matrix
.
N
R 1
B 2
F .
.
.
N .
.
1
E .
2 Length Test Data .
.
Estimation Feature T .
.
. (M Axial scans) Matrix W .
M O .
.
R .
K M
TEST MODULE
Variation of basic rbf algorithm
g (rbf2)
( )
Three feature vectors corresponding to three spatially contiguous line scans are mapped to depth at center scan
Axial direction
fn-1
fn
fn+1
} NX21
Feature Matrix
depthn
R
B
F
fn-1 N
fn Feature vector E
fn+1 T Predicted depth at nth scan
W
O
TEST MODULE R
K
Results 1
D f tL
Defect Length
th & D
Depth
th profiles
fil
RESULTS - profiling
100
90
80
log-mag
70
mag
60 NN
MET
%TW
50
NN2
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Location
Results 2
D f tL
Defect Length
th & D
Depth
th profiles
fil
100
90
80
log-mag
70
mag
60 NN2
NN
%TW
50
MET
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Location
Results 3
D f tL
Defect Length
th & D
Depth
th profiles
fil
Max % TW PDA (%) Flaw Length (in)
RESULTS - profiling
100
90
80
log-mag
70
mag
60 NN2
NN
%TW
50
MET
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Location
Results 4
D f tL
Defect Length
th & D
Depth
th profiles
fil
Max % TW PDA (%) Flaw Length (in)
Log- Mag 22 53
22.53 10 35
10.35 0 94
0.94
Mag 9.00 6.79 0.94
NN (RBF1) 76.85 43.11 0.96
NN2 (RBF2) 64.17 42.25 0.88
MET 77.00 42.01 0.82
RESULTS - profiling
100
90
80
log-mag
70
mag
60 MET
NN2
%TW
50
NN
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Location
Summary
Edd Current
Eddy C t - Physical
Ph i l Principles
Pi i l
- Transformer Analogy
- Probe
P b C Coil
il geometry
t
- Continuous, Pulsed & Remote
excitation
it ti
- Simulation models
- Data
D t Analysis
A l i
- Defect Classification
D f tP
Defect Profiling
fili
- Application (SG tube Inspection)
Questions?