The Continuity Challenge Structural Geology

Instituto De Ingenieros De Minas Del Peru
The Continuity Challenge…

Dr. Wayne Barnett

The Interpretation!
Great geological continuity?

Huge potential?

The Reality
Notwhat
Not whatititmight
mightseem...
seem...

Presentation Objective
Highlight the importance of understanding
geological continuity….
and to describe techniques for getting
better constraint on continuity….
for resource and engineering reasons.
• Geological continuity is a fundamental characteristic of any

geological interpretation.
• The difference between actual and interpreted continuity directly
impacts the risk to any decision based on the interpretation,
often with huge financial implications.
• Unfortunately, continuity is the characteristic of a sub-surface 3-D
geological model that is typically the hardest to interpret with
certainty.

Structures and Mineralization Continuity
Structural geology
may directly control
the style and
continuity of
mineralization.
Blast hole gold assays
Intersection pattern, kinematics and fluid permeability (fault zone properties)

Structures and Mineralization Continuity
Structure may directly control

continuity of the high grade
mineralization.
• Grade continuity should make
sense relative to deformation
Mineralization can be deformed

by
• Brittle deformation: commonly
understood
• Ductile deformation: Often
overlooked

Modelling Structural Continuity
How did I justify
this interpretation?
What are the data

constraints?
Where is the model

confident?
Investor
Resource Geologist
Geotechnical Engineer

Geology is not straight lines
Geological systems are complex

with variable properties.
How do you communicate this

pattern and continuity?
West Claims Mine, Ortlepp ,1997

3-D Modelling Continuity
Interpreted continuity has large impact on
a resource or on mine stability.
How far?
Requires understanding of patterns from
mapping and tectonic environment.
Often comes down

to…
“How well does it

Segmented?
line up?”
What is your interpretation confidence?

How do you communicate this?

Resource Continuity
…evidence is sufficient to imply but not verify geological

and grade or quality continuity.
…evidence is sufficient to assume geological and grade or

quality continuity between points of observation.
…evidence is sufficient to confirm geological and grade or

quality continuity between points of observation.
From CIM DEFINITION STANDARDS, 2014

Structural Constraints on Geotechnics
Murphy & Barnett, 2018 Structural deformation patterns

(A) weak or sheared lithological (F) toppling failure associated with steeply and continuity are
dipping fault system,
contact
(B) weak foliation, (G) stable slope with favourable oriented folds fundamental input factors in
and rock fabric,
(C) failure on basal fault surface,
(D) failure on basal surface with fault
(H) 3-D perspective with unfavorable fold assessing slope failure risks
plunge,
tensile release plane,
(E) damage zone around a fault,

Structural Continuity on Geotechnics
Fault zone orientation and continuity can
From constrain the slope angle
Sullivan,
2013
Increasing continuity

The Continuity Problem
How can we try constrain continuity?

(1) Identify and Describe the Patterns
Large scale
Structural geology is recognition and
understanding of patterns…
Patterns help define the possible continuity.
Map the Patterns!!!
Pattern Recognition Small scale

Motion tablet
213
/ 27

Typical Tectonic Structural Patterns
Extensional Compressional Strike-slip
Combined Patterns Conjugate Riedel

Fault Network
NORTH SEA
Linked arrays of faults:
• Basin linkage in the North Sea, off
Norway (top right)
• Main faults in the Pannonian Basin,
Hungary (bottom right)
• Global oceanic plate fault system
(bottom)
HUNGARY
Realistic Patterns and Continuity
Understand real patterns.
Look for relationships between different scale structures, as well as cross-
cutting relationships.
Realistic
Not realistic

3-D Modelling Interpretation of Patterns
Modern computer modelling software can import represent structural data in 3-D.
3-D data can be selected and queried on stereonets, to unravel complex patterns.
Fold patterns
Structural sets
Leapfrog GeoTM

Fault Heterogeneity - Damage Zones
Patterns include zones of complexity.
Damages zone commonly occur
where faults intersect and/or change
orientation.
These zones control mineralizing

fluids. The pattern and extent of
damage influences mineralization
continuity.
From Peacock et al. 2017

Fault Zone Domains
How do the damage zone vary along strike and down-dip?
Sericite-altered
Damage Fault Core Damage

Zone Zone

(2) Structural Timing / Deformation History
Mapping patterns and noting relative timing / cross-cutting relationships help
define continuity.
Pit mapping typically helps constrain continuity
Young
Fault

Structural Timing / Deformation History
Mapping patterns and noting relative timing / cross-cutting
relationships help define continuity.
500 m
>
Snap Lake Map - From Barnett, 2013

Continuity and Brittle Faulting
What is the spacing of faults and
typical displacement?
Post-mineralization faulting can
significantly reduce local continuity
of the resource.
It can also duplicate stratigraphy
and mineralization.

Ductile Deformation Patterns Impact Continuity
Relative timing?
When does
mineralization
occur?
2.1 Ga orogenic belt
< 200 ka
orogenic
belt

Continuity and Partitioned Strain

Continuity and High Ductile Strain
High grade may not have continuity or

geometry expected…

Continuity and Transposition
Folded gold, Rainy River Gold
project, Ontario.
Continuity can be different in

different directions and scales

Continuity and Transposition
Signs of
transposition –
what does this
mean on the
large-scale?
±10 km

Continuity Clues Be careful of continuity!!
Quartz veins associated with gold!
These veins are deformed, and so is
the gold distribution…
Old Gold…
S2
S1

(3) Surface Traces of Continuity
Aerial photographs Aeromagnetic images Surface mapping
Orthophotographs Lidar topography lineaments

(4) Continuity Evidence from Drillholes
clay
Clay or alteration
Fracture Frequency
Structural
North Codes
– Flt, Bx, etc
Oriented?!
RQD %
shell in
BH / DH assays Leapfrog

(5) Lithological Pattern Changes
Lithological offsets and
thickness changes
Interpreted fault trace

along offset

(6) Form Line Interpretation Pattern Changes
From Geoff Owen, SRK
34
0 500

(7) LiDAR Data Continuity Traces
Surface or pit LiDAR,
photogrammetry and other remote
sensing data can help trace
continuity.
Mapped Faults
Fracture Pattern

Photogrammetry Continuity Traces
Like LiDAR, photogrammetry can

help trace continuity.
Faults
The full trace of a discontinuity

is very rarely observed!
(8) Geostatistical
Geostatistical analysis of sampled rock properties, e.g. assays, can be used to
mathematical explore continuity within a geological domain.
Grade
Estimation
Variography used to define

estimation search ellipse
continuity
Instituto CIM Conference

De Ingenieros – Montreal
De Minas Del Peru 2017
(9) Integrated Geological Interpretation
Final interpretation of
pattern and
continuity is built
based on all evidence,
integrated in 3D.

Geological Foundation
• “The single most important factor in
Resource/Reserve estimation is an understanding of
the geology of the deposit
• This cannot be emphasized too strongly. Without a
sound geological understanding, and a sensible
application of that understanding, an estimation
exercise becomes merely a mathematical treatment
of sample results with no practical value
• Commonly the potential errors associated with an
incorrect or inappropriate geological interpretation
are orders of magnitude larger than the potential
errors associated with grade estimation. Changes in
the fundamental understanding of the geological
controls on mineralization can dramatically alter an
assessment of tonnage”
(Stephenson and Vann, 2001)

Example – Red Lake Northern Miner, January 13, 2016
Phoenix Project Geology, 2013 TR
Red Lake Geology
D1-D2 Relationships,
F2 deposit, 2013 TR

Examples – Red Lake
Evolution of the Litho-structural model, Phoenix Project, 2016 TR
The 2016 model benefited from

and extra 94,575 m of infilled
drilling and 10 km of underground
development.
Gold mineralization examples, Phoenix Project, 2016 TR
“The nature of these uncharacterized

faults and their timing relative to gold
mineralization is not understood.”
Rubicon Phoenix 2013 Technical Report

Conclusions
Continuity is important for geological
resources and geotechnical studies.
One of the best tools for understanding continuity is structural

geology, which constrains possible interpretations and often
brings realistic expectations back into a geological model.
Modern 3-D modelling tools and the ability to integrate multiple

old and new technologies into one decision making environment
also helps improve interpretation of continuity….
IF founded on Sound Geological Understanding

This presentation is protected by copyright vested in SRK Consulting (Canada) Inc. Neither the entire presentation or any part therein,
including any images, graphs or tables, may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means whatsoever to any person
without the written permission of the copyright holder. This presentation is for informational purposes only and is not the provision of a
professional service. SRK accepts no responsibility for any liability which may arise from reliance upon the contents of this presentation.
Thank you
Wayne Barnett, PhD, PrSciNat.

wbarnett@srk.com

The Continuity Challenge Structural Geology

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