CHEM 1101: CHEMISTRY (EEE/COE) LECTURE 4

MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

Development of the Periodic Table:

People have known about elements like carbon and gold since ancient time. The elements
couldn't be changed using any chemical method. Each element has a unique number of
protons. If you examine samples of iron and silver, you can't tell how many protons the atoms
have. However, you can tell the elements apart because they have different properties. You
might notice there are more similarities between iron and silver than between iron and
oxygen.

The most important difference between Mendeleev's table and modern periodic table is that
modern table is organized by increasing atomic number, not increasing atomic weight. In
1914, Henry Moseley learned the atomic numbers (experimentally determine) of elements.
Before that, atomic numbers were just the order of elements based on increasing atomic
weight. Once atomic numbers had significance, the periodic table was reorganized.

Mendeleev's Statement of the Law of Periodicity: "The properties of the elements, as well
as the forms and properties of their compounds, are in periodic dependence on, or
form a periodic function of, the atomic weights of the elements."

Modern Statement of the Law of Periodicity (Moseley): "The properties of the elements, as
well as the forms and properties of their compounds, are in periodic dependence on,
or form a periodic function of, the atomic number of the elements."

Patterns in the Periodic Table: Main Features

1. The columns are called groups. The groups are divided into two sub groups: A and B.
These are numbered IA, IIA, IIIB, IVB, VB, VIB, VIIB, VIIIB, IB, IIB, IIIA, IVA,
VA, VIA, VIIA and VIIIA (0) groups. The number of valence electrons equals the
Group number All the members of a Group have the same valence configuration but
different principal quantum numbers.
2. The rows are called periods (hence periodic table). There are seven periods in periodic
table. The period number equals the principal quantum number of the valence shell.
3. Group 1 is called The Alkali Metals.
4. Group 2 is called The Alkaline Earth Metals.
5. Transition metals are in the middle, they have groups from IB to VIIIB.
6. The inner transition metals are at the bottom- lanthanides and actinides.
7. Group 7 is called the Halogens.
8. Group VIIIA or zero is called the Noble Gases/ Inert Gases.
9. Hydrogen occupies a unique position at the top of the periodic table. It does not fit
naturally into any Group.
10. The elements in group VIIIB consist of three groups of elements at the middle of the
periodic table.

AIUB Updated: 18/09/2010 Course-Teacher: Md Mosharraf Hossain

CHEM 1101: CHEMISTRY (EEE/COE) LECTURE 4

Periods and Groups

Elements in the periodic table are arranged in periods (rows) and groups (columns). Atomic
number increases as you move across a row or period.

Periods: Rows of elements are called periods. The period number of an element signifies the
highest unexcited energy level for an electron in that element. The number of elements in a
period increases as you move down the periodic table because there are more sublevels per
level as the energy level of the atom increases.

Groups: Columns of elements help define element groups. Elements within a group share
several common properties. Groups are elements have the same outer electron arrangement.
The outer electrons are called valence electrons. Because they have the same number of
valence electrons, elements in a group share similar chemical properties.

The periodic table is divided into BLOCKS.

1. The s-block elements have valence configuration s1 or s2.

2. The p-block elements have valence configuration s2p1 to s2p6.
3. The d-block elements have valence configurations in which d-subshells are being
filled.
4. The f-block elements have valence configurations in which f-subshells are being
filled.

What is on the Element Key?

Each square on the periodic table gives information about an element. On many printed
periodic tables you can find an element's symbol, atomic number, and atomic weight.

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Classification of elements depending on properties:

Elements are classified according to their properties. The major categories of elements are the
metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.

What are the Metals?

Most elements are metals. There are so many metals, they are divided into groups: alkali
metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals and inner transition metals. The inner
transition metals can be divided into smaller groups, such as the lanthanides and actinides.

Properties of Metals: Metals share some common properties. They are lustrous (shiny),
malleable (can be hammered), and are good conductors of heat and electricity. These
properties result from the ability to easily move the electrons in the outer shells of metal
atoms.

AIUB Updated: 18/09/2010 Course-Teacher: Md Mosharraf Hossain

CHEM 1101: CHEMISTRY (EEE/COE) LECTURE 4

Group IA: Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)

The alkali metals are located in Group IA (first column) of the periodic table. Alkali metals
form salts and many other compounds. These elements are less dense than other metals, form
ions with a +1 charge, and have the largest atom sizes of elements in their periods. The alkali
metals are highly reactive.

Group IIA: Alkaline Earth Metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra)

The alkaline earths are located in Group IIA (second column) of the periodic table. Calcium
and magnesium are examples of alkaline earths. These metals form many compounds. They
have ions with a +2 charge. Their atoms are smaller than those of the alkali metals.

Group IB-VIII: Transition Metals

The transition elements are located in groups IB to VIIIB. Iron and gold are examples of
transition metals. These elements are very hard, with high melting points and boiling points.
The transition metals are good electrical conductors and are very malleable. They show
positive oxidation states of +2 and +3 generally and contain two incomplete energy levels (‘s’
& ‘d’ orbitals). They are effective catalytic agents and generally form coloured and complex
compounds.

The transition metals include most of the elements, so they can be categorized into smaller
groups. The lanthanides and actinides are classes of transition elements. Another way to
group transition metals is into triads, which are metals with very similar properties, usually
found together.

Group VIII: Metal Triads: The iron triad consists of iron, cobalt, and nickel. Just under
iron, cobalt, and nickel is the palladium triad of ruthenium, rhodium, and palladium, while
under them is the platinum triad of osmium, iridium, and platinum.

Lanthanides and Actinides

When you look at the periodic table, you'll see there is a block of two rows of elements below
the main body of the chart. The top row has atomic numbers following lanthanum. These
elements are called the lanthanides (rare earths). The lanthanides are silvery metals that
tarnish easily. They are relatively soft metals, with high melting and boiling points. The
lanthanides react to form many different compounds. These elements are used in lamps,
magnets, lasers, and to improve the properties of other metals.

The actinides are in the row below the lanthanides (trans-uranium). Their atomic numbers
follow actinium. All of the actinides are radioactive, with positively charged ions. They are
reactive metals that form compounds with most nonmetals. The actinides are used in
medicines and nuclear devices.

These elements have three incomplete outer levels (‘s’, ‘d’ & ‘f’ orbitals) and their properties
are similar to as in the case of transition elements.

AIUB Updated: 18/09/2010 Course-Teacher: Md Mosharraf Hossain

CHEM 1101: CHEMISTRY (EEE/COE) LECTURE 4

Nonmetals & Metalloids

Elements that don't have the properties of metals are called nonmetals. Some elements have
some, but not all of the properties of the metals. These elements are called metalloids.

Properties of Nonmetals: The nonmetals are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Solid
nonmetals are brittle and lack metallic luster. Most nonmetals gain electrons easily. The
nonmetals are located on the upper right side of the periodic table, separated from metals by a
line that cuts diagonally through the periodic table. The nonmetals can be divided into classes
of elements that have similar properties. The halogens and the noble gases are two groups of
nonmetals.

Group VIIA: Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, At)

The halogens are located in Group VIIA of the periodic table. Examples of halogens are
chlorine and iodine. You find these elements in bleaches, disinfectants, and salts. These
nonmetals form ions with a -1 charge. The physical properties of the halogens vary. The
halogens are highly reactive.

Group zero: Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)

The noble gases are located in Group VIII of the periodic table. Helium and neon are
examples of noble gases. These elements are used to make lighted signs, refrigerants, and
lasers. The noble gases are not reactive. This is because they have little tendency to gain or
lose electrons.

Noble gases are chemically inactive-

Inactivity of the noble gases is due to- a) complete pairing of all electrons present, b) absence
of any molecular orbital, c) stable energy state, d) very high ionization potential and e)
negligible electron affinities.

Hydrogen:

Hydrogen has a single positive charge, like the alkali metals, but at room temperature, it is a
gas that doesn't act like a metal. Therefore, hydrogen usually is labeled as a nonmetal.

Properties of Metalloids (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Bi, Po)

Elements that have some properties of metals and some properties of nonmetals are called
metalloids. Silicon and germanium are examples of metalloids. The boiling points, melting
points, and densities of the metalloids vary. The metalloids make good semiconductors. The
metalloids are located along the diagonal line between the metals and nonmetals in the
periodic table.

AIUB Updated: 18/09/2010 Course-Teacher: Md Mosharraf Hossain

CHEM 1101: CHEMISTRY (EEE/COE) LECTURE 4

Classification of elements depending on electronic configuration:

The physical and chemical properties of the elements are largely determined by their
electronic structures:

1. The Inert Gases (elements of ‘0’ group)

2. The Representative Elements (‘s’ and ‘p’ block elements)
3. The Transition Elements (‘d’ block elements)
4. The Inner Transition Elements (‘f’ block elements)

VARIATION OF PROPERTIES WITHIN PERIODS AND GROUPS

The periodic table helps predict some properties of the elements compared to each other.
Atom size decreases as you move from left to right across the table and increases as you
move down a column. Energy required to remove an electron from an atom increases as you
move from left to right and decreases as you move down a column. The ability to form a
chemical bond increases as you move from left to right and decreases as you move down a
column.

Variation
Properties within
Serial Moving Moving
Periods and Groups
left → right top → bottom
1 Metallic character decreases increases
2 Atomic size or atomic radius decreases increases
3 Ionic radii decreases increases
4 Ionization energy increases decreases
5 Electron affinities higher lower
6 Electro negativities increases decreases
7 Oxidizing power higher lower
8 Reducing power lower higher

Reasons of Variations:

a. the nuclear charge and the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus,
b. the total number of electrons, particularly the valence electrons,
c. the size of the atoms, i.e. the volume occupied by the electron in various
energy levels.

Some outlines involving variations of properties:

 Metallic character is a rough and qualitative combination of (i) electrical and thermal
conductivity, (ii) metallic luster (brightness) and (iii) reducing properties,
 (a) As the size increases, valence electron are readily lost, elements become more
metallic, because valence electrons are held less strongly due to the increasing size of
the atom; (b) As the size decreases, valence electron are less readily lost, elements
become less metallic, because valence electrons are held more strongly due to the
decreasing size of the atom.

AIUB Updated: 18/09/2010 Course-Teacher: Md Mosharraf Hossain

CHEM 1101: CHEMISTRY (EEE/COE) LECTURE 4

 The greater the nuclear charge, the smaller is the ionic radius in a series (Na+, mg+2,
Al+3, Si+4).
 Metals generally have small ionization energy; nonmetals have large values.
 Metals have small electron affinity; nonmetals have large values [good oxidizing
agents].
 Higher oxidation states become more stable near the bottom of each transition metal.

Usefulness of the periodic table:

1. Classification of the elements,

2. Prediction of undiscovered elements,
3. Correction of atomic weight,
4. Periodic table in industrial research,

Limitations of the periodic table:

1. Position of hydrogen,
2. The position of Lanthanides and Actinides,
3. Properties which are not periodic functions,
4. Diagonal relationship

AIUB Updated: 18/09/2010 Course-Teacher: Md Mosharraf Hossain

CHEM 1101: CHEMISTRY (EEE/COE) LECTURE 4

Comparison between carbon and silicon:

Carbon Silicon
(1) elements of sub-group IVA and have s2p2 (1) elements of sub-group IVA and have s2p2
electron in the outermost level, electron in the outermost level,
C (6) – 1s22s22p2 Si (14) – 1s22s22p63s23p2
(2) found in nature -in animal and plant (2) abundant in silicate minerals and as silica and
kingdoms, as minerals rocks
(3) common oxide is CO2, (3) common oxide is SiO2
(4) form hydrides, halides and other compounds- (4) form hydrides, halides and other compounds-
CCl4, CH4, C2H6 SiCl4, SiH4, Si2H6
(5) exhibit isomerism, (5) not so pronounced
(6) maximum covalency is 4 (6) it can expand to 6
(7) compounds of C are quite stable (7) most silica compounds are unstable except
silicates and polymers.

Comparison between the alkali metals and the coinage metals:

Alkali metals Coinage metals

(1) Electronic structures are different although (1) Electronic structures are different although
they have s1 electron in the outermost level. they have s1 electron in the outermost level.
Li (3) 2s1, Na (11) 3s1, K (19) 4s1, Pb (37) 5s1, Cs Cu (29) 3d104s1, Ag (47) 4d105s1, Au (79)
(55) 6s1, Fr (87) 7s1 5d106s1

(2) most reactive elements, (2) unreactive and difficult to oxidize

(3) never occur in nature in free state, (3) found abundantly in free state

(4) have only one oxidation state, +1 (4) have +1, +2 and +3 oxidation state

(5) melting points range 1800C(Li) → 2840C(Cs), (5) near about 10000C

(6) form strong bases because of small charge (+) (6) do not give strongly basic oxides or
and large sizes, hydroxides

(7) can not be handled easily and are kept in (7) can be worked and used as metals because
kerosene. these are heavy, ductile and malleable

(8) most of them are soluble in water, (8) are not soluble in water

(9) colourless, (9) coloured

(10) are recent discovery and their uses are only (10) used by primitive men for ornaments and for
scientific and technical, coinage purposes.

AIUB Updated: 18/09/2010 Course-Teacher: Md Mosharraf Hossain