National University of Singapore

School of Design and Environment

Faculty of Architecture

Raja Mohd. Fairuz HT044971R

Priscilla Ang HT044929W

AR5752, Independent Study Module, Construction Prototype

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16 November 2004, Tuesday

Bamboo, an Alternative to Sustainable Construction in Cambodia

1. BAMBOO: AN EXTRAORDINARY GIFT OF NATURE

Since the dawn of civilization, bamboo has been widely utilized in various and ingenious ways.
Japan, China, Philippines, Indonesia, and many other Asian countries, have used this marvelous
grass in the construction of bridges, town and rural houses, sewers, water canals, in the
production of paper, musical instruments, and many other items. It is an almost infinitely useful
material with new applications being discovered every day in the fields of medicine,
pharmaceuticals, and chemistry.

Bamboo as a Plant

Standing tall and slim, with its leaves whispering in the wind, bamboo has an exotic beauty that
goes beyond being a part of pleasant scenery. Bamboo belongs to the Gramineae family; hence,
it is actually a grass and not a tree. However, its stem (culm) is "woody" in nature. Bamboo grows
and matures within five years. As a comparison, a hardwood such as pine needs more than 10
years to mature, while softwoods such as acacia need 6-7 years. One can almost see it grow, as
some bamboo species can grow by about half a meter per day.

Bamboo’s widespread and strong root system binds soil particles to prevent erosion and
landslides. Its large total leaf area, along with its roots, absorbs and binds pollutants in the soil,
water and air. In this way, bamboo aids the conservation of soil and water, particularly in barren
areas and undeveloped lands.

Harvested when newly sprouted and tender, bamboo can be consumed as food. The crisp texture
and subtle flavor of bamboo shoots have made them a favored component in many eastern
cuisines.

Bamboo can be used for medical purposes as well. The shoot of yellow bamboo (Bambusa
vulgaris) is known to be a cure for jaundice. It contains the organic compound hydroxy
benzaldehyde, which serves as an antitoxin in the liver.

There are innumerable other uses of bamboo: as containers, musical instruments, mats and
mattresses, boats, weapons, toys, fishing rods, paper pulp, and many more. It was even used as
the first lamp filament in 1880 by Thomas Edison, as he could not find any other material suitable
for the purpose.

Cambodian tropical forests consist of various hardwood and softwood tree species, such as teak,
meranti, gadog, mahogany and rubber. These have been exploited. Especially since the 1970s,

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to meet the rapidly growing industrial production and consumer needs for wood, mostly for
building materials and various industries (such as pulp and furniture). Today, Cambodia’s tropical
forests are approaching a crisis situation in that the current and projected rates of their
exploitation exceed the rate of possible replacement. The unsustainability of this resource may
well lead to commercial and genetic extinction of several valuable tropical wood species. It will
take several years for a new forest to mature and become harvestable. Hence, the current
unsustainable scale of exploitation puts tremendous pressure on natural forests. There has
always been a need to seek wood substitutes. Bamboo can meet this demand.

Because of the fact that the nation suffered a long period of political crisis, bamboo flora like the
biodiversity generally has been considered a low priority issue and the future of bamboo flora
research remains somewhat uncertain. The bamboo forest (Russey Khley) is more than often a
result of the degradation of the tropical rainforest by humans. It is therefore a formation with a
limited number of species. Bamboo usually grows under tall trees. When the trees are cut down,
the bamboo gets the sun and spreads fast. If the forest was not artificially exploited, it would
progressively return to its original biodiversity as a dense forest. Owing to Cambodia’s tropical
climate, bamboo grows in most parts of the country. Some commonly found species having
commercially important value are Bambusa Bambos (Rusey Khley), B. Burmanica (Rusey Sroy
Chin), B. Flexuosa (Rusey Srok), B. Vulgaris (Rusey Koa) and Oxytenanthera Dense (Rusey
Ping Pong). Other species like Arundinaria Ciliate , A. A Pusilla (Rusey Prech), Bambusa
Blumeana (Rusey Rlek) are used daily as food, for making musical instruments, kitchen utensils,
fences, matting slat traps and floats. Some ethnic groups in northeast of Cambodia are
permanently settled in bamboo forests as they are cultural and materially reliant on these
resources. If the bamboos no longer exist in their village they move the village to another area
where the bamboo grows.

Bamboo as a Material

Owing to the tropical climate, bamboo grows in most parts of the country. Out of date data,
lacking quality and quantity, research constraints and the rapid pace of change of the country’s
administration make it difficult to reach a definite estimate of the number of species. Cambodia’s
forests have not been comprehensively surveyed for bamboos. In addition, bamboos have been
excluded from forest flora because they are considered as village plants, or are found growing in
logged or secondary forests. The only reference on Cambodian bamboo is by Camus and Camus
(1923) in the Flore Generale de L’indochine. It includes 14 genera and 72 species for Indo-china.
The taxonomy of the species found in Cambodia is still in its preliminary stage of investigation.
Referring to existing data of the bamboo flora available, it is estimated that there are at least 10
species of 4 genera (bambusa, arundinaria, dendrocalamus and oxytenanthera) of which the
number of species under Bambusa predominate. It is assumed that the bamboos present are not
only as diverse as in neighboring countries but also includes some native, endemic and
threatened or endangered species.

Based on this very optimistic assumption, there seems to be great potential for the usage of
bamboo. Therefore, it is worthwhile to look at bamboo as an economic resource for the purpose
of Cambodian development. In order to use bamboo as a potential economic resource, it is
important to understand bamboo’s superior qualities. Bamboo has an astonishing reputation as a
strong construction material, having been used for centuries for structural purposes. Bamboo’s
cell structures and technical properties resemble those of wood, yet it is superior in both strength
and elasticity when compared with wood and steel.

Bamboo fiber has a static tensile strength of up to 400 N/mm², as against 50 N/mm² of wood, 370
N/mm² of construction steel and 700 N/mm² of glass fiber. The modulus of rupture (MOR) and
modulus of elasticity (MOE) of bamboo have been proven to be equal to those of hardwood. After

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its first three years of growth, bamboo’s skin contains an abundant proportion of silica that
protects the surface from termites, chemical substances and mechanical forces.

The physical and mechanical properties of bamboo, along with its rapid regeneration, make
bamboo a potential material to supplement wood. However, because bamboo is widely used by
rural people, it carries the image of a poor man’s timber. Bamboo products have been neglected,
or have been drowned among a sea of products made of new materials, especially since most of
them are perceived as not being "modern".

This paper investigates possible construction methods to further utilize bamboo as a low cost
alternative to building construction in developing countries like Cambodia .Through the
introduction of modern technology with tradition, it is hoped to highlight bamboo’s unique
characteristics, so as to be more appreciated among urban as well as the rural dwellers.
Available natural, human and cultural resources are the key elements to consider in the process;
therefore, it is important to discuss how technology can be appropriate for a given environment.
The end result may produce an architectural design with modern qualities at the same time
respecting the traditional aspects, which could serve to change people’s perception of bamboo
and reduce the stigma currently attached to bamboo materials.

2. Bamboo in the Past

Cambodian Bamboo Culture

Bamboo has had an immense influence on the life and culture of the South East Asian people for
centuries. Bamboo has often figured in local paintings, legends, songs and folklore and it carries
many symbolic meanings in its various uses.

The traditional Khmer lifestyle and culture in Cambodia was disrupted for a quarter of a century
during the reign of Commander-in-Chief Lon Nol (1970-1975), the Khmer Rouge (1975-1979),
and Vietnamese intervention in 1979 until the foundation of the transitional government in 1993.
Among those traditions affected, the old Cambodian art of weaving bamboo was one of them.
"A quarter of a century" corresponds to "one of generation ". The Cambodian demography as of
three years ago shows that more than half of the population was under 15 years old, the
proportion of people in their 50s and 60s was about the same, but the population in their 30s and
40s is extremely small. This highly unbalanced demography is a direct result of the history of
armed conflicts in Cambodia since 1970, which also left its mark on Cambodian traditional
tradition: there are some people older than 60 who knew the skills of tradition weaving, but there
are hardly any people younger than 50 who have mastered it. A dying trade, there is an urgent
need to find older weavers to convey their skills to the younger generation in Cambodia.

Bamboo musical instruments are in use throughout the Cambodia. Ayai is a popular art form that
is held in high esteem by Khmer people all through Cambodia, particularly those living in rural
areas. It involves two people pitching their wits against each other through singing. One singer
poses a question or a quiz and the other sings an answer in response. Sometimes, like poems,
Ayai verses are required to rhyme. Although there is no prize for the best lyrics, people always
enjoy themselves and audiences love it. Six kinds of musical instruments accompany an Ayai
performance. There is the Tro Sor (a violin-like instrument with light tones), the Tro Ou (another
violin-like instrument that has hard, heavy tones), the Takhe (a guitar-like instrument), the Kloy (a
kind of flute), the Skor (a hand-drum), and the Choeng (tiny pair of cymbal) Some musicians also
include one more instrument, called a Khim (a harp with 16 strings which is struck with bamboo
hammers). About 15 songs make up an average Ayai performance.

Several kinds of bamboo flutes are played in many parts of the island. Pey Ar, a double-reed flute
made of bamboo. This instrument is only used in the Arakk (worship of the spirit) and Kar

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(wedding) ceremonies. The instrument is rattled to provide musical accompaniment to dances.
The watery melodies tinkled on bamboo xylophones or Roneat ek serve the same purpose.

This tradition of bamboo utilization continues and most of the bamboo artifacts described above
are still being made and widely used. The image of being ‘traditional’ is thus firmly attached to
bamboo. As bamboo is still a ubiquitous in Cambodia, it costs almost nothing to purchase the
material. Bamboo wares and constructions are easily replaceable and hence are commonly used
by low-income communities. Therefore negative images—such as being cheap, disposable and
common—are as well attached to bamboo, despite the many layers of valuable traditional
meaning.

The Origins of Khmer Architecture

Khmer architecture, both traditional and contemporary, often incorporates open, free flowing
(inside out), functional, aesthetic, religious, contemplation, meditation, relaxation, respectful,
historical, learning, playing, powerful-awe struck, massive, gentle, politeness, peaceful, quiet, and
security/safety elements into the design. These concepts help to define Khmer architecture in
today Cambodia.

Traditional Khmer styles, those that intertwine with Colonial (French) flavor, are very popular,
especially for hotels and public facilities. Traditionally, during Angkor period, Khmer architecture
involved the use of solid sandstone blocks and brick bars for wall and roofing, with laterite blocks
as foundations and sometimes as pathway and stair paving. These materials are commonly used
for public facilities, such as schools and temples. The scale is often grand, massive, and yet well
within human dimensions.

Wood and clay tile were traditionally used to construct palaces for royalty and homes for the elites,
especially during the Angkor period. The general population uses locally found materials, such
as wood, bamboo, straw thatch, and palm leaf, to build their homes. The structures are often
elevated high above ground, regardless of materials used, with temples being the highest of them
all. The general population builds homes on wooden stilts high above ground, mainly to capture
the cool breeze, as well as to avoid flooding and encroachment by insects and small animals
during the Monsoon season (from June-December).

Presently, modern Khmer architecture has strong Western (Colonial) influence, such as wide use
of concrete, brick, and mortar. Government facilities are commonly using cast-in-place concrete
with large wooden windows and flat roofs. Some are now completely enclosed with glass
windows with the increase use of air conditioning systems. Yellow and white are two of the most
common color schemes being used. The height of these government buildings vary from a low
single story and up to 10 stories high.

Private homes and commercial buildings use a combination of concrete, brick, and mortar, often
with elevated tile roofs. Elaborate details are added to the front facade, from molding and/or cast-
in-place, to enhance the aesthetic value of a building. Various color schemes; some as bright as
a rainbow, are sometimes incorporated into the design. Much of this styling and materials are
imported (or influenced by) from neighboring Thailand.

Approximately 80% of the general populations still use locally found materials, such as wood,
bamboo, clay tile, brick, straw thatch, and palm leaf, to build their homes. This is especially true
for poorer people in the countryside. These homes are still built on wooden (some are now built
with adaptive concrete) stilts high above ground. With economic improvement, multiple storied
concrete houses with elevated tile roofs, elaborated details and color schemes are the favorite for

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the city dwellers. However, wood houses with tile or imported tin roofs are still the dream of the
people in the countryside, as they work their way up the economic ladder.

3. Culture and Sustainability

During the past decade development aims in Cambodia have mainly focused on economic
growth with little or no consideration of the social, cultural or environmental aspects. The idea that
rapid economic growth would lead to a gradual filtering down of benefits to the mass population
has, in reality, resulted in imbalance, widening the gap between rich and poor, slowly causing
environmental degradation and the disintegration of social structures, cultures and religious
beliefs.

There is now a growing realization that development cannot be based on economic aims alone.
For development to be sustainable, it must address cultural, social and environmental aspects in
addition to the economic concerns. The image of a traditional Khmer house can be used to
suggest that sustainable development can only be achieved when the different aspects - the
economic, the environmental, the cultural and the social - are of equal importance and strength.
Each of the supporting house-poles has to be of equal length and strength for the house to be
stable and secure. If one pole is shorter or weaker than the others, the house will tilt and the
occupants will feel unstable and insecure. The same is true of development. If economic
development is the only consideration, the environmental, social and cultural considerations will
be weakened or damaged, resulting in a development that is neither sustainable, nor meets the
needs of the whole population. For sustainable development to be successful there needs to be
more interaction between science and the arts, between nature and culture, between technology
and traditional knowledge.

In Cambodia today, the economic pole is rapidly expanding at the expense of the environment,
culture and Cambodian society. This is a situation which needs to be readdressed to prevent the
scenario of an unstable house, ill at ease with the surrounding environment and unsuitable for
habitation by the majority of the population. In many societies, the role of custom, culture and
religion is still meaningful. Life is seen not only as the concern of people as related to other
people or society, but as the concern of all humankind as related to nature. This linkage is
increasingly being recognized as a valuable way of protecting the environment and natural
resources and it is important that this is acknowledged by the decision makers and governments
when formulating their development policies.

“Culture” is often a difficult concept to define. In its broadest sense it can be defined as the
human-made part of the environment”. However, this definition is so wide-encompassing that it
becomes difficult to give it any real meaning. It can be defined as the primitive and ritualistic
practices and superstitions of a certain group or community of people which are unrelated to
everyday modern life. Viewed in this way, culture is believed to be a barrier to change, something
to be overcome or eliminated if people are to achieve progress. It can be defined as an
understanding and appreciation of the arts such as painting, music and literature. This view
ignores the fact that these art forms have always been, and will continue to be, influential in
shaping the ideas, the values and beliefs of a society. In reality, culture is a combination of these
three definitions. It encompasses a broader anthropological sense of a whole way of life of a
particular group or people, including their material, intellectual and spiritual beliefs and needs. It
comprises all the expressions of creativity, including language, science and technology,
architecture and arts. It includes whole systems of beliefs, values, attitudes, customs, institutions
and social relations. It shapes the way people think and learn about the world (including
themselves) and how they interact with it. Culture defines how people relate to nature and their
physical environment, and how they express their attitudes to and beliefs in other forms of life,

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both animal and plant. In other words, it is everything that forms the specific characteristics and
originality of a people or a community and which gives each of us our cultural identity.

Culture is:
“The whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a
society or social group. It includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights
of the human being, value systems, traditions and beliefs.”
UNESCO World Conference on Cultural Policies, Mexico City, 1982 3

Societies which have a rich wealth of tangible cultural resources, for example, palaces, temples
and sculptures, often consider societies which have few outward signs of cultural wealth as
having little or no culture. However, because intangible cultural resources are usually deeply
rooted in history and kept within the minds and souls of people, such societies often have a
particularly strong and adaptable culture. It is the intangible cultural resources that make up the
diversity of mankind and influence the production of the material cultural resources, the visible
symbols of a particular group of people. Without the intangible cultural resources, there would be
no tangible cultural resources. Cultures shape the environment. They decide the individual and
community use of natural resources. Cultures are, in turn, also shaped by the environment.
Climate, natural setting and available resources affect the ways of life of a population, influence
the type and extent of its interactions with other human groups, and influence its beliefs, language
and creativity. In a large part, historic events and cultural values are shaped by humankind’s
response to the environment. Culture also plays an integral part of architecture as it makes up the
genius loci of the place.

The majority of the Cambodian population has long been involved with wet-rice cultivation and, as
a result, Khmer culture often reflects this reliance on and closeness to the rice crop. For the
Khmer people, the word to eat (nyham bai) is synonymous with eating rice. Many Khmer proverbs
draw on images of rice to convey traditional wisdom, for example, the following proverb which
conveys the message that respect should be shown to elders. In Khmer, the word aon is used to
describe this show of respect as well as to describe the bending over of a mature rice stalk:
The interplay of cultures and environments has often been translated into the creation of cultural
landscapes, where intangible cultural beliefs are represented in a tangible form, such as the
temples of Angkor in Siem Reap province. Cultures cannot survive if the environment on which
they depend is seriously degraded or destroyed. Over the last few decades, the Cambodian
population has become an increasingly urban one, with the population of urban centers rising at
an annual rate of about 16% since 1994. The move to cities and urban centers has opened up
opportunities for many people and is often considered a sign of development and modernization.
But, at the same time, the growth of the urban environment has brought new and vastly increased
damage to the natural environment and to the traditional patterns of relationships between the
Cambodian society and their physical environment. The further people become removed from
their heritage and cultural values, the less awareness people have of the effect of the
environment on their well-being and of the impact of their lifestyles on the environment. Natural
resources are put under increasing pressure to provide for the industrial and urban needs of the
consumer society. It becomes easy to believe that resources are virtually limitless and can be
used at the flick of a switch or turn of a tap. As a result, resources are often judged solely by their
economic worth rather than their life-support capacity. Trees, fish, minerals, landscapes and even
traditional societies become commodities that can be exploited for exchange within the market
economy. As a result, local systems of knowledge developed over centuries are lost, cultural
identities disintegrate and the natural resource base is eroded for monetary gain, often of a
temporary nature.

Jarai Man, Ratanakiri Province

“This is the value of trees: preventing strong winds, bringing the rain and providing a sanctuary for animals.
If we cut them we have to replant them, or at least replace them with trees which can bear fruit for us to eat.”

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Growing urbanization and interaction with the larger world is increasing the vulnerability of
“traditional” societies or indigenous people. They are often left out of the mainstream of economic
development due to differences in language and customs, remoteness from economic and
political centers, and lack of formal education, all of which result in their having marginal influence
in decision making processes. Their culture is seen as something that is unchanging and
backwards. This is a view often perpetuated by “progressive” societies who see these “traditional”
societies as an obstacle to development and national growth. If the “progressive” society is the
dominant force, which is often the case, the prevalent belief tends to be that the only way to
civilize these people and realize progress is by absorbing them into the dominant society. The
outcome of such policies is usually a loss of cultural identity, as the use of their languages,
traditions, art forms and values are restricted, and an erosion of the natural resource base on
which the people depend.

The study of the interrelationships between culture and environment is important for two major
reasons:
1. The destruction of natural habitats is often accompanied by the degradation of the ways of life,
language, traditional knowledge, heritage and identity of the communities who live in these
habitats. This is often most noticeable today in the case of indigenous peoples. In addition, the
decline of certain ways of life, such as agrarian cultures, is commonly accompanied by the
destruction of the habitat which supported them, and a loss of knowledge about this habitat.
2. There is now recognition that there exists a mutually dependent relationship between biological
diversity and cultural diversity, between habitats and cultures, between ecosystems and cultural
identity, and that this relationship is a determining factor in ensuring sustainable human
development.

There is an urgent need for progressive and developing societies to re-asses their lifestyles and
attitudes in relation to the environment and their utilization of resources. The environmental crisis
has demonstrated that development cannot be based on economic values and technology alone.
Values have to be re-thought. People need to be more aware of the effect of the environment on
their well being and of the impact of their lifestyles on the environment. Sustainable, long-term
and equitable economic growth depends on more careful management of resources rather
than on intensive use. The solution to this problem requires new means and approaches which
emphasize the importance and need for respecting different cultural systems of value and
knowledge. One result of the current environmental crisis is that over the last few decades
“progressive” nations have begun to reassess their cultural beliefs and look for answers in
traditional beliefs, religious teachings or the ideologies and practices of indigenous people.

International assistance projects and government decision making bodies need to better
understand and incorporate all aspects of Cambodian culture into their development efforts in
order to provide greater benefits to the whole population and to gain the support and co-operation
of the local people. The challenge to people in cities is to reconstruct the vital and dynamic
relationship between the local community, its environment and its cultural identity. This can partly
be done through acknowledging and learning from rural cultures or indigenous groups who still
have strong links with the natural world in which they work and live.

Cambodia is a multi-cultural nation with a population consisting of urban and rural Khmer,
Vietnamese, Chinese, Cham, indigenous highlanders and other ethnic15 groups. Lack of
recognition or loss of this cultural diversity and the environment in which it thrives, will limit the
ways in which Cambodians as a whole can adapt to modernization in a sustainable and fulfilling
manner, and can create a divided and unstable society.

Cambodia has long been a rural society where people have managed natural resources based on
traditional methods. This is true of both the indigenous people in the north-eastern provinces of
Cambodia and the rural societies, consisting of farmers and fishermen, in the lowland plains of
Cambodia. These groups have acquired knowledge and skill through hands-on experience of
living in close contact with their environment, and their systems of resource management have

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developed as a response to this. Over-exploitation of resources will result in food shortages at a
later date. Similarly, the fishermen whose livelihood revolves around the Tonle Sap or Mekong
river have detailed knowledge of the species to be harvested, the area they occupy, and the
appropriate time for harvesting. Survival of these groups has ensured that the resources they use
are managed in a sustainable way.

“Cambodia has survived thousands of years with the wetlands and with the natural ebb and flow
of the rivers. It is our history: people concentrate around the wetlands and rivers for the fish, then
grow rice and work the land. These systems are linked together….if that link is cut, the ecosystem
will be destroyed.” It is people such as these who are often the first to realize the damage caused
to the environment by large-scale exploitation of resources and development projects, because it
is their livelihood that suffers the most quickly and to the greatest extent. Cambodia’s plans for
large scale agricultural development will cause enormous changes for the rural people living off
the land. Small farming communities will be disrupted, and the livelihoods and associated cultural
values will vanish. Similarly, the destruction of Cambodian forests for economic gain is not only
destroying Cambodia’s ecological balance, but damaging the way of life of the rural populations
who receive little or no benefits from the “sale” of their common natural resources. The relocation
of communities from traditional homelands as a result of large-scale economic development
projects can also have a negative impact on traditional resource management systems and
environmental conservation. Relocation schemes often require communities to be moved to
unfamiliar areas and to re-establish their livelihood practices with little or no knowledge of the
local environment. Once moved from traditional homelands, communities tend to lose their sense
of affinity with their surrounding environment and their customary observances become disrupted,
all of which can result in unsustainable resource management practices.

In Sambor district, Kratie province, villagers have expressed concern about the flooding of their
traditional homelands if the construction of a proposed hydro-electric dam goes ahead. Wat Sor
Sor Moui Roy, the Temple of One Hundred Columns, and an ancient ancestral burial ground both
lie within thepotential reservoir area. In addition, the villagers are worried about social problems
which may arise from the need to find new land or jobs, or rebuilding their businesses, if they are
moved from their homeland.

Sambor Resident
“If they build the dam and the district floods, we will have lost everything. This is our original homeland. The
villagers don’t want to move, even if they are given money.”

For the preservation of the natural environment it is essential that the traditional resource systems
and cultural values of these societies are recognized. These communities need to retain their
rights to make informed choices about how they will develop and adapt their way of life to
changing circumstances.

4. Sensitivity and Bamboo Architecture

Come December, a group of Singaporean youths on a mission goodwill expedition will be

invading the quiet, peaceful Kampi village in Sambor district, Kratie province, Cambodia with a
shared motive of building a visitors’ centre for the near extinct Irrawaddy dolphins that is unique in
that area. The project aims to spread awareness on the importance of conservation and its vital
impact on Cambodia’s environment, the Mekong River and thus, the sustainability of its
development. Having had adequate understanding of the genius loci or “sense of place” of the
site and what materials are appropriate to use there, there was also an essential need to
understand the Khmer culture and society (i.e. how people live and work and play etc.) before
any design could conceptualize.

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So says a Khmer popular philosophy: "Listen to the wind, watch the rice grow, and make love
(not necessary physical act)."

The choice of bamboo as the primary building material was the result of the above research and
the abundance of it being found in the vicinity of Kratie region. Bamboo offers a surprisingly large
number of applications and uses. Bamboo as a building material in the bamboo architecture is
used for several constructions as described below:

Typical Khmer Bamboo house

Bamboo houses are essentially skeletal buildings with raised floors and main posts anchoring
from the ground. Typical bamboo elements are canes, halved canes, laths, beading, bamboo
boards and rope ties. There are several advantages being offered from this type of construction,
namely: pre-fabrication, simple assembly, simple replacement of structural parts; and easily
dismantled and reused bamboo elements. Enhancing buildability and efficiency in construction, it
is no surprise that the usage of timber as the primary building material is fast being replaced by
bamboo. The presence of the normal posts, battens, rails, purlins and rafters form the longitudinal
and transversal bamboo framework. The basic external layers that form the house like walls,
floors and roof form linings rather than stiffening elements of the non-rigid framework because
braces and diagonal stays are usually absent in those planes.The structural safety of the skeletal
structure is almost exclusively provided by the posts anchored in the ground. The only vertical
and horizontal forces acting on the structure are wind pressure, roof moisture, live loads and
deadweight. The framing is connected by articulated joints so that there is always
interconnectivity of all the framing bars. Thus each part is able to transfer all axial and transversal
forces to each other enforcing flexibility. Rigid connections or joints are very rarely used. Above
all, the structure must be able to withstand dynamic loads, for example wind gusts. The building
materials as well as the structure have a high elasticity and low mass by the usage of bamboo.
This is the reason, why many houses in earthquake stricken zones are being designed with
bamboo, providing security to the dwellers.

Roofing
The simplest roof covering is formed by bamboo shingles which are as long as the rafters.
Bamboo canes are halved along their length and the diaphragms are removed, creating these
shingles. They are threaded to the ridge and placed in same Roman tile fashion. These shingles
are not fixed at the eaves, but held in position by their own weight. The next roof covering is then
composed of double layers of shingles. Each row of shingles is threaded onto a strip and tied to a
pole which simultaneously functions as the purlin and roof batten. The multi-layer shingle roofing
is the most expensive and heaviest type of roofing. Instead of a roof covering one can call this a
roof wall due to it having a thickness of up to one metre. The rows of shingles are fixed to the roof
battens by an inserted key which prevents them from sliding off. Layer is placed upon layer up to
the ridge. The roof structure is made of solid timber. The lancet shingle roofing is very expensive.
These are cut from bamboo laths in the length of segments. On the back of the lancet shingle a
tongue is split away from the bark layer and this tongue is inserted between pairs of roof battens.
The shingles are placed with their concave side upwards. Because of the better drainage the
shingle should contain no nodes outside the batten area. In comparison with covering consisting
of stranded palm leaves the bamboo leaf cover has some disadvantages. The lancet shape, the
fanning-out of the branches and the twisting of leafs necessitate more layers of leaf bundles, a
steeper roof pitch and more solid substructure. But this roofing is no longer rain proof after being
weathered under longer periods of rain. Roofing with shingles made from bamboo shavings have
a thick layer and are exceptionally wind and rain proof. These shingles look like brushes with long
bristles. They are bent over a batten and sewn together. When using organic materials for roofing,
the ridge is the most exposed part of the rain-proof layer. With hard roofing materials, half a
bamboo cane is placed on the ridge joint with its convex side up. With soft roofing materials the
parting at the ridge has to be covered with an especially carefully applied layer of material. This
layer is secured by bars against being lifted off by the wind. The roof surfaces are protected

9
against the wind by wide-mesh lattices of bamboo strips. Bamboo houses usually have no gutters.
An exception are gutter-type purlins, whose water catching function is, however, only secondary.

The visitors’ centre is situated along the banks of Mekong River at the existing jetty where tourists
can book a boat to see the dolphins. Located within Kampi village which houses some 120
families make a living mainly from fishing and farming where is no electricity and no communal
facilities. The visitors centre is essentially a multi purpose hall with very flexible internal planning
so that it can double up as a community hall for the Kampi residents. Open to all sides, the simple
structure is cool, collecting breezes and providing shade, so public activities can be conducted
during the day, rather than only in the evenings or at night. It is a play space for small children
during the day, and will perhaps be used as a centre for training and research of the dolphins
offered to older children and young adults. The centre will be built over a period of 2 weeks by
communal labour and with donations of materials from local and foreign sources. The columns
are made of 2 bamboo poles reinforced with concrete foundation. The idea of the interlocking
structure: columns and roof truss and beams enhance the inter-dependency between the
villagers, the Mekong River and the dolphins. The roof is mono pitched, with a break n the roof
form to denote a difference between the entrance and the main hall space. A fully bamboo
building, it had to be fully treated with anti-pesticides to prevent insect rot. The simplest materials
and techniques are employed: The traditional local bamboo with layers of translucent
polycarbonate, an inexpensive modern material. A sort of minimalism expressing a great
aesthetic. Having an open plan, the exhibits are hung from partitions that are moveable and
removable to create yet another spatial configuration according to need and use. This highly
flexible public space was designed to supply for an economically diverse, independent
community. The project is intended to emphasise independence over dependence, aiming to
create public spaces offering direct routes to encourage the community to express its strength
and vitality. There was a very strong play of light and shadow in the facades. The patterns of light
and many degrees of shade record the movements of the sun against the heavens, the times of
year and of day. They talk of the transience of existence, and yet reassure with the regularity of
the simple rhythms of the almost archetypal structure. Construction was carefully worked out so
that both local and foreign youths could build the centre themselves, showing a great sense of
ownership and an exemplary relationship between architecture and community.

5. Bamboo for the future

Contributions from advanced technology can improve the performance of bamboo through, for
example, preservation techniques, which are still being developed to increase the durability of the
material. The preservation of green bamboo has to be performed soon after harvest, as the
vessels in the bamboo wall tend to close within 24 hours of the bamboo being cut and prevent the
penetration of the preservative. The outer skin of bamboo protects the inner parts. Once the skin
is wounded or split, pests that feed on bamboo sap can invade the pole. Some pests can turn the
bamboo into powder from the inside within a short period, while some others can create tunnels
in the bamboo wall, thereby weakening the physical structure of the bamboo. Preservation
techniques for bamboo seek to eliminate any possibility of invasion by pests, including borers,
termites and fungi.

Traditional bamboo preservation involves the immersion of bamboo poles in mud and water for
approximately one month. Another method is to arrange freshly cut bamboo poles upside down
and set oil (diesel fuel) on top of the open stalks for about one week to push out the bamboo sap.
In chemical preservation processes, the poles are steeped or immersed in various chemical
substances to displace the sap with the chemical.

A widely used chemical preservation process is the "Boucherie method", invented in 1839 by a
French medical doctor of the same name. The process, which has been applied to bamboo since

10
1947, involves the use of gravity to push out the sap and push in the preservative. It takes
approximately two weeks to complete the process. The Boucherie process has seen later
modified by the addition of a pump (hand- or motor-driven) to replace to inject chemicals under
pressure. A dip-diffusion method is applied for split bamboo, wherein the material is immersed in
the preservative substance and covered with a plastic sheet to let the substance diffuse.

Preservative treatments of bamboo have some restrictions. For example, the Boucherie method
works effectively only under certain conditions. The preservation site has to be located close to
the bamboo plantation area for the process to be practical, since freshly cut bamboo poles must
be treated as early as possible. The site requirement is also large, as the space should be
adequate to accommodate the harvested bamboo, the Boucherie equipment and the treated
bamboo poles that need drying. The method requires qualified workers to supervise the
equipment and control the proportions of the chemical substances. Therefore, though it is the
most effective preservation process, the modified Boucherie method requires significant outlay in
terms of capital, human and material resources, and a well-coordinated management of these
resources.

Techniques designed to improve bamboo’s performance as an industrial material have resulted in

various kinds of bamboo boards. Traditionally, bamboo can be made into sheets by weaving thin
bamboo strips manually into mats, which then can serve as parts of huts such as walls, ceiling
and flooring. No adhesive is used in the weaving process. The first modern attempt to make
bamboo into thick firm sheets, which can serve as boards, was made in China during the Second
World War. In principle, the technique calls for bamboo materials in flat form (tied splits or woven
mats), which are converted into boards by applying an adhesive and pressing under a
predetermined temperature and pressure. Several layers of the flat bamboo material can be
pressed together to make boards of different thickness. The adhesive substance impregnates the
bamboo thoroughly and the result is a strong board. While some of these advanced techniques
have been perfected in China and elsewhere (such as in India), some others are still under
development.

The advanced treatments have generally been developed by scientists and engineers through
research in material sciences. The improved bamboo materials that have resulted have
demonstrated performance and appearance that are comparable to timber, in some cases even
to metal, for interior elements and construction purposes. It has become clear that there are
numerous potential product applications for bamboo boards, and even more far ranging
possibilities if the same techniques were used to press the layered splits into other shapes.

Design professionals can be expected to come up with creative, intelligent and appropriate uses
of the material. With modern applications that can expose its superior qualities, bamboo material
will be able to perform efficiently and prove itself as a competent and exciting material.

5. Conclusion

Bamboo grows rapidly and matures within five years. Bamboo’s cell structures and technical
properties resemble those of wood; yet, it is superior to most woods in both strength and
elasticity. Therefore, as a renewable natural resource, bamboo can be a substitute or supplement
material to wood, which is becoming increasingly scarce. Producing bamboo goods has long
been a source of secondary income to supplement income from agricultural work. Bamboo is very
easy to obtain since it grows in abundance throughout Cambodia. The skills and tools to produce
traditional bamboo goods are locally available and are part of the existing socio-cultural structure.
The traditional technologies have been, in the past, fully appropriate to the environment both
socio-culturally and environmentally. The disadvantages created by traditional methods and

11
design, combined with the extreme low cost of the material and its association with poor rural
areas, attach a stigma to bamboo as a traditional material meant for low-end applications aimed
at economically poor people. Advanced preservation and treatment technologies for bamboo
have been developed since the 1940s, and new treatments are currently being explored. These
treatments can improve bamboo’s performance, replacing timber as a primary sustainable
construction material.

The interconnectivity of culture, architecture and sustainability is obvious. Culture can be seen to
play an increasing role in raising environmental awareness and in helping to conserve the world’s
natural resources. Particularly in Cambodia, where the recent history of violence and conflict has
resulted in a general feeling of insecurity and an attitude of looking after ones-self, a renewed
respect for the positive aspects of Cambodian culture, knowledge and experience should
contribute towards a restoration of identity, dignity and self-esteem which, in turn, will lead to a
greater sense of national pride and a respect for Cambodia’s environment. Future development
decisions need to be based on all the people having access to information, skills and resources
which enable them to make free and reasoned choices. The focus of economic policies ought not
to be purely on monetary values, but also on the improvement of quality of life indicators, which
are reflected in the different cultures and the eco-systems in which these cultures thrive. If
development is based on those cultural elements that made people strong in the past, and
adapted them to modern times and needs, it would create a self-developing group of motivated
people.

A nostalgic image of Cambodian life prior to the war torn 1970s is neither helpful or constructive
in tackling the environmental issues in Cambodia today, but a sense of cultural identity helps to
place people in relation to their environment and realize the impact the destruction of the
environment will have on their lives in the short and long term. Cultural features have persisted in
Cambodia despite severe civil turmoil, while others have been altered or re-created over the
passage of time. There is a need to utilize these traditional forms in new ways in order to re-
establish and reinforce their validity, and promote a truly Cambodian framework for development.

When it boils down to designing particularly in a village, there is always this need to respect the
traditions and culture in the village and country. A building, no matter how simple, should at the
end of the day merge in nicely with the landscape and the other houses around. It should be a
place where the locals can retreat, take shelter, play, live or work in; somewhere they can seek
comfort in. Local construction and local materials should also play an important part of the design.
At the end of the day, perhaps the sense of ownership and accomplishment of building finish the
building as a team brings about that indescribable sense of achievement.

12
Bibliography

Dumarcay, Jacques and Royere, Pascal 2001. Cambodian Architecture: Eighth to thirteenth
Berkeley: Brill, Leidon, Bosto, Koln

Villegas, Marcelo 1993 New Bamboo : Bamboo architecture and design

Bogotá : Villegas Editores ; London : Troika

Janssen, Jules J.A. 1995 Building with bamboo : a handbook.

London : Intermediate Technology Publications

Janssen, Jules J.A. 1985 A series of articles on the use of bamboo in building construction
Netherlands : Eindhoven University of Technology

D. Narayanamurty and Dinesh Mohan 1972 The use of bamboo and reeds in building
construction /[prepared for the United Nations Secretariat]
New York : United Nations

Siegfried Gass, Heide Drusedau, Jurgen Hennicke 1985 Bambus = Bamboo

Stuttgart : Institut fur Leichte Flachentragwerke, Universitat Stuttgart : Vertrieb, K. Kramer-Verlag

David Farrelly 1984 The Book of Bamboo

Sierra Club Books

http://bambus.rwth-aachen.de/eng/
Providing information on properties of bamboos and connection joints.
Used in appendixes 1 and 2.

13
Appendix 1

Geographical distribution, climatic and soil conditions

Geographical distribution
The main area of distribution is the tropics, in particular, South-East-Asia. Bamboo grow at sea level and can be found at
altitudes of up to 3800 m. Most bamboo species grow at temperatures from - 28°C to +50°C. Bamboos grow mainly on
sandy loam to loamy clay soils. They prefer well drained soils but grow also in wet and even marshy locations. They do
not tolerate saline soils.

Growth
The growth pattern of the bamboos is a singular combination of grass, leaf-bearing tree and palm.
Like the grasses they have tubular blades, lancet shaped cover leaves and panicular flowers and from a subterranean
rootstock branch extensively to form dense to loose bushes. The following characteristics distinguish bamboos from
grasses: the longevity of their canes, their branching and the lignification. Like leaf bearing trees they increase their crown
every year by throwing out new branches and also shed their leaves each year. The growth pattern of the trunk is similar
to that of the palm tree. Emerging with its definitive circumference from the soil without increasing in diameter later. The
species "Guadua angustifolia" will reach length of up to 20 - 25 m with a diameter of 12 cm.

Root
Monopodial species
Bamboo has durable rootstocks, the rhizomes. After a seedling has produced the first rhizome, the differentiated rhizome
system will begin to develop. Its circumferential and longitudinal growth increases annually. It is only after twelve and
more years that canes of full thickness and height will be produced. According to the type of branching of the rhizomes the
main group of the bamboos is called monopodial, whereas the other group is called sympodial. The monopodial species
grow horizontally over large distances. A rhizome stolon will grow in length by 1 - 6 m per annum with an average life
span of ten years. At irregular intervals the lateral buds produce single cane stems from which new canes grow upwards.
These species can be found in subtropical regions with a temperate climate

Sympodial species
The sympodial species develop horizontally over short distances growing in a circular spreading pattern by 1 -3 rhizome
bulbs per original rhizome. Their points bend upwards and allow the new cane to mature. These species are characteristic
of the tropics. Several root systems can penetrate and overlay each other, resulting in cumulative root stolon. The
bamboo root network thus forms a supremely effective protection against erosion; it delays the draining and soaking-away
of rain water and thus serves as a moisture store.

Cane
Segments of the cane
The basic form of the bamboo plant consists of a branch system of segmented axes. There is no main axis for a central
stem; each axis branches off another. There is a regular succession of nodes and segments in rhizomes, canes and
branches. The shape of the canes varies between straight and exactly vertical, overhanging or zigzagged, curved or
creeping. Bamboo is distinguished by its longitudinal growth. There is no other plant which grows as fast as bamboo.
Some species of bamboo grow 5cm per hour. The species "Guadua angustifolia" grow 12cm per day. The canes of
bamboo consist of nodes, segments and diaphragms. At first the canes appear as small buds at the nodes of the
rootstock. There they grow for several years until they emerge from the soil in the shape of short, thick, conical shoots
surrounded by sheath leaves. From that point the bamboo shoot will develop into a cane at enormous speed. Within a
year at the latest it will reach its full size and the sheath leaves dropped completely. The average length of the canes
amount 8 -15 m with a diameter of 5 - 12 cm and a wall thickness of 10 mm. Also the cane diameter remains unchanged
as long as the cane stands. For this reason the diameter of the cane does not indicate its age. The age is judged by the
sound of the cane and the appearance of its surface.

Section through a bamboo rhizome

Each shoot pushing out of the soil contains already in miniature all the nodes, segments and diaphragms which the fully
grown cane will posses later. The segment closest to the ground increases in size first, and the one at the top last. The
numbers and lengths of the segments per cane differ according to species. Smaller species have canes consisting of 15 -
20 segments, whereas larger species can have up to 55 segments. The segmental length increases from the base of the
cane to its middle and decreases again towards the top. Most bamboo species have an average segmental length of
35cm. In most cases the interior of the cane remains hollow. Species with a solid cross section are rare. Frequently the
segments at the top become solid.

Bamboo bud with sheath leaves

The nodes provide the insertion points of the shed sheath leaves. As a form of reinforcement they increase the resistance
of the cane against splitting and buckling. Bamboo canes have a circular cross-section and are axially slightly conically
tapered. From the base to the top they taper very gradually. Shorter canes taper more strongly than the longer ones. For
this reason the long canes are preferred for building purposes. Not only has the diameter of the bamboo canes decreased
with increasing height but also the wall thickness. After about the first three years of growth the canes start lignifying and
silicate slowly. It is only then that they become useful as structural timber. The bamboo skin contains a high proportion of
silicate acid. Because of the hard silicate layer of the outer surface, bamboo is highly resistant against chemical, animal
and mechanical exposure. The surface of the young cane is green, later becoming yellowish, sometimes brown to black

14
and either of uniform colour. The surface is mat or shiny. Some species are distinguished by a longitudinal stripe pattern
of different colours and widths.

Branches and leaves

Branch serving as support The cane remain free of branches for a period of not more than year until develops its full
height. This branching process proceeds from the top downwards and, in few species, may extend to the base of the cane.
The branch bases sprout from the nodal protuberances. They have a strong connection between the diaphragm and the
nodal bead. The branch forks are suitable as supports for lighter structures. The branches carry stemmed grass leaves
which can be of various widths. In general one can say that the taller the bamboo cane, the smaller the leaves. Like our
leaf-bearing trees, the bamboo sheds its leaves every year but with the following difference: the new leaves start growing
without delay. As infill for cavity flooring or walls they provide a good insulating material. Because of its low weight the
load-bearing structural elements are only subjected to minimal addition loads. Long and broad bamboo leaves are also
used for roofing.

Bamboo cane with branches and leaves

Usually bamboos flower only once in their lifetime and die after bearing fruit. Some species can also flower annually
without dying. During the flowering period the canes shed their leaves. After this no new leaves are formed. The smaller
species flower after approximately 3 to 4 years, whereas larger species can flower after 20 to 80 and in certain cases after
120 years. The flowering pattern may be divided into sporadic and mass flowering. With sporadic flowering the flowers
appear only in particular clusters and on isolated canes within that clusters. With mass flowering all the clusters are in
flower simultaneously. This flowering can extend over large areas and even through entire countries. The individual
flowers are formed from ears and panicles and measure only a few millimeters. The bamboos normally flower in the last
months of a year and seeds mature at the beginning of the next year. At the start of the rainy season, after the ripening of
the seeds, the first new bamboo plants can be seen on the ground. These are 10 to 50 cm high tin canes which are
thicker and longer than the previous ones are added. The reason for this growth in size is the strengthening of the
rhizomes. The rhizomes are fully developed only after many years and can then produce canes of the full height and
diameter.

Harvesting, storage and drying Bamboo preservation

All bamboo fruits are edible. The majority of bamboo species produce ripe fruits only rarely. Most fruits fall to the ground
before ripening. The ability of the seeds to germinate is very low. To cultivate artificially the bamboo is surer and much
quicker consequently. Bamboo can be cultivated by division, from cuttings or by layering.

Life span
The canes die and fall to the ground only a few weeks after the production of flowers and fruits. Frequently their rhizomes
are exhausted and also die. With the large species the life span is determined by the flowering period which can be up to
100 years. In the latter case the flowering period and the life span are not equal because the plant can flower frequently
without dying.

Frame for storage

At intervals of two to four years up to 30 % of the mature poles are removed from the cluster. The remaining canes not
only support the young shoots but also maintain the full power of the rhizomes. Two to five year old bamboo poles are
considered most suitable for building and other purposes. The correct seasons for felling are autumn and winter in the
subtropics and the dry season in the tropics. This reduces attack by beetles because the insects are less active. Felling is
best carried out using a machete or similar tool. After felling the branches have to be carefully removed so that the outer
skin of the cane is not damaged. Bamboo poles should be stored horizontally and frequently supported so that they can
neither sag nor bend. They should be protected against sun, rain and soil moisture. There are two possibilities for drying
the bamboo canes. The air-drying process in frames with good air circulation takes 6 - 12 weeks. The kiln-drying process
takes only 2 - 3 weeks. But some species of Bamboo do not tolerate quick drying. The bark develops cracks orthepoles
split axially.

Bamboo preservation in general

Beetle "Lyctidae" With increasing moisture of the bamboo increases the danger, that the bamboo will be attacked by
animals or vegetable pests like fungi, beetles and termites. So the best time for harvesting is the drier and cooler season
when the insects are less active. The pests can attack living bamboo canes and felled ones and can perforate them to
such an extend that it becomes unusable.

Passive methods
Covered bridge from Jörg Stamm Simple constructive measures like lifting up the pillars or an out jutting roof can help to
extend the life time of the bamboo distinctly.

Aktive methods
Oven to smoke bamboo
Smoking:
Another possibility to preserve the bamboo is smoking it in its own resin. The smoke makes the rind unpalatable to insects
which therefore decline the bamboo.
Heating:
The canes are heated in kilns to ca. 150°C for a short time, so the structure of the outer zone changes and becomes more
resistant against insects. The poles can crack up easily. When you cook bamboo, the starch and nutrient content will be
reduced. The Problem is to find a container that is big enough to cook the canes in it.

15
Immersion:
Freshly cut canes are immersed in water for 4-12 weeks. The nourishment for insects (starch and sugar) is removed.
Streams are more suitable than stagnant ponds. Saltwater is not suitable, because the salt will stay in the bamboo and
can bring moisture and fungi into the canes. Impregnating coatings: Coatings with borax are ecological and widely used.
In addition, lime slurries, rangoo oil or slurries from lime or cow dung are also used. Using insecticides is ecological not
acceptable. These are kerosene, DDT, PCP and others.

The working of bamboo

These methods prevent the invasion of pests during changing the surface of the bamboo or remove the nourishment of
the insects. To protect the bamboo from fungi and mould, the moisture must be kept away. To preserve the bamboo
inside of the pole, all diaphragms have to be perforated or all segments drilled. The life time of not-persevered bamboo
will be ca. 2 1/2 years, of persevered bamboo ca. 10 years.

Fire resistance of a bamboo cane filled with water

Tensile strength:
The fibres of the bamboo run axial. In the outer zone are highly elastic vascular bundles that have a high tensile strength.
The tensile strength of these fibres is higher than that of steel, but its not possible to construct connections that can
transfer these tensile strengths.
Shrinking:
Bamboo shrinks more than wood when it loses water. The canes can tear apart at the nodes. Bamboo shrinks in the cross
section ca. 10-16 %, in the wall thickness ca. 15-17 %.
Fire resistance:
The fire resistance is very good because of the high content of silicate acid. Filled up with water, it can stand a
temperature of 400° C while the water cooks inside.
Elasticity:
The enormous elasticity of bamboo makes it to a very good building material for earth-quake endangered areas. Another
advantage of bamboo is its low weight. It can be transported and worked easily, the use of cranes is mostly unnecessary.
Bamboo can be worked with the simplest tools which must be especially sharp because of the highly silicified outer zone.
Tool wear is considerably high.

Recommendable methods:
Splitting: very easy as long as you work along the cane axis. The cane is split in halves and quarters and the driven apart
by a wedge. It can also be split with a knife frame into four or eight segments. Cutting with a machete-type or knife used
for cutting.
Sawing
Scorch drilling

Producing bamboo planks

By means of splitting you get halved canes, strips and battens. To get planks, all the nodes are smashed and the wall of
the pole is split over its entire length and forced open until the wall of the pole lies flat. Up to the age of 18 months, the
canes can be peeled. The strips can be used as ties or be woven to make strings and ropes.

Bamboo being forced to grow in a box

Shaping: Bamboo which grows in a box gets a square shape. So it can be better used for connections.
Bending: Freshly cut, bamboo can be bent and will keep this shape after drying. When heated above 150° C, bamboo
keeps its shape after it goes cold.

Treatment of the surface

Bamboo shaped under heat
These information about bleaching and dyeing are determined for small parts for kite-constructions. Bleaching and dyeing
possibly can change the structure of the bamboo that far, it can’t support enough weight. Nevertheless these methods
should be introduced.
Bleaching: Bleaching in hydrogen peroxide removes traces of resin or wax. If it stays in it too long, the bamboo will get
perished.
Dyeing: Every country has developed its own traditional method of dyeing. In principle:
1. Remove the wax, otherwise the colour can’t penetrate into the bamboo.
2. Bleach before dyeing, so the colour will become more regular.
3. After dyeing, fix the colour in a solution of vinegar.
Other methods:
In Japan, the surface will be peeled off, hydrochloric acid is put on the bamboo and the canes are put in an oven. The
canes get a brown colour. Treating the canes with copper sulfate will give a green colour to the bamboo and protects it
from mould. These methods only dye the surface of the bamboo. To get a through and through dyeing, the bamboo can
be carbonized. The bamboo is put into a boiler and is incubated with a pressure of 5 kg/cm³ and a temperature of 150° C
for 20-30 min. After that, the bamboo will be brown through and through.

The Characteristics of Bamboo induce Parameters for Processing

Bamboo itself has a lot of advantages using it for building houses, bridges. It is a cheap, fast growing material with
excellent statistics according to the mechanical properties. The connections are the difficult structures in bamboo

16
constructions. Here are a few reasons: Bamboo has got a round profile. Creating connections with round profiles are
leading to difficult geometric structures at the knot.
• Bamboo fibres only grow in the longitudinal direction.
• Bamboo is hollow. There is no material to tighten the bamboo in the middle of the cane.
• The face of the cane is very slippery and hard.
• Bamboo is not suitable for loads in cross direction, because there are no cross fibres.
• Bamboo is a natural material that varies in diameters, length and quality according to the climate.

17
Appendix 2

Least-Tech versus High-Tech

There seem to be two parties in modern bamboo architecture:
• those who use bamboo as an alternative material connected with industrial standard elements like steel plates,
nuts and bolts
• and those who try to find a modern least-tech connection which can be produced very cheap and assembled by
unskilled workers.

Different aims followed by the use of bamboo lead to different connection layouts. We chose the way that power transition
is done as a criterion to separate them from each other.

types of connections

1. friction-tight rope connections

Friction-tight rope connections are the common connecting method. Traditionally natural materials are used:
• cocos / sago palm fibre
• bast
• strips of bamboo
• rattan
For tight connections green bamboo strips are used, the fibres are watered before tying around the bamboo. While drying,
the fibres shorten and the connection becomes stronger. Nowadays also industrial materials are used:
• iron wire (zinc coated)
• plastic tapes/ ropes

2. plug-in / bolt connections

Constructions with secondary interlocking elements are often used in context with rope
connections. In this case the bolts have to transfer tensile and compressive forces. In wooden connections this is done by
different kinds of profiles. The metal nail is a perforating element. If the bamboo is not fresh at all, the bamboo is often
split by the wedge shaped nail. There are two exceptional cases: The Guadua angustifolia and Chusquea bamboo from
central and southern America.

3. Positive fitting connections

Wooden connections with slit and tenons, like they are traditionally used for carpenter-like constructions in Germany, are
rare. There are three reasons:
• bamboo is round
• bamboo is hollow
• bamboo splits
But although there are these problems, positive fitting connections are used in traditional bamboo buildings. Different
kinds of holes are cut into the bamboo and make it possible to connect the round bamboo rods.

4. Interlocking connections
Constructions elements made of bamboo are suitable for lots of uses. Bamboo has different diameters and is thicker near
the knots. Within bolting together or wedging the bamboo, lots of its tightness won't be transferred by the construction
element.
Bambu - Tec solves this problem. Prefabricated bamboo sticks with certain length are covered with a cap and connected
with synthetic resin. For a tight connection of the cap and the bamboo are covered with circular grooves. Because of that
the grouting mass runs between the materials and confirms this construction.

5. Pan - Spatially frame-works

This frame-work works on bamboo with diameters small than 80mm. These threaded bolts can transfer about 50% of the
tractive force. For compressive forces is a front plat necessary. For overhead construction this system has to be examined
by an official institute.
Induo - System. This system makes it possible to transfer about 100% of the maximum rated load of large bamboo
diameters.

6. Combined connections
Double post, here with bounded knot and continuous handle. Within this construction the tube wall is not weakened by
drillings. The advantage of this system is, encumbrances of the roof and
the floor are absorbed by different posts. Because of this, you can easier do repairs of defective posts.

Friction-Tight Rope Connection Joints

• Lashing ties: The common type of connection at a joint is lashing. The ties are also of organic material and
therefore provide optimal compatibility between the elements of the construction system.
• Cords and ropes are made of bamboo bark, bast, coconut- or sago palm fibres. Nowadays also plastic cords
are used. Bamboo ropes of twisted bamboo fibres are produced in lengths up to 350m. They are more wear-

18
 resistant than standard ropes. With a tensile strength of 720 kp/cm³ a rope of an arm’s thickness can bear up to
14 tons.
• Binding wire is (as plastic cords are) an industrial product. Zinc coated wire has the same lifetime as bamboo.
• Plait strips: Usual plait materials are rind strips of bamboo, rattan or lianas. Soaked before use they are more
pliable. When drying, the fibres shrink and the connection tightens.
• Lashing ties - connection of a purlin and two braces with three drill-holes. Rattan tie to fix a plug connection

Friction-Tied Rattan Connection Joints.

The end of the beam and the tie do the power transmission. If the connection is not tight enough, the beam may crack at
the drill-hole. The additional bandage prevents the sling from slipping. If connected at a post nodium, the broader nodium
in addition complicates slipping of the beam.

Bamboo canes connection with lashing ties and a draw stick

With the help of the draw stick the lashing tie is tightened. Then the stick is fixed to the post.
Scaffold braces - are bamboo canes which often are only fixed with the lashing ties.

Plug-in Connections and Bolt Structure

• Plug-in connections: Carpenter like connections with mortise and tenon are seldom used in bamboo
structures. On the other hand plug-in elements like bolts or consoles you find very often. Additional lashing or
wedging keeps things in place. A disadvantage of these connections is that you don’t use the whole diameter
for power transmission. Also you must pay attention that the holes are not too close to the end of the canes.
Otherwise the plug may break out. The use of nails may split the bamboo particular old and dry canes. Pre-
drilling is a method to prevent splitting. There are two bamboo species which can be nailed: Guadua
angustifolia and Chusquea.
• Bolt structure This is a type of connection for greater diameters with a hardwood bolt and wedge. Five holes,
the bolt and the wedge - a more extravagant connection. If the bolt is conical, the connection is save in all
directions.
• Connection with inner plug and a horizontal drill-hole to fix the connection with a lashing tie. If the lashing is
tight and the plug fits quite well into the opening, both plug and lashing can do the power transition. But even if
not, this connecting method can be very durable at less force. The inner plug prevents the beam from slipping
down the post and the lashing is against unplugging.
• Rope connection fixed with bolt. The bolt keeps the connection in place even if the rope or cord lengthens.
• Joint with two connections. Again a combination of bolts and lashing to connect the canes.
• Interlocking connection with a wedge. With the wedge driven into the opening, the strips of the horizontal
beam are pressed into the hole and fix the beam. If the wedge shrinks, the beam can be easily pulled out of the
opening. So additional arrangements like lashing or bolts are necessary for a save connection.
• Connection with a steel tension clamp. Leaving the low-tech sector, with the use of steel elements a lot more
connections become possible. Avoid connections which produce great forces vertical to the cane axis. They can
destroy the bamboo cane.

Interlocking Connections
Interlocking Connections are achieved by gluing or shedding connection elements in or around the bamboo.
• Woodcore connection. A piece of wood can be used and glue can be employed to stick it to the inner
surface of the bamboo. Any normal glue provides a capacity far larger than that of bamboo in the
tangential direction. Two slots are needed in the bamboo cane to control cracking during the insertion of
the wood cylinder. The wood fitting can be extended outside the culms to meet the out coming piece of
wood from other elements, and then normal wood construction methods can be used for connection. The
steel plate C is introduced in the slot of the wood cylinder and glued to it with a mixture of epoxy resin and
portland cement. The plate is projected, so that its outer extreme can be adapted for different applications,
as indicated in the details D and E.
• System advantages are its low price and the availability of the parts.
• In plane or space trusses, the plates from two or more incoming elements can be pre welded to each
other and then the rest of the connection can be assembled. The figure shows a connection in which a
small box is made of steel plates, so that the faces are perpendicular to the axis of the incoming elements.
The steel tips are then welded directly to those surfaces. Welding is thought of here because it is cheaper
than machining of the tips, but in some cases this can be achieved

Bambu-Tec Construction elements

Construction elements made of Bamboo that can be used for various tasks. Bamboo often grows slightly bend, the
diameter of the bamboo cane varies and it is a little oval. At the knots it is a little thicker. If you try to screw or wedge the
bamboo its high strength won’t be transferred. Bambu - Tec construction elements eliminate these weak points. - The
bamboo canes are cut into the desired, unique length (e.g.0.5m, 1m,2m). Both ends are covered with caps that are
connected with artificial resin or another filling mass. To give the connection cap/bamboo a high tensile strength the
bamboo ends are given circular grooves and the inner cap is covered with circular notches, so the connecting mass acts
like a claw between bamboo and cap.
The cap fastening is done with a gauge, so the caps are aligned exactly parallel and in a reproducible distance. The
caps can be made of synthetic, aluminum or steel. It is even possible to produce them, by using the synthetic spray
technique, directly on the bamboo. There can be bores, threads or flanges fixed to the caps. If you use steel or aluminum

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caps they can even be welded to other metal parts. used for: . . . scaffolding, tent constructions, house building, roof and
half-timbered constructions

Transportation armature / Screw connections

• Transportation armature with pressed concrete. The system strength depends on the concrete/bamboo
connection, on the concretes (or filling mass) compressive strength, on the thread diameter, the production
series (long or short shaft, straight model) as well as on the tractive direction and the joint design. System
advantages are its price and its deliverability from stock. The installation can start immediately without long
prefabrication of the dowels.
• Reinforcement Continuity Screw Connection System. The optimal solution for all static component
connections. Static, constructive and economically. The sleeve stick
(with sleeve and connection flange) - And the connection stick (with furled metric thread) are shed with the bamboo and
therefore reaching interlocking connection. The connection is carried out via an adapter with right/left outer thread for the
double sided sleeve connection. System advantages are [like transportation armature] its price and its deliverability from
stock. The installation can start immediately without long prefabrication of the dowels.
• Induo-anchor technique For big bamboo diameters the Induo-anchor can transfer nearly 100% of the
maximum load of the cane cross section. The Induo-anchor consists of a cast iron core with connection teeth
on its sides. It can easily be shed with a bamboo cane. Concrete or artificial resin can be used for that.
Advantage of Induo is that any available knot connection- system can be used with it A simple connection can
be manufactured with a threaded bar and two counter nuts. Steel balls with thread bores are used as joint
points. Disadvantage of Induo-anchor is its high price. Mero – knot construction If used with the Induo-anchor
the cast iron core is drilled in the perpendicular axis with fitting diameter to connect the screw bolt.
• Steel-neb-connection - This connection method uses the Induo-anchor in its usual state with bores and
threads. The base element of this connection is a conical steel connecter which is centric screwed from the
inside to the Induo-anchor bore on the one side and to the thread bore of the joint element on the other.

Pan-knot space truss

Small bamboo canes (diameter up to 80mm) can transfer ca.50% of the maximal tensile force if threaded bars are glued
or shed into the cane ends. For compressive forces the maximum force is where the cane breaks if connected with a head
plate. If overhead working is necessary tests by an officially recognized material testing- institution and special permission
of the building department are required. (Germany) Pan-space truss consist only of two elements - the Pan-ball knot and
the cane with shed thread rod. That means more economic statistics, drawings and production. Furthermore they can be
dismantled and reused.

Combinations
• Double jamb connection Double jambs, tied knots, transitional cane, purlin with cleat. The second pole is
replaced by a cleat. Advantage is that the wall of the cane is not weakened by bores. There is no reinforcement
of the pole base. Double jambs: The roof and floor-loads are absorbed by different poles. Hereby damaged
canes can be exchanged more easily. The rot endangered pole zone is reinforced.

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