4.1 What is Truss Structure?

A truss is a static structure consisting of straight slender members,

interconnected at joints, to form triangular units.

There are two types of trusses:

1. The pitched truss or common truss – characterized by its triangular

shape. It is most often used for roof construction.
2. The parallel chord or flat truss – characterized by its parallel top and
bottom chords. It is often used for floor construction.

Example of pitched trusses

used in bridge construction.
4.1 What is Truss Structure?

Examples of pitched truss

structures.

Examples of a parallel cord truss

structure used in bridge
construction.
 4.2 Plane Trusses
A typical two-dimensional plane truss is shown. It comprises of two-force
members, connected by frictionless joints. All loads and reaction forces are
applied at the joints only.

Note: There are two displacement components at a given node i, denoted by Q2i-1
and Q2i.
 4.3 Local & Global Coordinate Systems
In local coordinate (x’), every node
has one degree of freedom, while in
global coordinate (x, y), every node
has two degrees of freedom.

The nodal displacements, in the

local coordinate system is,

q'  q'1 q '2 

T

and in the global coordinate system,

q  q1 q2 q3 q4 
T
 4.4 Relation Between Coordinate Systems
Consider a deformed truss member as shown. We can now establish a
relationship between {q’} and {q} as follows:
 4.5 Transformation Matrix
To eliminate the θ terms from previous equations, we define direction
cosines, such that,

l  cos  and m  sin 

The relation between {q’} and {q} can now be written as,

q'1  q1 l   q2 m 
q'2  q3 l   q4 m 

which can be written in matrix form as,

 q1 
q 
 1 
q ' l m 0 0  2 
      
q'2  0 0 l m q3 
q4 
 4.5 Transformation Matrix
Or, in a condensed matrix form,

q'  Lq

where [L] is a rectangular matrix called the transformation matrix, given

by,
l m 0 0 
L   
 0 0 l m 
 4.6 Formula for Evaluating l and m
Using a trigonometry relation, we observe,

Note:
Coordinates (xi, yi) are based on local coordinate system.
 4.7 Element Stiffness Matrix
A truss element is a one-dimensional (bar) element, when it is viewed in local
coordinate system. Thus, element stiffness matrix for a truss element in local
coordinate,
 1  1
k 'truss  k bar  Ae Ee
 1 1 
le  
The internal strain energy in the truss element for the 1-D element is,

U e  q k  q
1 T e
2
Thus, the internal strain energy in the truss element, in local coordinate system is,

U 'e 
1
q'T k 'truss q'
2
Substituting {q’} = [L]{q}, we get,

U 'e  Lq k 'truss Lq

1 T

2
1 T
2
T

 q L k 'truss L q 
 4.7 Element Stiffness Matrix
In the global coordinates system,

U e  q k trussq
1 T
2
Since internal strain energy is independent of coordinate system, Ue = U’e. Since,

U 'e 
1 T
2
 
q LT k 'truss L q
Therefore,

k truss  LT k 'truss L

 l 0
m 0 
  AE  1  1  l m 0 0 
    1 1  0 0 l m 
 0 l  le   
 
 0 m 
 4.7 Element Stiffness Matrix
Simplifying,

 l2 lm  l 2  lm 
 
m2  lm  m 2 
k truss  k    2
AE  lm
le  l  lm l2 lm 
 2 
 lm  m m 
2
lm
 Example 4.1
Write the element stiffness matrix for each element . Use: E = 180 GPa; d = 15
mm for all members.

Solution

1) Number the node and

element of the truss.
 Example 4.1
Solution (cont.)

2) Area for each member, A,

2 2
d   0.015 
A  r 2        4
  1.767 10 m
2

2  2 

3) Establish nodal coordinate data and element connectivity information.

Node x y
1 0 0
Nodal Coordinate
Data 2 0.4 0.6
3 0.8 0

Element Node 1 Node 2

Element Connectivity 1 1 2
Information 2 1 3
3 2 3
 Example 4.1
Solution (cont.)

4) Compute the direction cosines.

Element le l m
1 0.72 0.56 0.83
2 0.8 1 0
3 0.72 0.56 -0.83

5) Write the stiffness matrix for each element.

Element 1:
1 2 3 4
 0.31 0.46  0.31  0.46 1

k 1  1.767  10 4

180  10 
9 
 0.46 0.69  0 .46  0 .69 

2

0.72   0.31  0.46 0.31 0.46  3

 
  0 .46  0 .69 0.46 0.69  4
 Example 4.1
Solution (cont.)

Element 2:
1 2 5 6
1 0 1 0 1

k  
2 1.767  10 4

180  10 
9 
 0 0 0 0 2

0.8  1 0 1 0 5
 
0 0 0 0 6

Element 3:
3 4 5 6
 0.31  0.46  0.31 0.46  3

k 3  1.767  10 4

180  10 
9 
  0 .46 0.69 0.46  0 .69 

4
0.72   0.31 0.46 0.31  0.46 5
 
 0.46  0 .69  0 .46 0.69  6
 4.8 System of Linear Equations
The system of linear equations for a single plane truss element in local coordinate
system can be expressed as,

k q   f 
where {q} is nodal displacement vector and {f} is nodal force vector, in the global
coordinate direction. Substituting, we get,

 l2 lm  l 2  lm   q1   f1 
    
AE  lm m2  lm  m 2  q2   f 2 
   
le   l 2  lm l 2
lm  q3   f 3 
 2 
 lm  m
2
lm m  q4   f 4 

Note:
To assemble the global stiffness matrix, a local-global nodal connectivity will be
required.
 Example 4.2
Reconsider Exercise 4-1.
a) Assemble global system of linear equations for the structure.
b) Apply the boundary conditions.
c) Write the reduced system of linear equations.

Use: E = 180 GPa; d = 15 mm for all members.

 Example 4.2
Solution

The assembled global stiffness matrix [K],

1 2 3 4 5 6
 1.681 0.639  0.431  0.639  1.25 0  1
 0.639 0.958  0.639  0 .958 0 0  2
 
  0.431  0.639 0.861  0.431 0.639 
 
K   1.767 104 180 109 
 0.639  0 . 958 0 1.
0
917 0.639  0. 958

3

  4
  1.25 0  0.431 0.639 1.681  0.638 5
 
 0 0 0.639  0.958  0.638 0.958  6

Boundary Conditions:
Q1 = Q2 = Q6 = 0
(homogeneous type)
 Example 4.2
Solution (cont.)

a) The global system of linear equations for the structure,

 1.681 0.639  0.431  0.639  1.25 0  Q1   0 

 0.639 0.958  0.639  0 .958 0 0  Q   0 
  2   

9  0.431  0.639 0.861  0.431 0.639  Q3  50 10 
 
3
4 0
1.767 10 180 10      
  0.639  0 .958 0 1.917 0.639  0. 958 Q
 4   0 
  1.25 0  0.431 0.639 1.681  0.638 Q5   0 
    
 0 0 0.639  0.958  0.638 0.958  Q6   0 

b) The boundary conditions of the structure,

Q1  Q2  Q6  0 (homogeneou s type)
 Example 4.2
Solution (cont.)

c) By eliminating the 1st, 2nd and 6th row and column,

 1.681 0.639  0.431  0.639  1.25 0  Q1   0 

 0.639 0.958  0.639  0 .958 0 0  Q   0 
  2   

9  0.431  0.639 0.861  0.431 0.639  Q3  50 10 
 
3
4 0
1.767 10 180 10      
  0.639  0 .958 0 1.917 0.639  0. 958 Q
 4   0 
  1.25 0  0.431 0.639 1.681  0.638 Q5   0 
    
 0 0 0.639  0.958  0.638 0.958  Q6   0 

Therefore, the reduced system of linear equation is,

 0.861 0  0.431 Q3  50 103 

 
1.767 10 4 180 109  0
  
1.917 0.639  Q4    0 


 0.431 0.639 1.681     0 

 5 
Q 
 4.9 Stress Calculations
Normal stress in a plane truss element, in local coordinate system is,

  EBq'

In the global coordinate system, since {q’} = [L]{q},

  EBLq
Expanding the [B] and [L] matrices,
 q1 
 
 l m 0 0  q 2 
  E  1 1
1
  
le 0 0 l m q3 
q4 
 q1 
q 
 
 E  l  m l m 2 
1
le q3 
q4 
 Example 4.3
Reconsider Exercise 4-2.
a) Determine the unknown nodal displacements at B and C.
b) Compute the stresses in the member AC and BC.

Use: E = 180 GPa; d = 15 mm for all members.

 Example 4.3
Solution

a) Solving using Gaussian elimination method,

 0.861 0  0.431 Q3  50 103 

 
1.767 10 4 180 109  0
  
1.917 0.639  Q4    0 


 0.431 0.639 1.681     0 

 5 
Q 

Thus, the nodal displacements at B (at Node 2) and C (at Node 3) are,

Q3  2.14 mm
Q4  0.209 mm
Q5  0.628 mm
 Example 4.3
Solution (cont.)

b) Recall, Element le l m
1 0.72 0.56 0.83
2 0.8 1 0
3 0.72 0.56 -0.83

Thus, the stresses are:

Member AC (element 2):

 q1   0 
q   
 2  180 10  
9
0
 2  E  l  m l m    1 0 1 0
1
3 
le q
 5 0 .8  0.628  10 
q6   0 
 141.3 M Pa
 Example 4.3
Solution (cont.)

Member BC (element 3):

q3 
q 
 
3  E
1
 l m l m 4 
le q5 
q6 
 2.14 10 3 
 3 
180 109  0.209 10 
  0.56 0.83 0.56  0.83 3 
0.72  0. 628  10 
 0 
 255.05 M Pa
 Example 4.4
The plane truss shown in figure is
composed of members having a
diameter of 16 mm and modulus of
elasticity E = 193 GPa. Given the
yield strength, σy of material is 205
MPa.

a) Compute the nodal

displacements in the global
coordinate system for the loads
shown.
b) Compute the axial stress in
each element.
 Example 4.4
Solution

1) Finite Element Modelling –

Nodes and Elements
Numbering.
 Example 4.4
Solution (cont.)

2) Material and Geometric Properties.

Young’s Modulus: E1  E2  E3  193 106 Pa

A1  A2  A3  r 2   0.008  2.0106 104 m2

2
Cross-sectional Area:

Length: L1  0.4 m, L2  0.42  0.92  0.985 m, L3  0.9 m

3) Establish Nodal Coordinate Data, Element Connectivity Information and

Direction Cosines.

Node x y
1 0 0
Nodal Coordinate
Data 2 0.4 0
3 0 0.9
 Example 4.4
Solution (cont.)

Element Node 1 Node 2

Element Connectivity 1 1 2
Information 2 3 2
3 3 1

Element le l m
1 0.4 1 0
Direction Cosines
2 0.985 0.406 -0.914
3 0.9 0 -1
 Example 4.4
Solution (cont.)

4) Write the Stiffness Matrix for Each Element.

 l2 lm  l 2  lm 
 
m2  lm  m 2 
k truss  k    2
AE  lm
le  l  lm l2 lm 
 2 
 lm  m m 
2
lm

1 2 3 4
1 0 1 0 1

2.0106 10  4 193 109   0

 0 0 0 2
Element 1: k  
1

0.4  1 0 1 0 3
 
0 0 0 0 4
 Example 4.4
Solution (cont.)

5 6 3 4
 0.165  0.371  0.165 0.371  5

2.0106 10 4 193 109    0.371 0.835

 0.371  0.835 6
Element 2: k  
2

0.985  0.165 0.371 0.165  0.371 3

 
 0.371  0.835  0.371 0.835  4

5 6 1 2
0 0 0 0 5
2.0106 10  4 193 109  0 1
 0  1 6
Element 3: k  
3

0.9 0 0 0 0 1
 
0  1 0 1 2
 Example 4.4
Solution (cont.)

Assemble the global stiffness matrix [K] for the entire truss structure.

1 2 3 4 5 6
 2.5 0  2.5 0 0 0  1
 0 1 .111 0 0 0 1.111  2
 

9  2.5 2.668  0.377  0.168 0.377 
4

K   2.0106 10 193 10  0
0
0  0.377 0.848 0.377  0 .848

3

  4
 0 0  0.168 0.377 0.168  0.377 5
 
 0  1.111 0.377  0.848  0.377 1.959  6
 Example 4.4
Solution (cont.)

5) Write the Element Force Vector Matrix.

Since the bar is subjected by two concentrated forces; 35 kN and 18 kN at

Node 2. Therefore, the global force vector for the entire structure is,

 0  1
 0  2
 
 35 10 3
3
F    3 
 18  10  4
 0  5
 
 0  6
 Example 4.4
Solution (cont.)

6) Assemble the Global System of Linear Equations.

K Q  F 
 2.5 0  2.5 0 0 0  Q1   0 
 0 1 .111 0 0 0  1 .111  Q   0 
  2   
 2.5 2.668  0.377  0.168 0.377  Q3   35 10 
 
3
0
2.0106 10  4 193 109    3 
 0 0  0 .377 0.848 0. 377  0 . 848  Q4   18  10 
 0 0  0.168 0.377 0.168  0.377  Q5   0 
    
 0  1 .111 0.377  0 .848  0 .377 1.959  Q6   0 
 Example 4.4
Solution (cont.)

7) Impose Boundary Conditions & Write the Reduced System of Linear

Equations. We have,
Q1  Q5  Q6  0

Using elimination method, the above equations reduced to,

1.111 0 0  Q2   0 
 
2.0106 10  4 193 109  0 2.668  0.377  Q    35 103 
 3   
 0  0.377 0.848     3 
Q4   18 10 

8) Solve for the Required Information.

a) Nodal displacements: The reduced equations is solved using the Gaussian
elimination method, we get,
Q2   0 
   4 
Q 
 3   2.782  10 m
Q   4.233 10  4 
 4  
 Example 4.4
Solution (cont.)

b) Compute the stress in each element.

 q1 
q 
 
  E  l  m l m 2 
1
le q3 
q4 

Element 1:
 0 
 
193 109  0 
1   1 0 1 0 4 
 134.23 MPa
0.4  2.782 10 
 4.233 10 4 
Element 2:
 0 
 
193 109  0 
2   0.406 0.914 0.406  0.914 4 
 97.94 MPa
0.985  2.782 10 

 4.233 10 
4

 Example 4.4
Solution (cont.)

Element 3:
0
0
193 109
3  0 1 0  1   0 M Pa
0.9 0
0
 Example 4.4
Discussion

The results showed that the maximum value of displacement was generated at
node 2, particularly in the y direction (Q4 = 4.233 x 10-4 m). The displacement of
the same node in the x direction, Q3 was just as minimal as -2.782 x 10-4 m. For
the stress outcomes, it was evident that element 1 was greatly stressed than the
others as the magnitude recorded was as high as -134.23 MPa. Element 2 and 3
exhibited lower stress levels which are -97.94 MPa and 0 MPa, respectively.

A possible explanation on the high displacement of node 2 in the y direction is due

to no upper supports provided on the right side of truss vertically to node 2,
although the value of vertical force (18 kN) imposed on node 2 was 1.9 times
lower than the horizontal (35 kN). As the horizontal force value was greater than
the vertical, this has also left a significant impact on element stresses where
element 1 had mostly stressed compared to others. Besides, the negative
magnitudes of stress recorded in all elements are likely to be due to the condition
of elements which in compression. This is supported by the direction of loads
where both loads were inwardly applied to the truss structure.
 Example 4.5
Consider the four-bar truss shown in the figure below. It is given that E = 29.5 x
106 Pa and A = 1 m2 for all elements. Complete the following:

a) Solve for the nodal displacements.

b) Recover the stresses in each element.
c) Calculate the reaction forces.
 Example 4.5
Solution

1) Finite Element Modelling – Nodes and Elements Numbering

 Example 4.5
Solution (cont.)

2) Determine Material and Geometric Properties.

Young’s Modulus: E1  E2  E3  E4  29.5 106 Pa

Cross-sectional Area: A1  A2  A3  A4  1 m2

Length: L1  40 m
L2  30 m
L3  402  302  50 m
L4  40 m
 Example 4.5
Solution (cont.)

3) Establish Nodal Coordinate Data, Element Connectivity Information and

Direction Cosines.

Node x y
1 0 0
Nodal Coordinate 2 40 0
Data
3 40 30
4 0 30

Element Node 1 Node 2

1 1 2
Element Connectivity
2 3 2
Information
3 1 3
4 4 3
 Example 4.5
Solution (cont.)

Direction Cosines
Element le
1 40
2 30
3 50
4 40
l m
1 0
0 -1
0.8 0.6
1 0

4) Write the Stiffness Matrix for Each Element.

Element 1: 1 2 3 4
1 0 1 0 1
0 0
k 1  29.5  10 6
1  0 0 2

40  1 0 1 0 3
 
0 0 0 0 4
 Example 4.5
Solution (cont.) 5 6 3 4
0 0 0 0 5
0 1 0  1
Element 2: k 2  29.5  10 6
1 
6

30 0 0 0 0 3
 
0  1 0 1 4
1 2 5 6
 0.64 0.48  0.64  0.48 1
 0.48 
Element 3: k 3  29.5  10 6
1  0.36  0 .48  0 .36 
2

50  0.64  0.48 0.64 0.48  5

 
  0.48  0 .36 0.48 0.36  6
7 8 5 6
1 0 1 0 7
0 0
Element 4: k 4  29.5  10 6
1  0 0 8

40  1 0 1 0 5
 
0 0 0 0 6
 Example 4.5
Solution (cont.)

Assemble the global stiffness matrix [K] for the entire truss structure.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 22.68 5.76  15 0  7.68  5.76 0 0 1
 5.76 4.32 0 0  5.76  4.32 0 0 2

  15 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 3
 
29.5 10 1  0
6
0 0 20 0  20 0 0
K  
4

600  7.68  5.76 0 0 22.68 5.76  15 0 5

 
 5.76  4.32 0  20 5.76 24.32 0 0 6
 0 0 0 0  15 0 15 0 7
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8
 Example 4.5
Solution (cont.)

5) Write the Element Force Vector Matrix.

Since the bar is subjected by two concentrated forces; 20,000 N at Node 2 and
25,000 N at Node 3. Therefore, the global force vector for the entire structure
is,

 0  1
 0  2
 
 20000  3
 
F    
0 4

 0  5
 25000 6
 
 0  7
 0 
  8
 Example 4.5
Solution (cont.)

6) Assemble the Global System of Linear Equations.

K Q  F 
 22.68 5.76  15 0  7.68  5.76 0 0 Q1   0 
 5.76
 4.32 0 0  5.76  4.32 0 0 Q2   0 
  15 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 Q3   20000 
    
29.5 106 1  0 0 0 20 0  20 0 0 Q4   0 
 7.68  5.76 0   
600 0 22.68 5.76  15 0 Q5   0 
 
 5.76  4.32 0  20 5.76 24.32 0 0 Q6   25000
 0    
0 0 0  15 0 15 0 Q7   0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Q8   0 
 Example 4.5
Solution (cont.)

7) Impose Boundary Conditions & Write the Reduced System of Linear

Equations. We have,
Q1  Q2  Q4  Q7  Q8  0

Using elimination method, the above equations reduced to,

15 0 0  Q3   20000 

29.5 10 1 
6
 Q    0 
600  0 22.68 5.76  5   
 0 5.76 24.32 Q6
  25000
   

8) Solve for the Required Information.

a) Nodal displacements: The reduced equations is solved using the Gaussian
elimination method, we get,

Q3   27.12 10 

3

   3 
Q 
 5  5.65  10 m
Q   22.25 10 3 
 6  
 Example 4.5
Solution (cont.)

b) Compute the stress in each element.

 0 
 
29.5 106  0 
Element 1: 1   1 0 1 0 3 
 20,000 Pa
40  27.12  10 
 0 

 5.65 10 3 
 3 
29.5 106  22.25 10 
Element 2: 2  0 1 0  1 3 
 21,880 Pa
30  27.12 10 
 0 

In the same manner, the stresses in Element 3 and Element 4,

 3  5208 Pa
 4  4167 Pa
 Example 4.5
Solution (cont.)

c) Determine support reactions.

Using the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 7th, and the 8th equations, we get,

 R1   15833
 R   3126 
 2   
 R4    21879  N
 R    4167 
 7  
 R8   0 