Superconductivity

The basic facts:

• Resistivity goes to zero below the critical temperature Tc (the
most sensitive measurements imply R < 10-25 Ω)
• Many different materials show superconductivity
• Tc values range from a few mK up to 160K
• Superconductors expel flux (the Meissner effect) and act as
perfect diamagnets.
• Superconductivity is destroyed by a critical magnetic field Bc
• Specific heat, infrared absorption, tunnelling, .. all imply that
there is an energy gap associated with superconductivity

Resistivity
Transition is very sharp in pure
materials (as narrow as 10-3 K),
broader when impurities are
present.
Very good conductors (simple free
electron materials) do not
superconduct.
Superconductivity is destroyed by
high currents (critical current Jc)

Superconductivity – RJ Nicholas HT07 1

 Superconducting Elements

Critical Field

Superconductivity is
destroyed by magnetic
fields
Critical field depends on
temperature, typically
Bc = B0 (1 − (T / Tc ) 2 )

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 Meissner Effect
It was discovered in 1933 that when cooled in a magnetic
field flux is expelled completely from a superconductor
Inside the superconductor
B = Ba + μ0M, giving M = -B/μ0 (χ = -1)
This is not the result of zero resistance

Superconductor Superconductor Zero Resistance

Flux expulsion with hole Normal Metal

∫ E.ds = ∂φ T > Tc
∂t

Flux is expelled T < Tc

from B < Bc
superconductor,

Flux is trapped in T < Tc

a zero resistance B=0
metal

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 Flux penetration
In order to cause the flux ne 2τ ∂j ne 2
expulsion it is necessary for j = E , so = E
m ∂t m
there to be a surface current to
∂j ne 2 ne 2 ∂B
generate the internal flux curl = curlE = −
∂t m m ∂t
ne 2
London & London assumed that: curl j = − B
m
ne 2 ne 2
curl curl j = − curl B = − μ 0 j = − ∇2 j
m m
m
giving : j = j0 exp − λx, with λ =
μ 0 ne 2
λ is the London penetration depth (approx. 10 nm)

Thermodynamics of the
Superconducting phase transition
In magnetic field we define a Gibbs free energy as:
G = E - TS -M.B, where the M.B term includes the energy of
interaction of the specimen with the external field. Thus:
dG = (dE - TdS - B.dM) - SdT - M.dB = - SdT - M.dB
dE = dQ + dW
Bc
B
GS ( Bc , T ) = GS (0, T ) − ∫ M.dB ,
0
with M = −
μ0
Bc
B Bc2
GS ( Bc , T ) = GS (0, T ) + ∫ dB = GS (0, T ) +
0
μ0 2μ 0

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 At Bc the normal and superconducting phases are in
equilibrium, so their Gibbs functions are the same. Thus:
Bc2
GN (0, T ) − GS (0, T ) =
2μ0
We can deduce the Entropy difference from S = -∂G/∂T

1 dBc2 Bc dBc
ΔS = S N − S S = − = −
2 μ 0 dT μ 0 dT

At Tc the value of Bc → 0 so SN = SS
dBc/dT is negative, so SN > SS for T < Tc

Entropy and Specific Heat

Entropy of two states is
the same at Tc
Specific heat is:
∂S
C = T
∂T
Discontinuity in C at Tc
Second order phase
transition

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 Specific heat of superconductor
has a large discontinuity and
tends to zero at T = 0

Specific heat is activated with

⎛ Δ ⎞
C S ∝ exp ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ B ⎠
k T

Infrared absorption

Infrared absorption when

hν > 2Δ
Value of energy gap 2Δ is
related to Tc

2Δ ≈ 3.5 k BTc

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 BCS Theory
• A field theory developed by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer
• Explanation for the formation of an energy gap
• based on the formation of ‘Cooper pairs’ of electrons
• electrons experience an attraction caused by interaction with
crystal lattice leading to binding in pairs

Evidence for phonon interactions:

• Isotope effect. For different isotopes Tc ∝ M-1/2
• Good conductors at high temp. (Cu, Na, Au etc) do not
superconduct, poor conductors do (Hg, Pb, Sn…)

Cooper pairs
Two in a bed. Exchange of
virtual
phonons

Strongest interaction for

k1 = -k2

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 Electrons bind together in pairs with momenta kF and -kF.
Bonding pair have opposite spins in a spin singlet
wavefunction 1
φ = φ S (r1 , r2 ) (↑↓ − ↓↑)
2

Pair has charge 2e and mass 2m

Pairs gain a binding energy of

Δ per electron
Energy gap of 2Δ occurs at the
Fermi energy EF

Zero Resistance
Current flows by displacement of entire Fermi surface.
Because of the energy gap no scattering can occur until pairs
can be excited across gap. Causes a Critical current Jc once
electrons gain enough energy.

Energy gap is temperature

dependent, leading to temperature
dependence of Bc, Jc.

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 Energy and Coherence
Average energy gain per electron is approx. Δ/2 (actually Δ/4
with full theory) so as Δ × g(EF) electrons are shifted down

Δ2 g ( E F ) Bc2
= gain in Gibbs free energy =
4 2μ0
Coherence Length ξ = vFτ
Estimate τ from energy gap: =/τ = 2Δ
so ξ = vF =/2Δ (accurate result: vF =/πΔ)
typical values are 1000 - 1 nm
(much shorter in exotic and high Tc materials)

Type I and Type II Superconductors in B field

Magnetisation energy occurs over the
London penetration depth λ

Superconductivity is established over the

coherence Length ξ

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 Type II superconductors
Have short coherence lengths and high Tc
Form vortices which make a flux lattice above Bc1

Typical materials:
One element, Nb, and many
alloys such as
NbTi, Nb3Sn, V3Ga….

High Tc Materials:
Ba0.75La4.25Cu5O5(3-y)
YBa2Cu3O7-x

High Tc Materials

Conduction takes
place in CuO planes

All properties are

highly anisotropic

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 Superconducting Tunnelling
Tunnelling between two
superconductors with a
very thin (few nm) barrier
Tunnel current shows features
due to alignment of energy
levels either side of barrier.
Measures energy gaps

Flux Quantisation
Resistivity = 0 means no scattering. Therefore there is
macroscopic phase coherence of the supercurrent over the
entire length of a superconductor
1 nq
v = (− =∇ − qA ) , j = (− =∇ − qA )
m m

∫ j.ds =
nq
(
m ∫
= k.ds − ∫ qA.ds )
( )
Choose a nq
path inside 0 = 2nπ= − q ∫ curlA.dS
superconductor m
∴ 2nπ= = q ∫ curlA.dS = q ∫ B.dS = qΦ

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 Result is that flux is
h h
quantised in units: Φ0 = = = 2.07 × 10 −15 T m 2
q 2e

Proof of existence of Cooper pairs.

Leads to many more sophisticated quantum interference
effects (Josephson effect), and applications such as
very sensitive measurement of small magnetic fields
(and fluxes) e.g. SQUIDs

Superconductor Futurology

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