Society, Sociology and

Chapter 1 Sociological Research

After completing this chapter, you will be able to;

1 2
Learning Outcomes

Define the concept of society and explain the

Define sociology main characteristics of types of society

Define the concepts of social behavior, social

structure, social institution, social fact, group,

3 self, status, role, value, norm, sanction and

socialization.
4
Comprehend the origins and the birth of
sociology as a social science discipline

5 Define the concept of science and explain the

characteristics of scientific research. 6 Explain the phases of scientific research.

7 Compare the main methodological approaches

in sociological research. 8 Explain qualitative and quantitative research
designs

Chapter Outline
What is Socıology? Key Terms
The Society and Types of Society Sociology
The Fundamental Concepts in Sociology Society
The Origins and the Birth of Sociology as a Social Socialization
Science Science
Science and Method Scientific Method
Scientific Research Process Research Process
Main Methodological Approaches in Quantitative Research
Sociological Research Qualitative Research
Research Designs and Techniques in
Sociological Research

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Introduction to Sociology
INTRODUCTION
This chapter, by providing introductory level
information on sociology, aims to form a basis for
the following chapters of this book. In this chapter,
first, the main concepts of sociology will be defined
and exemplified, the origins and characteristics
of sociology as a social science discipline will be
explained. Second, the concepts of science and
scientific method will be defined. Finally, the
research methods and techniques of sociological
research will be explained in simple terms.
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?
All people have values, beliefs, and attitudes.
Are these our personal traits, or are they molded
by an outer pattern? What kind of a life would
you have lived if you were born in a different
society? If you were born in a tribe in Africa, in
the steps of Mongolia, in Switzerland or in an
Inuit tribe? Would your values, beliefs, attitudes
be the same as they are now? If you were born in
one of the richest or the poorest families in your
country, if you were born in another sex, would
your opportunities of education or employment
be the same, would your behaviors, reasons of
honor and sorrow be the same? In short, would
you be the same person? To think about these
questions would show that a wide range of norms
and values that we consider personal are indeed
shaped by societal factors.
Think about a person who is about to commit
suicide. Of course, he/she could have personal
reasons for this. Is this a personal behavior or
is it a social phenomenon? If very few people
do commit suicide in a society, this may be
considered personal. However, a considerable
number of people in every society do commit
suicide every year. The statistics indicate that the
number of people who commit suicide every year
is approximately 3 thousand in Turkey and 44
thousand in the US (TUIK, 2016; AFSP, 2017).
This means that the suicides in 100,000 people,
namely the suicide rate, is 4,11 in Turkey and
13,26 in the US. If there is an approximate annual
quota of people committing suicide in a given
society, suicide should not be considered only as
a personal behavior, it is a social phenomenon.
Durkheim, in his seminal study entitled “Suicide”
(1897) shows that suicide rates are higher in men
1
than women, higher for singles than people in a
relationship and higher among Protestants than
Catholics. He also found that suicide rates are
higher in times of peace than times of war; and
higher in times of economic crisis than times of
economic welfare. Depending on these similarities
and differences, Durkheim developed a theory and
explained suicide as a sociological phenomenon,
as a social fact. He claimed that there are four
types of suicides and the rates of suicide are based
on the degrees of social integration and moral
regulation in that society. When these two social
factors increase or decrease too much, suicide
rates get higher. This shows that suicide is a social
fact, and is in relation with other social facts.
1
What are the suicide types
that Durkheim claimed? In
what ways do the degree of
social integration and moral
regulation of the society inf-
luence suicide?
Another example is divorce. In everyday
life, people think that their divorce is a personal
phenomenon, an individual problem. However,
every year an approximate number of people get
divorced in any given society. For example, 40-
50% of married people in the US get divorced
(APA, 2017). In other countries, too, there are
divorce rates that show that a similar number of
people get divorced every year. There are social
factors that influence divorce rates. For example,
in countries that women have higher economic
independence, divorce rates are higher. Also in
countries in which women have equal rights with
men about legislations about divorce, divorce
rates are higher. These data show that there are
similarities in people’s divorce behaviors, and there
are differences in this similarity. Thus, we can
see that many of our behaviors that we consider
personal are the reflections of wider social patterns.
As seen in these examples, sociology reveals the
social in the individual, the general in the particular.
This means that sociologists show that the personal
experiences of people are reflections of wider social
facts. Sociology shows the similarities among the
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Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

experiences of people and the differences among these similarities

(Bauman and May, 2001:7). Sociology prompts us to reevaluate
our experiences that in everyday life we do not tend to think about.
Sociological thinking makes people comprehend that things are not
always the same as they think; and that the world that they think they
know may actually be different than what they think. This enables us
to understand our and other people’s problems better. Thus we see
that all people confront similar obstacles and disappointments with us.
Thus, we respect their right to choose and perform the life style they
choose. In other words, sociological thinking creates a solidarity based
on mutual understanding and respect (Bauman and May, 2001:12).
The areas that sociologists investigate are parts of our everyday lives.
Sociologists talk about families, groups, politics, economy, factories,
religion, authority, etc. In everyday life, people do think and talk about
these issues depending on their own experiences, in other words, with
commonsense. This is not the same for physical sciences. For example,
the experiences of people do not mean anything for astronomy or
chemistry. However, sociologists live in the society they investigate,
they have families, they work in the work places, they are a part of the
economy. They cannot completely isolate themselves from the society.
In addition, what people say and do is the basis of the research subject
of sociology. Nevertheless, there are important differences between
commonsense and sociology. These can be summarized in four points
(Bauman and May, 2001:8-10):
• The first difference is related to the responsible speech. Unlike peo-
ple depending on commonsense while talking, sociologists make
effort to follow the rules of responsible speech. This means they
make a clear distinction between untested personal claims and
the statements corroborated by evidence. This is a very important
point because the trust to and credibility of scientific knowledge
depends on the belief that scientists follow the rules of responsible
speech.
• The second difference is related to the size of the field from which
the material is drawn. People who talk with regard to common-
sense generally think and talk depending on few people’s lives and
experiences. This causes their thinking to be partial or one-sided.
Sociologists, on the other hand, broaden their horizons, use a wider
perspective and can link individual biographies to social processes.
Sociological thinking is a multi-dimensional thinking practice.
• The third difference is related to how we understand events. In
everyday life, people tend to think that everything that occurs in
the world is an outcome of somebody’s intentional actions. They
think that goodwill lies behind good events and ill intensions lie
behind unpleasant events. Sociologists do not make personalized
interpretations. Sociologists’ explanations depend on networks of
Picture 1.1 What if you were born dependencies rather than individual actors or actions.
in a different society?

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Introduction to Sociology
• The last difference is related to dogmas.
In everyday life, repeated actions become
habitual and commonsense does not
ask critical questions. The reactions to
social facts are perceived as true ways of
life. However, sociologists challenge the
supposed commonsense and ask radical,
critical, provoking questions about the
social facts. Sociology discusses the flow of
the life in details.
Doing sociology is not a simple knowledge
acquisition process. When we think sociologically,
we reexamine the things that we think we knew or
understood. We move away from the commonness
of everyday life and see the things from a broader
perspective. The aim of sociology is not to correct our
knowledge or to replace our inaccurate knowledge
with put unquestionable truths. Sociological
thinking is to have the habit to criticize, analyze and
question the claims that are taken for granted and
accepted as certain facts.
Sociology does not aim to replace our
incorrect information with unquestionable
true information. It helps us to question
and criticize the facts that are accepted true
without questioning.
Picture 1.2 C.W. Mills (1916-1962) used the
“sociological imagination” phrase to explain the need
to move away from viewing problems as personal and
to recognize them as social issues. The sociological
imagination enables us to grasp history and biography
and the relations between the two within the society.
1
Sociologist C. Wright Mills used the concept of
sociological imagination to define the awareness of
the relationship between personal, private experience
and the wider society. Sociological imagination
means to comprehend the history, the biography,
and their relationship in the society. Mills argues
that people have to understand wider patterns in
order to understand the problems related to their
works, families or neighbors. For Mills, the mission
of sociology is to understand the connection between
the individuals and the society they live in. Mills
argues that sociology should be used in order to
reveal how the society molds the individual lives. He
thinks that if we want to understand an individual or
a group, we should have knowledge of the social and
historical context of the society in which these people
live. Mills (1959:3) explains the intertwinement of
individual lives and social forces as following:
“When a society is industrialized, a peasant becomes
a worker; a feudal lord is liquidated or becomes
a businessman. When classes rise or fall, a man is
employed or unemployed; when the rate of the
investment goes up or down, a man takes a new
heart or goes broke. When wars happen, an insurance
salesman becomes a rocket launcher; a store clerk,
a radar man; a wife lives alone; a child grows up
without a father. Neither the life of an individual
nor the history of a society can be understood without
understanding both.”
As we saw in the examples of suicide and divorce,
to understand the connection between biography
and history is to understand the connection
between the individual and the society, between
the world and us. A divorce of a married couple
is an individual problem, but if nearly half of the
married couples in a society divorced in the last
decade, the divorce itself is a social problem. It is an
individual problem for a person to be unemployed,
but if one-third of the population is unemployed,
the unemployment itself is a social problem. This
shows that problems do not arise from individual
characteristics, they are social problems and have
to be examined and analyzed at the societal level.
By this way, sociology helps us to see the common
in the personal and the social in the individual. In
other words, it helps us to see the social problems,
which lie behind the individual problems. When
the patterns of the social life are put forward in this
way, people can better understand both themselves
and the world they live in (Coser et al., 1983:8).
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Besides being a perspective, sociology is also a
branch of social sciences. In this manner, sociology
can be defined in many ways. Giddens (2008:38)
defines sociology as the scientific study of the social
life of human beings, human groups and societies.
For another definition, sociology is the systematic
and planned study of human groups and social life
in modern societies (Browne, 1998:1). Sociology can
also be defined as scientific examination and research
of human societies and the human behaviors in the
social groups (Kornblum and Smith, 2008:4). Thus,
we can define sociology as the scientific investigation of
the society, the social interaction, the relation between
the individual and the society, the structures of the
social institutions and their relations with each other.
Sociology as a social science has its origins in the effort
to understand the transformation from the traditional
society to the modern society. It aims to understand
the structure of and changes in the societies through
scientific inquiry on contemporary human societies.
Sociology has three levels of inquiry. At the macro
level, sociology investigates the structure and change
of the societies or social institutions. In other words,
macrosociology studies the analysis of large-scale social
organizations such as political or economic systems.
At the meso level, which is known as mesosociology,
sociologists study the experiences of groups and the
interactions between groups. At the micro level,
namely microsociology, sociologists investigate the
smallest levels of interaction, such as the everyday
behaviors in face-to-face interactions. Microsociology
studies may include interactions between friends or
couples, or only the perception of the self.
Sociology is a social science that aims to
understand the structure of and changes
in the societies. It examines contemporary
human societies through scientific inquiry.
2 types of societies depending mainly on their
How do we choose in which
level to study? Can we study
the same topic at more than
one level? Try to answer this
question by giving examples
for each level of sociology.
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Society, Sociology and Sociological Research
THE SOCIETY AND TYPES OF
SOCIETY
Society: Society consists of the interactions
among people who share a culture or a number
of social institutions. In other words, the society
is not the sum of gathered people. What makes a
society is not people themselves. Rather, it is the
totality of the relationships among the people.
Society can be defined as “any self-perpetuating,
human grouping occupying a relatively bounded
territory, possessing its own more or less distinctive
culture and institution” (Jary and Jary, 2005:585).
Although the concept of society is often used to
refer to a nation, they are different concepts.
The concept of nation is a political category, and
refers to a pretended unity which involves official
recognition. As a political category, a nation cannot
subsist on its own; nations generally subsist through
the agency of their states. Society, on the other
hand, is a praxis, which is established by mutually
bounded social relations. Societies are not political
units; they are not administered by the politicians.
Societies administer themselves, they can subsist
on their own, they do not need any agency. For
example, although few in number, there are still
hunter-gatherer tribes today. These tribes are not
nations, but they are societies. Every nation is a
society, but not every society is a nation. Society
is the totality of the mutual relationships among
a human community, which lives in a specific
territory, shares a specific culture and common
social institutions.
Society is not the totality of people; it is the
totality of the mutual relationships among a
community of people who share a specific
territory, a specific culture and common
social institutions.
Types of society: Sociologists classify the
characteristics of production. Therefore, although
human groups have established many types of
societies through the history, sociologists usually
refer to six types of society.
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Introduction to Sociology

• Hunting and Gathering Societies:

The earliest type of societies is hunting attention
and gathering societies, which exist
since 50,000 BC to present. However, In the most general
today there are only a few hunting and level, societies before the
gathering societies in the world. This 18th century are called
type of society consists of small numbers “traditional societies”. In
of people, such as 30-40 people. People the Western world, the
majority of the traditional
are nomad and gain their livelihood
societies transformed
from hunting, fishing, and gathering
through Enlightenment,
edible plants. In this type of society,
Scientific and Political
there is very little social inequality, and
Revolutions and the
the inequalities are based on honor
Industrial Revolution,
rather than wealth. Because they do not
and a new society
do agriculture, they do not have long- emerged. This new type
term storable food. The material goods of society is called “the
they have and use are very limited, industrial society” or “the
they have their weapons, traps and modern society”.
cooking tools. As a consequence, there
are no rich and poor people, and there are no divisions depending
on wealth. The social divisions and the division of labor is based on
age and sex. This type of society is based on cooperation, there is no
competition among people. They are generally participatory societies
and all male members gather together when important decisions are
taken. However, the thoughts of the oldest men are more important
(Giddens, 2005: 46).
• Pastoral Societies: Pastoral societies are the societies in which the
gain of livelihood is based on domesticated livestock such as cattle or
sheep. These societies generally live in areas which are not suitable for
agriculture. These societies consist of a larger population than hunting
and gathering societies. Their population varies from a few hundred
people to many thousand people. There is also more social inequality
in this type of societies. Members of pastoral societies are engaged
in trade and this causes a division between the rich and the poor. In
these societies, there are non-economic social inequalities, too; for
example, the chiefs, warlords, and leaders have extensive personal
Picture 1. 3 There are different power. This type of society has emerged in 12,000 BC and today
types of societies. many pastoral societies exist, particularly in Africa, Middle East and
Central Asia (Giddens, 2005: 49).
• Agrarian Societies: Agrarian societies are the societies of small rural communities which are
engaged in agriculture. They often hunt animals and gather edible plants in addition to agricultural
production. Their existence period is approximately same with pastoral societies. The first form of
agrarian is the “horticultural societies”, in which people cultivated small gardens with simple tools.
Agrarian societies are settled societies and develop
regular trading and political ties with other societies.
There are important economic inequalities among
Most of the pastoral and agrarian societies
people (Giddens, 2005: 51). As pastoral societies,
are now part of larger states and they are
agrarian societies, too, are now part of larger states
losing their traditional identities.
and losing their traditional identities.

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• Traditional States: The societies known
as traditional states or non-industrial
civilizations existed between 6000 BC to
19th century. Traditional societies were
smaller than industrial societies, but larger
than all the former types of societies, some
reached to millions of people. Some of the
important examples of traditional states
are the Chinese empire, the Aztecs and
the Mayas of Mexico and the Inca of Peru.
Traditional societies are largely based on,
but not limited to, agricultural production.
This is the first society type in which not
most of the people are engaged in food
production. People in traditional states are
also engaged in trade and nonagricultural
production. Traditional states are not
completely rural societies; they have some
cities in which traders or manufacturers
concentrate. While the division of labor
is based on sex and age in hunting and
gathering, pastoral or agrarian societies;
there is a complex division of labor in the
traditional states. Although the division
of labor by sex continued, specialized jobs
emerged in the traditional societies. The
main occupation groups are merchants,
courtiers, government administrators,
clergies and soldiers. There are major
inequalities among the different groups,
especially between aristocratic groups and
the rest of the society. The members of the
aristocracy had much more wealth and held
the political power. There are no traditional
states in the contemporary world, this type
of society completely disappeared (Giddens,
2005: 55).
• Industrial (Modern) Societies: Industrial
Revolution began with the emergence of
non-living resources of energy (such as
electricity), which enabled the machine
production. Industrial Revolution is a
complex set of changes in technologic,
economic and social organization in
society. Beginning in the second half of the
1700s in England and spreading to many
other countries, Industrial Revolution was
characterized mainly by the replacement
of hand tools with electrical machines, the
concentration of industry in large factories
8
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research
and the emergence of industrial working
class. With the concentration of industry
and production in factories in cities, large
amounts of people migrated from rural
areas to urban areas. Industrial society refers
to a type of society in which the majority of the
production is industrial and most of the people
work as industrial workers in factories, offices
or shops and live in urban areas. Industrial
Revolution and Political Revolutions (such
as French Revolution) were the main
elements that revealed the modern society.
The modern society is an industrialized,
urbanized, secularized society which is
politically formed as a nation-state.
• Post-Industrial Societies: With the
technological changes in the 20th century,
a new type of society emerged. In the
post industrial society, the majority of
the production shifted from industrial
production to service sector. The service
sector, including communication, health,
banking and insurance had a larger
proportion in industry than before.
Information and technology gained more
importance. This new type of society is
called with a number of names, but it is
most generally named as the post-industrial
society or information society. The
approaches emphasizing the cultural change
rather than technologic and economic
change mostly name it the postmodern
society.
THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
IN SOCIOLOGY
There are a number of concepts in sociology,
which are essential in explaining, understanding
and studying society and social behavior. These are
social action, social structure, social institution,
social fact, group, self, status, role, value, norm,
sanction and socialization. Let’s try to define and
exemplify them.
Social action: Not every action is a social
action. Social action is an action which is oriented
towards the past, present or future actions of the
other people. For example, taking revenge out on
someone or buying a burglary insurance are social
actions. If two people on the way change their
directions because of only personal reasons, this is not
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Introduction to Sociology

a social action. However, if they think they are going structure and main
to crash each other and they change their directions attention values of the society.
in order to prevent this clash, this is a social action. Social institutions
In short, if an action is made towards other people’s Sociologists are divided as include thoughts on
actions, it is a meaningful social action. to whether social action how to reach the aims
Social structure: Neither the society nor or the social structure that are considered
the members of the society obtain themselves better explains the social significant. The
incidentally. Most of our activities are structured, reality. The approach in process of a social
regular, continuous and repetitive. Social structure which social action is practice to become
is composed of these social actions of and the more important is the regular and
interactions among the members of the society. Interpretive approach, perpetual enough
In other words, the social structure is the regular, and the approach in for being a social
permanent and stereotyped relations among which the structure is institution is called
the members of the society (Abercrombie et al. more important is the institutionalization
2006:361). For example, the family is a social Positivist-Structuralist ( J o h n s o n ,
institution in which the parents, the children, and approach. 2000:157). The main
the other family members regularly interact in a social institutions,
specific way. The society assumes that its members family, religion, economy, education, health and
have a number of responsibilities to each other. politics exist in every society, although sometimes
The parents are expected to raise and educate they appear in different forms. It is important not
their children, send them to school, and the to confuse the social institutions with concrete
children are expected to follow their parent’s advice presentations. For example, a family is not equal
and obey their rules until they reach lawful age. to the family as a social institution, a hospital is
These action-behavior expectations construct the not equal to the health as a social institution, and
structure of the family. Thus, the social structure of a government is not equal to the politics as a social
a society refers to the status, roles, norms, values, institution. Such that, all families are influenced by
groups, institutions, in short, the elements which the way that the society forms the family. However,
constitute the relation patterns in that society. not all of the families necessarily reflect the
Social structure is then, the enduring, continuous structural characteristics of the family institution
and organized relations among the members, social in that society. Another characteristic of the social
groups and social institutions. Social structure is institutions is that all of the social institutions in a
the enduring pattern of the social arrangements in society are related to each other. For instance, the
a given society. family raises new generations, the members of these
generations will be both producers and consumers.
This shows the relation between the family and
the economy. Education trains the labor force that
Social structure is the perpetual, continuous economy needs, thus the economy is also related to
and organized relations among the groups and the education. Politics and legal system make the
social institutions that consist the society. arrangements that enable the economy to process
without problems. Hence, the economy is also
related to the politics.
Social institution: Social institution refers to
arrangements involving large numbers of people Social fact: In social life, there are phenomena
whose behaviors are guided by norms and roles different than physical sciences examine. These
(Jary and Jary, 2005: 306). A social institution is phenomena are known as social facts or social
a socially organized social behavior pattern that reality. Social facts are created collectively by
reflects the established appearance of the society, society. They are exterior, inevitable and limiting
which are continuously repeated, maintained and for the individuals. In other words, the social
approved by the social norms. In other words, facts are the acting, thinking and feeling patterns
social institutions are a totality of perpetual rules which are out and above of the individuals
which are important for the maintenance of the and have the power to force themselves to the

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individuals. Durkheim defines the social facts as
the actions of society and sociology as the study
of the social facts. According to Durkheim, the
social facts exist outside and regardless of the
individual, are acquired through coercion of the
society that created them (Durkheim, 1985:43,
50). Because the social facts impose themselves
upon individuals, deviation from social facts can
result in various types of sanctions. Social facts
are sui generis, in other words, they are peculiar
in their characteristics. They are the creation
of human activities or actions, however, they
are not the product of conscious intentions,
and they are the unanticipated consequence
of human agency. Examples of the social facts
are the social institutions, statuses, roles, laws,
beliefs, population distribution, urbanization,
language, religion etc. For example, violence
against women is a social fact. Poverty, marriage,
urbanization, class structure, subcultures are also
examples of social facts. The norms and rules,
which individuals internalize and are forced to
obey, are more or less solidified examples of social
facts (Marshall, 2003: 755). Social facts can be
studied empirically and consist the main subject
of sociology. However, social facts cannot speak
for themselves, we need theories to understand
them (Giddens, 2008:44).
Social facts consist of ways of acting,
thinking, and feeling, which are external to
the individual, and endowed with a power
of coercion. They are the creation of human
activities but they are not intended.
Group: Social groups are the main blocks
of the society. The group is a set of people who
are in mutual interaction, who share specific
expectations and who take into consideration the
other’s behaviors (Kornblum and Smith, 2008:75).
In other words, social group is a set of people
who share common goals and interests, who are
interrelated and who have a continuous interaction
for a while. For example, five people who are
waiting for a bus at a bus stop do not consist a
group. However, if they decide to take a cab and
share the cab fare, they become a group and stay as
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Society, Sociology and Sociological Research
a group until they get off the cab. Families, friends,
students in a class, co-workers in a workplace are
some examples of groups. The groups may be
permanent or temporary. For instance, families are
an example of the permanent groups and crowds
are an example of the temporary groups. There are
some fundamental characteristics of groups:
• A social group consists of a number of
people. To form a group, two or more
individuals are necessary.
• Reciprocal relations exist among the
members of a social group. The members of
the group must interact or be interrelated
with each other, a group cannot exist without
these reciprocal relations. Reciprocity is
the basis of group activity. Each member
is required to respond to the needs of the
other members. For example, in the family
not only must the children obey the rules of
the parents, but parents must also fulfill the
children’s needs.
• There are common aims, objectives and
ideals for the members of the group. The
group is formed in order to achieve these
objectives and ideals. Aims and ideals of the
group are more important than the aims
or ideals of the individual. Members of the
group behave in similar ways in order to
achieve the common goals.
• Members of the group share a sense of
unity and bond of solidarity. The members
share a feeling of “we”. In addition to the
common goals and mutual relations, this
“we” feeling strengthens the sense of unity.
Thus the members identify themselves
with the group, and consider people out
of the group as “others” or “outsiders”.
The members of the group are aware of
their membership. They have a group
consciousness and distinguish themselves
from other people.
• Social groups have control over their
members. This control is often exercised by
group norms. Group norms are the norms
and regulations that the members have
to follow. These norms, whether or not
they are written, maintain the unity and
integrity of the group. Violation of group
norms is subject to sanctions.

Introduction to Sociology
A social group is an organized group, of
which the members have mutual interaction,
reciprocal relations, common goals, similar
behaviors, a sense of unity and follow the
group norms.
Self: When they are born, individuals do not
have any idea about who they are. In time, they
learn what other people think about them and they
learn to think in the same way. While children grow,
they see that people perceive women different from
men, Christians different from Muslims, the poor
dıfferent from the rich. They learn how the world
perceives them, and they tend to adopt the same
perspective. Ultimately, the self that the individual
develops widely depends on how people define
their status in society. Self is the totality of the
perceptions and thoughts related to our identity
and our qualifications. In other words, self is a
relatively stable set of perceptions and thoughts of
who we are in relation to the others and ourselves.
According to sociologist George Herbert Mead,
the theorist of The Theory of the Social Self, the
self is developed by three phases. These phases
are the language, the play, and the game. The
language phase allows individuals to respond to
each other’s opinions or emotions. Emotions like
anger or happiness, and opinions about a person
or a subject are conveyed through the language.
The play phase develops self by developing self-
consciousness through role playing. During the
role-playing, individuals learn to internalize other
people’s perspectives. The game phase develops self
by allowing individuals to learn and follow the
rules of the activity (the game). Thus, individuals
learn that there are rules and regulations to follow
in order to be considered successful in an activity.
3 sort together, role conflict occurs. For example, if
Sociologist George Herbert
Mead is well known for his
theory of the social self, which
includes the concepts of ‘self,’
‘me,’ and ‘I.’ What do you
think are the differences among
the self, me and I?
1
Status: A status is the rank, the position that
one holds in the society. Anybody may occupy
the status of a son or a daughter, a husband or a
wife, a teacher, or a mother. Statuses are divided
into two basic types. These are ascribed and
achieved status. The statuses that the individual
has in birth, are ascribed statuses. Sex, age, race,
ethnic group are examples of ascribed status. The
statuses that individuals gain during their life,
are achieved statuses. The achieved statuses are
gained by individuals’ knowledge, abilities, skills,
or sometimes luck (Coser et al., 1983:83,85). For
example, being a teacher or a lawyer, being a mother
or a father, or winning a lottery and becoming rich
are examples of achieved status. Both ascribed and
achieved statuses exist in all societies, and people
do have some ascribed and some achieved statuses.
However, in modern societies achieved statuses are
more important than ascribed statuses.
If a status is determined at the birth of
the individual, it is an ascribed status. In
addition to ascribed statuses, individuals
may acquire other statuses in their life time
with the exercise of their abilitres, skills,
knowledge or luck. These are called the
achieved statuses.
Role: Society expects specific behaviors from
people who hold specific statuses and these
expected behaviors are called “roles”. Roles
are composed of the rights and assignments
appropriate to the social status. All people do have
a number of statuses (mother, teacher, student,
neighbor, etc.) and each of these statuses carries
the related roles in it. Depending on the number
of their statuses, individuals may have multiple
roles. For example, a man may have the roles of
a father, a son, a worker and a trade unionist. If
one or more of the roles of the individual do not
a policeman father makes a bust and comes across
his son among the criminals, he will live a role
conflict. If he acts as a good father and bestows
privilege on his son he won’t be a good policeman;
but if he acts as a good policeman and arrests
his son, he won’t be a good father (Coser et al.,
1983:86-87).
11
1
Picture 1. 4 When there are contradictions
between separate roles of a person and these
roles become incompatible with each other,
role conflict occurs. Role conflict may result in
difficulty to perform either role in an effective
way.
Value: Social values are the standards that we
consult to know what is wrong and what is right
(Coser et al., 1983:69). In other words, values
are the ideals and faiths that a society or a group
considers important. They are shared by the society
and account for the stability of the social order.
The values are the criteria that guide individuals
to choose between alternative courses of action.
A value is a belief that something is desirable,
worth having and striving, and people always refer
to the values in their every day life. The values
provide goals to aim for and hold the society
together because they are shared in common.
Some examples of values are patriotism, respect for
human dignity, rationality, sacrifice, individuality,
equality or democracy. These are some of the
standards that guide our behavior in many ways.
Different societies may have different values. For
example, in some societies values such as family
commitment, modesty, fatalism or hospitality are
very important. However, in some other societies
individualism and competitiveness are the most
important values and behaviors reflecting modesty
may be considered as weakness.
Norm: Norms are the rules resultant of values;
they are binding expectations of behaviors. In
other words, norms are the visible and invisible
rules of conduct. They define how to behave in
accordance with what a society has defined as good,
12
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research
right, and important. Society expects all members
to adhere to the norms and impose sanctions to
who do not adhere, however, most members of the
society already adhere to the norms. Norms may
be formal or informal. Formal norms are written,
established rules such as laws, university exam
requirements, and “don’t step on the grass” signs
at public parks. The formal norms are the most
specific norms. However, their sanctions show
a great variety, because the sanction of theft and
stepping on the grass can not be same in weight.
Informal norms are unwritten rules; they are casual
behavior expectations like using a napkin while
eating or meeting the guests warmly. The norms of
a society or a group are based on the social values
of that community. For example, if honesty is an
important social value in a society, the society
tries to prevent the behavior of lying by norms.
Not all norms have similar sanctions. Sanctions
of folkways and mores are very different in every
society. Folkways indicate the appropriate behavior
in the daily life practices of a given culture. They
are relatively weak norms and their sanctions are
not very heavy. Wearing appropriate clothes to
an event, eating the meal decently, greeting back
when greeted are examples of folkway norms. On
the other hand, mores are strong and important
norms of the society. The members of the society
believe that mores should be obeyed in order to
maintain the society. As a consequence, their
sanctions are quite heavy. The strongest mores are
often legally protected with laws. Cannibalism,
incest or homicide are standard examples of mores
and exist in almost every society. While folkways
do not include moral principles, mores embody
the moral principles of the society of the group.
People who violate mores may be excluded or
banned from some groups. Laws are also written
norms. They are formal norms which are designed,
maintained and imposed by the political authority
of the society.
Sanction: Sanctions are the anticipated
consequence of violating the rules and the norms.
They are used to make members of the society
follow the norms. Thus, sanctions are mechanisms
of social control. As opposed to forms of internal
social control such as norms and values, the sanction
is a form of external social control. Sanctions may
be positive or negative. Positive sanction includes
rewarding of a behavior that follows the norms
 1
Introduction to Sociology

and negative sanction includes the punishment themselves by transmitting their values, social
of a behavior that violates the norms (Marshall, actions, the cultural heritage from generation
2003:810). Sanctions may arise from either formal to generation (Coser et al., 1983:106). Through
or informal control. For example, if we enter the process of socialization, societies make every
a restaurant and eat our meal with our hands generation learn the values and norms and fulfill
without using the forks and knives, we don’t face the expectations of that society.
a formal sanction, because this behavior does not Socialization is a fundamental process for
include a violation of a law or more. However, human beings. If an individual cannot have
if we behave like this, we may face the sanctions a sufficient process of socialization, extreme
such as disapproving glares, whispers or ridicules isolation may occur. Genie’s case is one of the
of people around us. Informal sanctions may most important examples of the extreme isolation.
include community pressure, shame, ridicule, Genie was discovered when she was 13, in 1970.
criticism, disapproval or sarcasm. Formal sanctions She was found in the room in which she was locked
include law enforcement mechanisms such as alone for ten years. At nights, she was tied into a
imprisonment, limits on freedom, censorship, sleeping bag, she was often forgotten alone in the
expulsion or penalty fines. room. When Genie was found, she did not look
like a 13-year-old child. She could understand
and say only a few words. She could not chew,
Sanctions function to guarantee the norms could hardly swallow and continuously sniffed.
to be followed. She could not walk normally; she was walking
lopsidedly by holding her hands up in front of her,
like a bunny. She was not toilet trained. This is an
So c i a l i z a t i o n : important example that shows how important the
attention
Socialization is the socialization process is, and what it means to learn
interaction process in to be a human.
Internal social control is
which the individuals
the social control that we
learn the language,
impose on ourselves. For
values, norms,
example, while going to Socialization is the process by which a
attitudes, knowledge
school, you wear some society transmits its social values, norms,
and skills, in short,
nice clothes. Although and culture to its members.
the culture of the
there is not a law against
society they live in.
wearing pajamas at
When newborns
school, no one wears
are born, they are attention
pajama, because people
biologically human
internalize the norm of
but they are not Socialization must not be
dressing clothes outside
socially human yet. confused with socializing.
the home.
Beginning with their Socializing is interacting
birth, the individuals with other people, the
interact with people who guide their behaviors members of the family
such as the family members, teachers, friends or or workplace, or friends.
coworkers. In this interaction process, they learn Socialization is the process
about the norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors in which the individual
of their groups and society. The socialization learns how to be a
process refers to the ways that people understand member of the society he/
and accept the expectations of the society, and get she lives in, the process
an awareness about the social norms. There are two that prepares them to
functions of the socialization process. The first is function in social life.
to develop the self; the second is the transmission
of culture to new generations. Societies reproduce

13
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Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

THE ORIGINS AND THE BIRTH of people migrated to urban areas in order to work
OF SOCIOLOGY AS A SOCIAL in the factories. The expansion of industrial cities
created problems related to crowd and pollution.
SCIENCE
Although it became possible to produce more and
People have long been interested in social faster with less labor in the factories, the wealth was
factors that influence human behavior. However, not shared equally in the society. Members of the
sociology as a social science discipline exists only new industrial working class were working almost
for 200 years. In the Western world, the structure all day in bad conditions and living in poverty. This
of the society began to change beginning from the created conflict between the classes and paved the
1600s. The Enlightenment period, impacted by the way for major labor movements.
Renaissance, Reform and Scientific Revolution,
These developments created the industrial
changed the way of thinking about natural and
society, in other words, the modern society. The
social life in the 17th and 18th centuries. According
old traditional society, which was based on kinship,
to the Enlightenment philosophers, traditional
land, religion, local communities and monarchies,
social values and institutions were irrational and
changed and was replaced by a new society. The
restrained the development of human societies.
new society was an industrialized, urbanized,
They believed that the world could be explained
bureaucratized, secular society which was organized
by reason and empirical research, and that every
as the nation state and governed by the republic.
individual had the capacity to reason. They
This major change caused chaos and disorder in
produced studies which combined reason with
the society and new questions arose such as “what
empirical research. However, their thoughts
is society?”, “why do societies change?”, “how
conflicted with traditional institutions such as the
will the society change in the future?”. The early
Catholic Church and the social system of feudalism.
sociologists tried to answer these questions and
In addition to this intellectual force, there are social
to find new bases for order in the new, modern
forces that paved the way for sociology. These forces
industrial society. They tried to find out what
were French Revolution and Industrial Revolution.
changed, how the change occurred, and to estimate
With French Revolution, the absolute monarchy in
how the social structure will be in the future.
France broke down and the republic was accepted
Sociology arose from the attempts to answer these
as the government regime. As a consequence, the
questions with the utilization of scientific methods
authority of the Catholic Church considerably
of inquiry. As a separate social science discipline,
weakened and the feudal system disappeared to
sociology originated with Comte in the middle of
a large extent. With this revolution, the ideas of
19th century. Auguste Comte, the founding father
Enlightenment philosophers, who defended ration
of sociology, developed the concept of positivism
against tradition were put into practice. The social
into sociology. Positivism is the philosophy of
life began to be lived by the principles of the
knowledge which asserts the social world can be
Enlightenment, such as freedom, individualism
understood, explained and estimated with scientific
and secularism.
methods, mostly the methods of physical sciences.
The Industrial Revolution refers to major Positivist sociologists believed that as there are
changes in technology, economy and social life. natural laws in the physical world, so there are
These changes began in the United Kingdom universal and structural laws in social life and
in 1760-1850 and spread to Western Europe, sociology should reveal these laws and regularities.
United States of America, Japan and Russia in
the 19th century. Industrial Revolution is a set of
developments which transformed the traditional
agricultural societies into industrial societies. With With the major changes that the French
the Industrial Revolution, unanimated sources of Revolution and Industrial Revolution
energy began to be used in the production. Thus, caused, new questions arose about the
factories began to be established and machine structure and future of the society. The rise of
production began. A new social class –the industrial sociology is based on the attempts to answer
working class- has emerged, and specialization the questions with scientific methods.
occurred in the division of labor. Large numbers

14

Introduction to Sociology
The Relation Of Sociology To
Other Social Science Disciplines
The roots of the social sciences, which emerged
in the 19th century, lie in the Enlightenment period.
There are many disciplines of social sciences, such as
economics, history, political science, anthropology,
psychology, and these are all related to each
other. All of these disciplines examine human
behavior, they are all interested in the human-
built social world (Bauman, 2004:11-12). The
difference among the disciplines of social sciences
is not the subject of study, the difference is in their
perspective. Every social science discipline has
authentic, unique question patterns and principles
of interpreting. In regard to this, the determining
characteristic of sociology is the assumption that
human actions occur in the reciprocal network of
the wider settings (Bauman, 2004:16).
Psychology studies individual human behavior.
Sociology is also interested in human behavior,
however, the analysis unit for sociology is not
the individual. From the sociological perspective,
psychological explanations are not wrong, but they
are insufficient. Sociologists think that human
behavior does not result only from individual
motivations and attitudes. They think that there
are behavior patterns at the societal level which
influence individual behavior (Anderson, 2006:4).
Anthropology studies the origins and development
of human species and their languages and cultures
through time. Sociologists also study culture, but
they do not focus only on culture or language.
In addition, while anthropologists generally
study distant and past societies, sociologists study
contemporary societies. Economics studies the
production, distribution and consumption of
goods and services. Political science studies states,
governments, politics, political behavior and
philosophy of politics. For sociology, economics
and politics are social institutions, and it studies
all of the social institutions and their influence on
human behavior (Anderson, 2006:4).
The study subjects of sociology and history
often overlap. Frequently the main difference
between them is thought to be that historians
study facts that occur only once, but sociologists
try to make generalizations. However, historians
make generalizations, too; and in many studies
sociologists focus on facts that have occurred only
once, or study the present, instant states of the facts.
1
The main difference between history and sociology
is that historians often study the state of the facts in a
specific time period. Sociologists, on the other hand,
begin with generalizations about a number of facts,
which can be tested by the examination of these facts
in different time periods (Bottomore, 1977:75).
Philosophy and sociology have a close relation.
The rise of sociology is mostly the result of a
philosophical desire, the desire to give meaning to
human history, to explain the social crisis in the 19th
century and to create a social doctrine that will guide
to social politics. The relation between philosophy
and sociology has three main dimensions. First,
sociology makes use of philosophy of science, as it
is a science itself. Second, sociology is interested in
values while studying social facts, so it has to know
the debates of values in ethics and social philosophy.
Third, sociology helps new philosophical questions
to arise (Bottomore, 1977:77).
A discipline is a sub category of a science.
The science of sociology is a discipline of
social sciences.
To clarify the difference in their perspectives,
let us look what different social science disciplines
would focus on when they study family.
Psychologists may study how the personality
develops in the family context. Anthropologists
may study different family structures in different
cultures. Political scientists may study how a
particular political decision would influence the
families. Economists may study the consumption
patterns or unemployment levels of families.
Sociologists may study how the families are shaped
by the society they exist in or how the changes in
the family structure influence the structure of the
society (Anderson, 2006:4).
The relation between the different disciplines
points that the social sciences is a whole. Sociology
both makes use of other disciplines, and is used by
other disciplines. To reach a detailed comprehension
of social life, social sciences should be considered as
a whole. Today, excessive specialization in disciplines
is gradually reducing and interdisciplinary studies are
increasing. Thus, social scientists may take advantage
of the strong aspects of different disciplines and
reach a better understanding of the social world.
15
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Interdisciplinarity refers to combining or
involving more than one academic discipline
into one scientific activity.
SCIENCE AND METHOD
Since the beginning of history, people gathered
knowledge in order to understand the universe and
to have nature under their control. The concept
of science derives from the Latin word “scire”
(to know) and refers to the known things or the
knowledge. This is not an accidental knowledge; it
consists of related information which constitutes a
body. Thus, in the most general sense, science can
be defined as a cluster of systematic knowledge.
However, every systematic knowledge is not science.
The subject of the scientific knowledge should be
an observable objective reality (Sencer and Sencer,
1978:2). Science is a knowledge generating activity
which is based on systematically organized bodies
of accumulated knowledge gathered through
objective and systematic observations.
Science can be defined in a number of ways.
Some definitions of science are listed below:
• “Science is the knowledge which grounds
on empirical proofs and is gained directly
and systematically” (Bozkurt, 1999:65).
• “Science is the systematic cluster of
knowledge, which studies observable and
testable subjects” (Sencer and Sencer,
1978:4)
• “Science is the systematic, organized totality
of knowledge and technical method”
(Kaptan, 1973:5)
• “Science is both the system which generates
knowledge and the name of the knowledge
itself, it is both a way to generate knowledge
and a social institution” (Neuman, 2000:6)
As seen above, the two main elements in the
definition of science are knowledge and method.
In other words, science is both the knowledge
and the method through which the knowledge is
generated. Knowledge refers to the theories which
are developed in order to explain the relations
between the facts, and method refers to the ways
used to generate knowledge (Kaptan, 1973:5).
16
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research
Science is at the same time, a method of thinking.
Scientific thought is described as intentional,
creative, systematic thought which focuses on
problem solving (Kaptan, 1973:5).
If science is one way of obtaining knowledge,
what may the other ways be? In order to
understand the world, people gather knowledge
through ways other than science. For example,
they may gather information and knowledge from
authorities, traditions, commonsense, media or
personal experiences (Neuman, 2000:2-4). We
learn much knowledge from our parents, teachers,
professionals such as physicians or lawyers, who are
authorities. However, the knowledge we learn from
TV, the internet or individual experiences is not
scientific knowledge. Considering its aim, science
differs from other knowledge. The aims of scientific
knowledge are (Sencer and Sencer, 1978:3):
1. To comprehend, define and classify its
study subjects depending on observations,
2. To establish causality relationship between
facts and to explain these relationships by
testing and verifying through observations,
3. To Draw on these verified relationships, to
develop generalizations, laws and theories
and to make inferences and estimations
about the future of the study subject.
Other than its aim, there are a number of
characteristics of scientific knowledge. Scientific
knowledge is rational, empirical, factual, logical,
objective, explicit, consistent, systematic,
generalizable, valid, reliable and critical. To
be critical is a very important characteristic of
scientific knowledge. Scientists do not take any
finding as absolute truth. Any finding in the future
research may confute the former information
about a fact. Scientific knowledge accumulates by
gathering new information, rejecting theories and
developing better ones. Scientific knowledge is
both rational and empirical. It is empirical because
the subject of science is observable facts. Science
does not extrapolate with reasoning, it is doubtful
about non-empirical, not verified, unconfirmed
information. Science is rational at the same time,
because the observations are defined, analyzed and
synthesized both by depending on observations
and by reasoning (Kaptan, 1973:6).

Introduction to Sociology
Not every knowledge is scientific. Scientific
knowledge is rational, empirical, factual,
logical, objective, explicit, consistent,
systematic, generalizable, valid, reliable
and critical knowledge which is generated
through scientific methods of inquiry.
The Classification of Sciences
The sciences, in the most general sense, are
divided into two; the mathematic sciences and
positive sciences. Mathematical sciences are
divided into mathematic and logic. Positive
sciences are divided into physical sciences and
social sciences. Mathematic is an observable and
objective science, because the starting point of
mathematical concepts is observation, and the
entities they symbolize are objective realities,
even though they are abstract (Sencer and Sencer,
1978:6). Although the knowledge of the main
concepts like the numbers or shapes depends
on observations, the relationship among these
concepts is based on some presuppositions. For
example, the triangle concept, a shape consisting
of three intersecting lines, is based on observations.
But the presupposition that the sum of the interior
angles of a triangle is 180 degrees, has no concern
with observations. The generalization in positivist
sciences on the other hand, are not generated with
this kind of non-empirical presuppositions, they
are generated by the observations of single facts.
For example, the generalizations like water boils
at 100 centigrade degrees, or objects heavier than
air fall onto ground when let down from a high
place are not presuppositions prior to observation
(Sencer and Sencer, 1978:7). Mathematical
deductions are repetitive deductions, they repeat
the same knowledge without saying anything
new, in this respects, mathematical deductions
are tautological in character. The other branch of
mathematic sciences is logic. Logic is a science that
shows the conditions of validity and correctness
of deductions, and like mathematics, logic is also
tautological. Mathematics provides precision and
logic provides consistency to our knowledge. Thus,
mathematical sciences are tools that other sciences
use for quantification, knowledge derivation and
deducting (Sencer and Sencer, 1978:17).
1
Positive sciences are innovative sciences, they
have observable, empirical study subjects and make
deductions on these subjects. Positive sciences are
not tautological; they generate new knowledge. The
common trait of all positive sciences is that they
reach generalization through the observation of the
facts. Because they make repetitive deductions based
on same presumptions, deductions are limited in
mathematical sciences. On the contrary, deduction
possibilities are unlimited in positive sciences, thus
the body of knowledge gradually increases (Sencer
and Sencer, 1978:17). The difference between
mathematical and positive sciences is the difference
between what there is and what there should be;
positive sciences do not study what there should
be, they study what there is (Kaptan, 1973:6).
Positive sciences split up to physical sciences
and social sciences. Physical sciences are the
sciences which study animated and unanimated
substances and material facts. Some of the physical
sciences are astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology
and zoology. Social sciences are the sciences which
study social world and the relations among people.
Sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics
and political science are some of the social sciences.
In order to comprehend the characteristics of
physical and social sciences, let’s compare them
with regard to main differences.
Science is a set of logical, systematic,
documented methods for investigating
nature and natural processes and the
knowledge produced by these investigations.
Social science is the use of scientific methods
to investigate individuals, societies, and
social processes and the knowledge produced
by these investigations (Chambliss and
Schutt, 2012).
The Comparison of Physical
Sciences and Social Sciences
When people talk about science, what occurs
in their mind is often scientists in aprons, studying
with test tubes or microscopes in laboratories.
This happens because the term “science” generally
reminds of physical sciences such as biology or
chemistry. However, the studies which are in
17
1
conformity with the criteria, principles and phases
of scientific research are scientific research, even
though their study subjects are social facts instead of
physical facts. Nonetheless, there are some important
differences between physical and social sciences:
• Physical scientists may conduct experiments
in order to test and prove hypotheses. In
these experiments, they can keep external
effects under control, thus they can focus on
the effects of the independent variable on
the dependent variable. In social sciences,
the study subjects are human beings and
they have the right not to join the test.
In addition, creating an environment
of a laboratory may hinder people from
behaving naturally, thus may be an obstacle
to reaching the actual facts. For this reason,
social scientists prefer to investigate people
in their natural environments rather than
in a laboratory environment (Browne,
2005:4).
• In physical sciences, providing that all
conditions of the circumstance will be
the same, experiments enable scientists to
make explicit predictions. For example,
if a chemist conducts an experiment and
finds that a substance explodes at a specific
centigrade degree, s/he can predict that this
substance is going to explode again in the
future at the same degree and under the same
circumstances. However, it is impossible to
make predictions with this much certainty
in social sciences. The interaction of
individuals, groups and society are complex
and people may change their minds with
their own will, for this reason making
estimations in social sciences is not this easy.
People may react and behave differently in
the same circumstances, they may interpret
the same fact differently, or may change
their minds. Consequently, the regularities
or laws in the social world cannot be put
forward with the same certainty degree as
in physical sciences.
• In physical sciences, scientists can not
influence the reaction of their subjects.
For instance, a biologist cannot influence
an organism which s/he investigates
with a microscope. In other words, the
18
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research
information that the researcher will gain
from the observation of the organism
cannot change according to the behavior
of the researcher. However, social scientists
are members of the society they investigate,
they may influence the people they
investigate and may be influenced by them.
Thus, it is harder to be objective in social
sciences than it is in physical sciences. In
addition to this, unlike social sciences,
physical scientists do not have to persuade
the study subjects to cooperate in research.
In social sciences, the subjects have free will,
the scientists have to persuade the people
they investigate to cooperate. People may
prefer not to cooperate in research, refuse
to answer the questions, or they may give
incorrect or deficit information, or may lie
intentionally. This kind of behavior would
make a sociological research impossible,
difficult or unreliable.
• In physical sciences scientists may
investigate facts singly and examine the
causality relationship between them. On
the contrary, because the structure of the
society is complex and there are many
factors influencing the causality relations,
social scientists have to take the social world
as a whole (Williams, 1999:64).
• Measurement is much easier in physical
sciences. The subjects of physical sciences are
often in measurable conditions, they may
be expressed by measures such as weight,
length, density or volume. Because there
are not standard measures for measuring
behaviors, perceptions or attitudes of
people, it is harder to make measurements
in social sciences (Williams, 1999:64). For
example, how to measure conservatism is a
problem in itself.
The differences between the physical and social
sciences indicate that social scientists cannot
follow exactly the same research procedures with
physical sciences. Social scientists also cannot make
measurements or predictions as precisely physical
scientists do. However, as long as they meet
the scientific research principles, social science
researches are certainly scientific. These principles
are (Browne, 2005:4):

Introduction to Sociology
• Value freedom: Social scientists should
not allow their personal beliefs, prejudices
or attitudes to influence their evidence and
findings. They may be influenced by these
while choosing their study topics, but the
research process must be protected from
being influenced.
• Objectivity: Social scientists must not
manipulate the data or the findings with
the intent of supporting their assertions.
They should consider all kind of evidence,
including the ones which have the capacity
to refute their arguments or to reject their
hypothesis.
• The use of evidence: The definitions and
explanations in the research must be based
on evidence.
• The use of scientific research methods:
Social scientists should collect their evidence
through planned, organized, systematic
scientific methods and techniques. They
should follow the phases of research, which
we will focus on later this chapter.
• The capacity for being: The evidence,
findings and conclusions of the research
should be open to scientific criticism and
testing by other social scientists.
Picture 1.5 Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911) distinguished
social sciences from physical sciences. He stated that the
task of physical sciences is to arrive at universal laws of
casual explanations, and the task of social sciences is to
reach an understanding of the organizational structure
of social life.
The differences between physical and social
sciences raised debates on the methods of social
sciences. Some argue that social sciences can use
1
the methods of physical sciences, some argue they
cannot. The claim that social sciences can use
the methods of physical sciences depends on the
philosophical principle known as “naturalism”.
Closely related to positivism, naturalism is the
notion that social world arises from the physical
world and there is an objective and natural
social order. Depending on this notion, some
argue that the methods of physical sciences,
with an appropriate adaptation, can be used to
investigate the social world (Williams, 1999:61).
Some social scientists who disagree with this idea
argue that the methods of physical sciences are
not suitable for social research. For example,
German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey argues
that the methods of physical sciences, which aim
to explain the causality relationships between
facts, should not be used in social sciences.
In social sciences a method of understanding
(verstehen) should be used. For Dilthey, social
life is the consequence of human mind and it
does not have only one meaning. Social life has
several and changeable meanings which people
subjectively attribute. Depending on this notion,
it is argued that social sciences can not explain
or predict the social world; they can only define
social reality in different ways (Kincaid, 1996:4-
6; Williams, 1999:51).
According to Wilhelm Dilthey, social
sciences should use an understanding
method instead of the explanation method
in physical sciences.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
PROCESS
Scientific method refers to the following
of scientific rules, procedures and phases in
order to reach scientific knowledge. In a general
sense, scientific method means the process of
hypothetico-deduction, which is the method of
logical positivism. Hypothetico-deduction is the
process in which the scientists first hypothesize
through deduction, and then test these hypotheses
through empirical ways such as observation or
experiment.
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attention The physical
and social
facts which
Scientific method in a the general
constitute the
sense, refers to the the process
subjects of
of hypothetico-deduction, the
science are not
method of logical positivism,
in an organized
in which the scientists first
position by
hypothesize through deduction,
themselves.
and then test these hypotheses
However, the
through empirical ways. For a
knowledge must
long time the only valid method
be organized
for scientific inquiry was believed
in order to be
to be positivism. However, in
useful. A theory
the 20th century much of the
is a knowledge
scientists agree that there is
system, which
more than one valid method in
is organized in
scientific researches.
order to explain
the relations among the facts in the simplest
and most understandable form. It consists of
observations, conditions, definitions, concepts,
propositions and principles. In other words, a
theory is a system of a logically interrelated set of
concepts and propositions which aims to explain the
empirical reality and the casualty among observable
facts. Theories show us how to cumulate, explain
and interpret knowledge. Theories in social sciences
aim to explain the social reality, however, there may
be more than one theory aiming to explain the same
social reality. In this case, in order to decide which
of the theories is better, the three characteristics of
the theories are examined. The theory (a) which
has a simpler structure; (b) which explains the facts
in a more explicit and correct way; (c) which has
the capacity to explain more and different social
events, behaviors and relations is considered a
better, superior theory (Lin, 1976:16).
Theories consist of a set of interrelated
propositions, some of which are testable. A
proposition is a statement that claims a relationship
between at least two concepts. Hypotheses are
testable propositions. A hypothesis is a statement
that claims a relationship between at least two
variables. Variables are measurable indicators of
concepts. A concept may have more than one
variable. For example, “Industrialization causes
a change in the family structure” is a proposition,
it claims that industrialization and family, two
concepts, are related. “When the proportion of
industrial workers in a population increase, the size
20
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research
of family decreases” is a hypothesis, because “the
proportion of industrial workers in a population”
is a variable of industrialization concept, and the
“family size” is a variable of family structure concept.
The relations among variables may be casual
or correlational. A casual relationship means that
the change in a variable causes change in the other
variable. A correlational relationship means that
both variables change simultaneously, but it does
not claim a casualty. For example, “the increase in
the educational level causes a decrease in the time
spent on the internet in a day” hypothesis claims a
casual relationship, but “the higher the education
level gets, the less time is spent on the internet in
a day” hypothesis claims a simple correlational
relationship, because it does not claim that “the
educational level” is the reason and “the time spent
on the internet” is the result. In casual relationships,
there are independent and dependent variables.
An independent variable is a reason; it is the
variable which affects the dependent variable. The
dependent variable is measured and expected to
change depending on the change in the independent
variable. In other words, the dependent variable
is dependent on the independent variable. As the
researcher changes the independent variable, the
effect of this change on the dependent variable is
observed, recorded and compared with results prior
to the change in the independent variable. For
example, in the hypothesis of “the increase in the
educational level causes a decrease in the time spent
on the internet in a day”, “the educational level” is
the independent variable and “the time spent on the
internet in a day” is the dependent variable.
Theories also include assumptions. An
assumption is a judgment or generalization which
is not made in order to be tested empirically.
The generalizations that the assumptions express
should be compatible with the existing scientific
knowledge. In other words, assumptions should
include true, scientifically proven information. For
example, a researcher may make the assumption of
“industrialization causes alienation”. This is a fact
that is put forward by many theories and studies.
Another example of an assumption may be “The
Marmara District is the most industrialized district
in Turkey”. When a researcher, depending on the
facts, makes this assumption, it means that s/he
does not aim to test this statement, s/he takes for
granted that this is true information.

Introduction to Sociology
Scientific research is conducted in order to gain
scientific knowledge. Scientific research is the process
of the gathering, grouping, analyzing, synthesizing,
explaining, interpreting and evaluating the data in
an intentional, planned and systematic way, in order
to transform the findings into a meaningful body of
knowledge and to find reliable solutions to problems
(Kaptan, 1973:13-14).
Scientific researches must be objective, explicit,
valid and reliable. Validity and reliability are
fundamental characteristics of scientific researches.
Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement
to the fact that the research aims to measure.
Reliability refers to the repeatability of the
findings. In other words, reliability means to what
extend the measurement is stable and consistent.
For example, a bathroom scale is not a valid
measuring instrument for measuring height, but it
is valid for measuring human weight. If a bathroom
scale shows approximately the same weight when
we get on it in one-minute intervals, it is reliable.
But if it shows different weights, it means that the
measurement is not repeatable, thus, the measuring
instrument is not reliable.
The procedure of scientific research concretizes
in the phases of research. The phases of research
are as follows (Lin, 1976:5; Neuman, 2000:11-12):
• Choosing a research topic and
formulating the research problem: In
this phase, the researcher chooses a research
topic in a general level. After choosing
the topic, s/he makes a detailed literature
review. This means the researcher reads,
summarizes and synthesizes the scientific
researches that are done on this topic. S/
he learns what is known, what is unknown
and what are the contradictory findings in
the research topic. Then s/he formulizes
a detailed, specific research problem and
develops hypotheses.
• The selection of the appropriate method,
techniques and type of research:
Formulating a research problem means to
put forward explicitly what the researcher
wants to learn through the research. After
putting forward the aim of the research, the
researcher should decide which way to use
in order to reach this aim. Researches may
be descriptive, explanatory or exploratory
with regard to their aims, and may be
1
cross-sectional or longitudinal with regard
to how many times they gather data. The
researcher also decides whether quantitative
or qualitative methods to use, and s/he
also decides which techniques to use in the
research.
• Sampling: All people related to the
research problem consists the research
population. However, often it is neither
possible nor necessary to gather data from
all the population. In this phase of reseach,
the researcher decides from whom s/he
will gather the data. The researcher sets the
sample size and selects the sample by using
an appropriate sampling technique.
• Preparing measurement instruments:
In this phase, the researcher prepares
measurement instruments, such as
questionnaires, interview or observation
forms. Then s/he makes a pilot study in
order to find and correct the deficiencies
of the form. After the pilot study, the
measurement instrument is revised and
made ready for use.
• Gathering data: In this phase, the
researcher gathers data from the sample
through the measurement instruments s/he
developed in the former phase.
• Analyzing data: The researcher analyses
the data, tests the hypotheses and tries to
answer the research problem in this phase.
• Interpreting the results and reporting the
findings: In the final phase of the research,
the researcher interprets the findings,
compares and integrates them with the
former researches on the same topic, and
writes the research report suitably with the
academic writing rules.
MAIN METHODOLOGICAL
APPROACHES IN
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
In every social research, the researcher adopts
a methodological approach. The selection of the
method is very important because it shapes and
limits the research design and techniques. There
are three main methodological approaches in social
sciences. These are the Positivist, the Interpretive
and the Critical approaches. In addition to these,
there are Feminist and Postmodern approaches.
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Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

However, the three main approaches are the most regulating social world, and these laws and
commonly used approaches. social reality itself exist independent of humans.
Although there are fundamental differences According to positivism, as the law of gravity is not
among them, all of the three main approaches dependent on human activity and existed before
in social sciences are empirical, systematical and people discovered it, so are the social laws, they
theoretical. exist independent of human activities and wait to
be discovered. For this reason, positivist approach
• All of them are empirical, because all of
advocates that social sciences should use the method
them investigate observable facts related to
of physical sciences, and should aim to discover
human actions such as behaviors, images,
universal laws which will enable social scientists
voices or states.
to predict human behavior. In other words, the
• All of them are systematical because all of
aim of social research for the positivist approach is
them refuse arbitrary, defective, inadequate
to explain causal relationships among social facts,
studies and all include rigorous and
which are independent of human activities, in order
meticulous studies.
to put forward universal laws of the social world.
• All of them are theoretical because although
Therefore, the techniques of physical sciences such
the nature and purpose of theories are
as experiment, and observations should be used in
different for each approach, none of the
social research.
approaches claims that the social world
consists of chaos and disorder; all of them The Positivist approach is criticized by
defend that explaining or understanding interpretive and critical approaches in many aspects.
the social world is possible. By the Interpretive approach, it is criticized for
attention degrading the human
relationships to
numbers, running
Depending on the
after abstract formulas
thoughts of Auguste
and laws which
Comte and Emile
are meaningless to
Durkheim, Positivist
people, paying no
approach claims that
attention to social
the social world is
context, claiming to
not different from the
be objective although
physical world, social
it is impossible to
facts are independent
be free from values,
of human activity, and
Picture 1.6 The founder of positivism is Auguste Comte and generalizing
there are social laws like
(1798–1857). Positivism refers to the study of society facts that are not
physical laws, which
through the utilization of scientific evidence such as generalizable. By the
wait to be discovered.
experiments, statistics and qualitative results, in order to Critical approach,
For this reason, positivist
reveal social laws that regulate the social world. it is criticized for
approach uses the
maintaining and
methods of physical
defending the status
Positivist Approach: Positivist approach sciences to explain the
quo and ignoring
depends on the assertion that science has only facts and causalities in the
people’s ability to feel
one logic and for an intellectual activity to be social world.
and think (Neuman,
considered as scientific, it has to match this logic.
2000:70-81).
In other words, there is only one scientific method,
all sciences use this method, the only difference Interpretive Approach: Also known as
among them is their study subjects. This method Hermeneutic Approach, Interpretive approach
is the hypotetico-deduction process, in which the depends on the thoughts of Wilhelm Dilthey
researcher tests the hypotheses in a theoretical and Max Weber. This approach grounds on the
frame in order to make predictions about social theory of Hermeneutic which emerged in the 19th
facts. Positivism claims that there are social laws century, a theory which is used in many areas such

22
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Introduction to Sociology

as philosophy, art history, linguistics and literature.
As a methodology of interpretation, Hermeneutics
is concerned with problems that arise when
dealing with meaningful human actions and the
products of such actions, most importantly texts
(Mantzavinos, 2016).
relationships, it is to explore how people create
meaning, understand and interpret social action and
social life. Interpretive approach ultimately makes
an explanation too. However, an explanation is
only possible after understanding and interpreting
the reasons behind human actions. In other words,
according to Interpretive approach, a researcher may
make an abstract explanation of a social action only
after understanding and interpreting the meaning
that the actor (the individual who acts) attributes
to that action. The meaning cannot be understood
independent of the social context in which it is
created, thus the Interpretive approach does not
investigate facts from outside like the Positivist
approach. It tries to see the facts from the inside,
from the perspectives of the actors who live them.
Interpretive approach is mainly criticized for ignoring
the objective processes which are not influenced
by the interactions and information of individuals,
and for being too subjective and relativist (Neuman,
2000:70-82).

Picture 1.7 Detail from a Hermes (Mercury) sculpture

(1580) by Giovanni da Bologna. 4

Try to give an example of how

The name Hermeneutic is derived from Hermes in the
Positivist and Interpretive
Greek mythology. The assignment of Hermes is to
approaches would examine the
transmit God’s wills to mortal people, translate God’s
same topic: criminal behavior.
words to a simpler form which mortal people can
understand, thus provide an environment for them to
communicate (Neuman, 2000:70).
C r i t i c a l
attention
The Interpretive approach claims that unlike the Approach: Critical
physical world, which exist independent of human approach depends
Although they are related,
activity, the social world is established through the on the thoughts
the methodological
cultural relations, the meaningful and intentional of Karl Marx and
approaches in social
actions of people. According to Interpretive Sigmund Freud.
sciences should not
approach, social facts are not fixed and stable, they This approach has
be confused with
constantly continue to be established. Besides, some characteristics
theoretical approaches.
although a particular cultural system may have of both Positivist
Every theoretical
specific rules, these rules cannot be generalized to and Interpretive
approach is related to a
other cultural systems, because every cultural system approaches. It
methodological approach.
has a different process of generating meaning. Social claims that social
For example, Structural
research should not have the purpose of making reality exists outside
Functionalism is related
generalizations, because it cannot reach universal and independent
to the Positivist approach,
social laws as in the physical sciences. Depending of human actions
Symbolic Interactionism
on these notions, Interpretive approach argues as put forward by
is related to the
that social reality cannot be investigated with the Positivism. However,
Interpretive approach,
methods physical scientists use to investigate the unlike Positivism,
and Marxism is related to
physical realities. The purpose of social research for the Critical approach
the Critical approach.
Interpretive approach is not to explain the casualty argues that social

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reality is shaped by social, political, economic and cultural factors. According to Critical approach, social
reality changes in time, it is not possible to understand it only by looking at its superficial appearance. The
Critical approach focuses on the conflict and change in society, especially on the conflicts and contradictions
in the organization modes of society. This conflict and change are not always in an observable situation, the
social world may be full of illusions, myths and distortions of social reality. Under the observable surface
of social realities, there lies deep structures and mechanisms. The relation and events on the surface of the
social reality arise from the operation of these nonobservable deeper mechanisms. According to Critical
approach, the purpose of social science is to criticize and transform social relations. This transformation
will be possible by revealing the underlying mechanisms of social relations and thus by providing power
to powerless people. Thus the empowered people will have the capacity to change the world they live in.
In short, according to Critical approach, social conflicts and contradictions are covered and hidden, social
science should pull the cover and reveal the actual social reality (Neuman, 2000:75-79).

Table 1.1 A brief comparison of Positivist, Interpretive and Critical Approaches

Positivist Approach
The structure of Social realities are the
social reality regularities which exist
independent of individual
subjectivity and which
wait to be discovered.
The aim of the The aim of the social
social research research is to explore the
universal laws of social life
and enable scientists to
predict and control social
facts.
The characteristic A good finding depends
of a good finding on correct observations
and is repeatable by other
scientists.
Human nature People do not act with
their own will, they
act rationally and their
behaviors are shaped by
exterior forces.
Objectivity Science is independent of
values. Scientists should
be objective and free
of values, thoughts and
beliefs.
Source: Summarized and adopted from Neuman, W.L. (2000) Social Research Methods. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. p.85.
Interpretive Approach Critical Approach
Social realities only exist Social realities are the
when experienced and conflicts which are
made sense of by people. created by the underlying
Social realities are as mechanisms of the
people perceive them. surface. They can not be
seen at first glance by
individuals.
The aim of the social The aim of the social
research is to understand research is to criticize and
and define social action transform social relations
and to put forward how and to change the world.
people make sense of
social facts in their natural
environments.
A good finding fits with A good finding displays
the context of the existing the illusions and uncovers
and changing social social realities.
relations.
People are social entities People are creative entities
who create meaning and with potential, who are
make sense of the world trapped by illusions and
they live in. exploitation.
Values are embedded in Scientists should have
social life; it is not possible values. Some of the values
for scientists to be totally are wrong and some are
free of values. No value right. Scientists should
is wrong; values are only have the right values.
different from each other.

Feminist Approach: Feminist approach is the approach based on feminist theories and adopted by
researchers who have a feminist consciousness. The purpose of feminist research is to reveal how gender
and power relations are penetrated in every aspect of social life and to empower powerless women in

24

Introduction to Sociology
patriarchal societies. Feminist approach criticizes
Positivist approach for maintaining the dominant
male-oriented perspective in social sciences and
tries to correct it. According to Feminist approach,
as a consequence of both the dominant patriarchal
cultural values and beliefs and the outnumber of
male researchers, the majority of the non feminist
researches are sexist. These sexist researches
generalize male experiences to all people, focus
on only male problems and accept gender roles
as they are. For example, when a nonfeminist
research examines the family and finds out that the
males in the family are unemployed, the researcher
concludes that there is an unemployment problem
in the family. However, if the females in the
family are unemployed, this will not be seen as
an important problem as the unemployment of
males. Feminist approach claims that in order to
correct this situation, Feminist researchers should
not be objective. For Feminist approach, while
there are deep gender inequalities in the social
world, a researcher cannot change anything if
she stays objective. In order to empower women,
feminist researchers should side with women, who
are oppressed by men. According to Feminist
approach, researchers should have a feminist
perspective and conduct action oriented researches
in order to create individual and social change
(Neuman, 2000:83-84).
Postmodern Approach: Postmodern approach
is philosophically based on existentialism, nihilism,
anarchism and the thoughts of Heidegger, Nietzsche,
Sartre and Wittgenstein. According to Postmodern
approach, there is no difference between social
science and art or literature. This approach argues
that research can not have a function other than
describing, and all descriptions are the same in terms
of their value. The description of a scientist is not
more valuable or more valid than the description
of ordinary people. Postmodern approach rejects
all organized belief systems, including social theory.
It also rejects the notion of the linear historical
development and progress. For Postmodern
approach, the social world is a fractured, chaotic,
complicated world which rapidly and continuously
changes. It considers only the here and now as valid,
thus it rejects to examine the past or other places.
It argues that casualty can not be examined because
social life is too complicated and rapidly changing
(Neuman, 2000:83-84).
1
RESEARCH DESIGNS
AND TECHNIQUES IN
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
There are two research designs in social
research. These are the quantitative and qualitative
designs. Researchers choose the design of their
research considering the aim of their study, the
knowledge level they want to learn and their
material and human resources. Researchers may
prefer quantitative or qualitative research design
according to their personal skills, experiences
or interests. However, because of their nature,
some research problems are suitable for only one
design. For example, a research problem, which is
about the causation between two social facts, may
only be studied with quantitative design. On the
other hand, if the research problem is about the
coping strategies of long term homeless people,
quantitative design would be insufficient. In
these cases, the consistency between the research
problem and research design is more important
than researcher’s personal skills or interests about
research designs.
Quantitative Research Design
Quantitative design depends on the Positivist
approach, which advocates that the method of
physical sciences should be used in social research.
The aim of quantitative researches is to explore the
social laws through revealing the casualty relations
between social facts. Quantitative researches, with
the principle of deduction, begin with theories
and hypotheses. Concepts are transformed
into measurable variables, the measurement
instruments are developed elaborately, and data are
gathered with precise measurements. The gathered
data are analyzed through statistical methods. The
statistical relationships between the variables are
explained and the hypotheses of the research are
tested. The measurement instruments, which are
the tools used to gather data, are standardized.
This standardization enables other researchers to
repeat the research. The findings of the research
are presented with charts, tables and graphics.
Because quantitative researches aim to generalize
their findings to the population, their samples
are large and representative samples which are
selected through probability sampling techniques
(Walliman, 2006:36-52; Neuman, 2000:65-70).
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Society, Sociology and Sociological Research
Picture 1.8 Quantitative design is useful when a
researcher wants to put forward the relations between
variables. It enables the researcher to make statistical
analysis and to present them with charts. However, it
does not provide rich and detailed verbal data about the
thoughts or attitudes of the sample.
Data gathering techniques used in quantitative
research design are structured (controlled)
observation, structured (controlled) interview,
questionnaire, experiment, quasi-experiment and
survey.
• Structured (controlled) observation:
In structured observation researchers
use observation charts. These charts are
standard for every observation of the
research. These charts include instructions
on what, where, how long the observation
is going to be and guides observers on
what to pay attention and how to record
the observations. The observer strictly
follows the instructions on the observation
chart and does not observe anything else
than stated. Thus, the observing process is
controlled.
• Structured (controlled) interview: In
structured interviews, researchers use an
interview form for every interview of the
research. The same form is used for all the
interviews. The form includes questions
in order, and the interviewer asks these
questions to the participant face to face.
The interviewer does not digress from the
interview form, and does not ask anything
that is not mentioned in the form.
• Questionnaire: Questionnaires include
previously prepared questions, most of
which are close ended, multiple-choice.
Researchers may conduct questionnaires
face to face, they may ask the questions on the
phone, or they may send the questionnaire
26
forms to the participants by mail or by the
internet. However, sending forms by mail
or the internet would systematically exclude
the illiterate population. The form on
which the questions are written is called the
questionnaire form or the question sheet.
Although the questionnaire questions are
often close-ended, open-ended questions,
questions with no answer choices, may also
be asked in questionnaires.
• Experiment: Experiment is the
examination of the relations between
variables with the purpose of testing a
hypothesis while controlling the extrinsic
factors. In experiments, there are two
identical groups, an experimental group
and a control group. First, the properties
of the two group are measured, this
measurement is called pre-test. After pre-
test, the dependent variable is subjected to
the effect of the independent variable. The
control groups is not subjected to any effect.
Then the properties of the two groups are
measured again. This measurement is called
post-test. After post-test, the test results of
the experimental group and the control
group are compared and the difference is
examined. By this way, the researchers try
to explain the effects of the independent
variable. The aim of the experiment is to
show that some results occur only with
the effect of the independent variable, and
that the same results do not occur when
the effect of the independent variable is
removed.
• Quasi-experiment: Quasi-experiments
are similar to experiments. They both aim
to test hypotheses, however, the extrinsic
factors are not totally under control in
quasi-experiments. In quasi-experiments,
the control group is not constituted in
the beginning of the experiment. After
observing the results of the experimental
group, a new group is selected in order
to make a comparison. This new group
has similar characteristics with the
experimental group but it is not formed
in the laboratory environment (Robson,
2000:46-47).

Introduction to Sociology
• Survey: Surveys are the researches
which have representative samples; use
standardized measurement instruments;
systematically gather data and gather
data from more than one data gathering
technique. Thus, the survey is often
considered as a research design rather than
a technique (De Vaus, 1990:3). Surveys
and questionnaires are often confused.
However, they are completely different
from each other. The questionnaire is
a measurement tool, a data gathering
technique, but the survey is a process of
data gathering and analyzing. Surveys are
wider than questionnaires and consume
more time. Survey refers to the collection,
recording, analysis and interpretation of
data which are gathered with a variety of
measurement techniques. This is why it is
often referred as a research design rather
than a technique.
Although there are differences among
quantitative data gathering techniques, all of
the quantitative researches use standardized
measurement tools.
Qualitative Research Design
Qualitative research design is based on
Interpretive approach, which claims that social
reality can be explained only after it is understood
and interpreted. The researcher does not aim to
explain the casualty relations between facts, s/he
aims to understand and interpret the perspectives
of the the social actors and the reasons and
motivations of social actions. In other words, the
purpose of qualitative research is to understand
how people constitute meaning and social reality in
their natural social contexts; to define social facts in
depth and to interpret the complex relations among
the social facts inside their own social contexts.
Thus, in qualitative researches, social facts are
evaluated inside their own social contexts. Unlike
quantitative researches, qualitative researches do
not begin with hypotheses. The qualitative research
process is more flexible than the quantitative
research process. The qualitative research problems
1
are not as precise as in quantitative research,
and data are gathered with non-standardized
measurement tools. After gathering the data with
the principle of induction, researchers are free to
make changes in the research problem under the
light of their data. In qualitative research, the
whole is considered more than the totality of the
parts, and social reality is considered too complex
to be degraded to measurable variables. For this
reason, researchers do not transform concepts to
variables. Researchers study the social world as a
whole. This means they do not disassembly it to
variables such as dissembling a puzzle into pieces.
Instead of variables, they use themes, motives
or classifications. Because qualitative research
requires seeing the facts from the perspectives of
the people who live them, the researchers form
close interactions with the participants. This
is why standardized measurement instruments
are not used in qualitative research. The main
data-gathering instrument is the researcher him/
herself, and the interaction s/he forms with the
participant. The data gathering process is free and
flexible, but not suitable for the repetition by other
researchers. The qualitative researches do not have
the aim of generalizing the findings and predicting
social facts, thus their samples are smaller than the
samples of quantitative researches. The samples are
selected through non-probability (judgemental)
sampling techniques. The findings are presented
verbally, in a way that shows the details, depth and
variety of the data (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2008:39-
48; Neuman, 2000:123).
The difference between nonprobability and
probability sampling is that in probability
sampling, units are selected randomly,
but in nonprobability sampling they are
judgmentally selected.
In qualitative research design, data are gathered
through unstructured (not controlled, in-depth)
interview, focus group interview, unstructured
(not controlled) observation, semi-structured
observation, life story interview, oral history, case
study and document analysis. All of the data
gathering instruments used in qualitative research
are non-standardized instruments.
27
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• Unstructured observation: Unlike the
structured observation, an observation
chart is not used in the unstructured
observation. Although observers have an
idea about what and how they are going to
observe, they are free to observe additional
behaviors or events. Unstructured
observations are divided into participant
and non-participant observations. In
non-participant observation, the observer
observes from outside. In participant
observation, the researcher enters into
the culture s/he observes, and tries to be
partially or completely a member. However,
the degree of participation may change.
In regard to the participation degree,
observers may have four different roles in
observations:
• Complete observer: The observer is neither
seen nor noticed by the participants, s/
he does not form interactions with the
participants, observes from outside.
People may change their behaviors
when they are aware of the fact that they
are being observed. This is an obstacle
in observation and is called Hawthorne
Effect. Complete observer role is a good
strategy for minimizing the Hawthorne
Effect.
• Observer as participant: The researcher
and the aim of the observation are
known and recognized by participants.
There is, but little, interaction between
the researcher and the participants. The
researcher tries to act neutral.
• Participant as observer: There is full
interaction between the researcher
and the participants. The researcher
becomes a partial member of the
culture s/he observes, and establishes
friendships with the participants.
• Complete participant: The researcher
acts as a complete member of the
observed culture. The participants do
not know that they are being observed,
the identity of the researcher is hidden.
28
Society, Sociology and Sociological Research
Picture 1.9 In a focus group interview, a group of people
is selected by the researcher. They gather and talk about
a predetermined topic.
• Unstructured (not controlled, in-depth)
interview: This is an interview design in
which the researcher interviews a few people
but gathers very in-depth and detailed
information. Interview forms are not used in
unstructured interviews; the interviews are
conducted in a conversation environment.
• Focus group interview: In focus group
interviews, the researcher, according
to specific criteria, selects 6-12 people
as a sample and tells them the topic.
Later the sample gathers and talks on
this predetermined topic. Focus group
interviews are especially effective if the
researcher aims to observe the group
interaction and group dynamics.
• Semi-structured observation: Semi-
structured observations are used in order to
check whether some social actions, which
are observed before, are going to appear
again. Often an observation form is used in
this observation design.
• Life story interview: The researcher
interviews people who reflect the research
problem. The interview includes the
entire life course in details. The researcher
tries to understand the social fact s/he
studies through the life experiences of the
participants.
• Oral history: Oral history is similar to
the life story interview. However, in oral
history, not the entire life is subject to the
interview. The interview includes only a
part, a historical period of the life of the
participant.

Introduction to Sociology
• Case study: The case study is the
examination of a social fact in its own
social context, through a variety of data
gathering techniques. In case study, only a
single critical case is examined rather than
a larger sample of the population, and the
researcher focuses only on this case rather
than more general indicators of the research
problem. Thus, the researcher may make
longer and more detailed observations. The
“case” in the case study may be an event,
an institution, a group or a person. For
example, the case may be a specific hospital,
a specific strike, or a person who had an
occupational injury.
• Document analysis: The analysis of
documents like books, newspapers,
magazines, reports, records,
correspondences, proceedings, diaries,
memoirs or letters are called document
analysis or documentary analysis. There are
a number of analysis methods for analyzing
documents, such as content analysis or
critical discourse analysis.
Strengths and Weaknesses of
Quantitative and Qualitative
Designs
Both quantitative and qualitative designs
have strengths and weaknesses. The quantitative
approach enables us to explore the general structures
and patterns in the society through generalizable
findings; this is the strength of this design. The
main weakness of this design is that it extracts
human behavior from its own social context and
degrades it to numbers and abstract formulas. This
design has some other weaknesses, too. It does not
enable the researcher to understand the reasons
and motives that lie behind the observed behavior.
This desing also may cause the researcher to ignore
the effects of the variables that are not included by
the research hypothesis.
The strength of the qualitative design is that it
provides us rich and detailed data, which enables
us to understand human actions and the process
of social change in their own context and in a
holistic manner. The main weakness of this design
is that it overlooks the structural influences that are
beyond the information of individuals. Another
weakness of the qualitative design is its high level
of subjectivity.
1
5
Try to find a research problem
that is only suitable for
quantitative design, and
another which is only suitable
for qualitative research.
Methodological Pluralism
Can we use both quantitative and qualitative
research designs? Concerning the answer of this
question, there are two diverse opinions. According
to the first opinion, these designs cannot be
used together, because they ground on different
approaches and accept different, even contrary
philosophical presuppositions. The second opinion
considers quantitative and qualitative research
designs only as different ways of data gathering, and
sees no problem in integrating them. This opinion
is called methodological pluralism. However, a
single research may only have one method. In other
words, methodological pluralism does not refer
to a research that claims to be both quantitative
and qualitative. It refers to the acceptance of
both designs as accurate research methods.
Methodological pluralism can be implemented in
a number of ways (Bryman, 1988:4-5; Haralambos
and Holborn, 1995:856):
• The researcher may prefer to use a design
to support the evidence or to strengthen
the interpretations of a former research
conducted with another design.
• The researcher may use a design to check
the correctness of the findings of a research
that is conducted with the other design.
• Quantitative research may be conducted
in order to test hypotheses, which are put
forward in qualitative researches.
• Qualitative research may be conducted in
order to develop hypotheses, which will
then be tested by quantitative research.
• Qualitative research may be conducted
in order to understand the characteristics
of the casualty relations, which are put
forward in quantitative researches.
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Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

• The researcher may conduct two • Developmental questions: Questions such

simultaneous researches to gain as “How did crime rates change in the last
comprehensive information about the 50 years in Istanbul?” or “How did the
research problem. For example, a researcher first hospitals emerge and how did they
who is interested in poverty may conduct transform to the present situation?” are
a quantitative research to find out how developmental questions.
many people in the city are living under • Theoretical questions: Factual,
poverty line, and a qualitative research to comparative and developmental questions
understand how people cope with poverty. are important for gathering information,
but this is not enough for sociologists.
Question Types in Sociological Sociologists also try to understand what
the facts mean. Questions such as “Why
Research Problems
are women politically represented less than
Apart from the methods and techniques, some men?”, “Why did crime rates increase in
question types are used to formulate research prob- the last 50 years in Turkey?” are theoretical
lems in sociological researches. These are factual questions. These questions ask what
(empirical), comparative, developmental and theo- underlies beneath the social facts.
retical questions (Giddens, 2008:111-112):
• Factual (empirical) questions: These
questions ask the state of a social fact.
For example, “What is the educational Factual questions ask what happened.
level of the internet addicts in İstanbul?”; Comparative questions ask whether
“What are the main integration problems this happened in other places, too.
of people who migrate from rural to urban Developmental questions ask whether it is
areas?” or “What are the most committed repeated in time. Theoretical questions ask
crimes in New York?” are factual questions. what lies beneath this (Giddens, 2008:112).
However, with these questions, researchers
cannot gather information about whether
these facts are unique to this society or are
normal situations that are seen in different
societies. To learn this, the researchers
should ask comparative questions.
• Comparative questions: Questions
comparing at least two different societies,
groups, districts or cultures are comparative
questions. For example, “Is the educational
levels of the internet addicts in Turkey
and in Britain the same?” or “Are there
differences between the most committed
crimes in New York and in Istanbul?” are
comparative questions. However, these
questions only provide information of this
age. By asking these questions, researchers
can not put forward the differences
between the pasts and presents of the
societies. To gain that kind of information,
developmental questions should be asked.

30

Introduction to Sociology
In Practice
Sociology of the coffee: An example from
Mills
Picture 1.10 Coffee is an important drink for many
people. However, we often do not think about what it
means. What different aspect may coffee have? Can we
think about coffee sociologically?
“We can apply the concept of the sociological
imagination to any behavior. Take the simple act
of drinking a cup of coffee for example. We could
argue that coffee is not just a drink, but rather it
has symbolic value as part of day-to-day social
rituals. Often the ritual of drinking coffee is
much more important than the act of consuming
the coffee itself. For example, two people who
meet “to have coffee” together are probably more
interested in meeting and chatting than in what
they drink. In all societies, eating and drinking
are occasions for social interaction and the
Source:
performance of rituals, which offer a great deal of
Imagination. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
subject matter for sociological study.
1
A second dimension to a cup of coffee has to
do with its use as a drug. Coffee contains caffeine,
which is a drug that has stimulating effects on the
brain. For many, this is the reason why they drink
coffee. It is interesting sociologically to question
why coffee addicts are not considered drug users
in Western cultures while they might be in other
cultures. Like alcohol, coffee is a socially acceptable
drug whereas marijuana is not. In other cultures,
however, marijuana use is tolerated, but both
coffee and alcohol use are frowned upon.
Still a third dimension to a cup of coffee is
tied to social and economic relationships. The
growing, packaging, distributing, and marketing
of coffee are global enterprises that affect many
cultures, social groups, and organizations
within those cultures. These things often take
place thousands of miles away from the coffee
drinker. Many aspects of our lives are now
affected by worldwide trading exchanges and
communications and studying these global
transactions is important to sociologists.
A fourth dimension to a cup of coffee relates
to past social and economic development. The
coffee relationships currently set in motion were
not always there. Like tea, bananas, potatoes,
and sugar, coffee only became widely consumed
after the nineteenth century. These relationships
developed gradually, and might well break down
in the future due to change.”
Mills, C.Wright (1959). The Sociological
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Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

To define sociology
LO 1

Sociology is a branch of social sciences; it is the scientific study

of social life. It examines the interaction between the social
actors and society. It provides a perspective, a way of thinking.
Sociological thinking enables us to see how society shapes
social actions. It shows us the social behind the individual.
When we think sociologically, we do not evaluate events and
Summary

facts depending on our individual experiences, we use the

sociological theories and methods to reach a comprehensive
understanding.

To define the concept of society and to explain

LO 2 the main characteristics of types of society

Society is the totality of the mutual relationships and interactions

among a community of people, who share a specific territory, a
specific culture and common social institutions. The main types
of societies are hunting and gathering societies, pastoral societies,
agrarian societies, traditional states, industrial (modern) societies
and post-industrial societies. Hunting and gathering societies
are small and mobile societies in which people gain their
livelihood from hunting, fishing and gathering edible plants.
There is very little social inequality in hunting and gathering
societies. Pastoral societies are based on domesticated livestock
such as cattle or sheep. Agrarian societies are small agriculture
societies without urbanization. Traditional states are larger than
the former types of society, are based on, but not limited to,
agricultural production. There are important social inequalities
in traditional states. Industrial (modern) societies are urbanized,
secularized, bureaucratized societies in which most of the people
work in factories, offices or shops. Post-industrial society is the
newest type of society. In post-industrial society, information
and technology are very important and most of the population
work in service sector jobs.

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Introduction to Sociology

To define the concepts of social action, social structure,

LO 3 social institution, social fact, social group, self, status,

role, value, norm, sanction and socialization.

Social action is an action which is oriented towards the past, present or future actions of
the others. Social structure is the regular, permanent and stereotyped relations among the
members of the society, which is composed by continuous and repetitive social actions. A
social institution is a socially organized social behavior pattern that reflects the established
appearance of the society, which are continuously repeated, maintained and approved by

Summary
the social norms. Social facts are the acting, thinking and feeling patterns which are out and
above of the individuals and have the power to force themselves to the individuals. A social
group is a set of people who are in mutual interaction, who share specific expectations and
who take into consideration the other’s behaviors. Self is the totality of the perceptions and
thoughts related to our identity and our qualifications. A status is the rank, the position
that one holds in the society, and the behavior we expect from this person holding this
position is called role. Values are the ideals and faiths, which a society or a group considers
important. Norms are the visible and invisible rules resulting from the values. Sanctions are
the anticipated consequence of violating the rules and the norms, which are used to make
members of the society follow the norms. Socialization is the interaction process in which
the individuals learn the language, values, norms, attitudes, knowledge and skills, in short,
the culture of the society they live in.

To comprehend the origins and the birth

LO 4 of sociology as a social science discipline

With the influence of the French Revolution and the Industrial

Revolution, major social transformations have taken place in
the 18th century. The old traditional society, which was based
on kinship, land, religion, local communities and monarchi-
es, was replaced by a new society, which was an industrialized,
urbanized, bureaucratized, secular society. This major change
caused chaos and disorder in the society and the first sociolo-
gists tried to understand why and how societies change. The
roots of sociology lie in the attempts to answer the questions
about the structure, change and future of the society by using
the methods of physical sciences.

To define the concept of science and to explain

LO 5 the characteristics of scientific knowledge.

Science is the body of systematic and empirical knowledge

about observable facts, and the system that generates scientific
knowledge. Scientific knowledge is the knowledge generated
through the process of scientific research. Scientific knowledge
is rational, empirical, factual, logical, objective, explicit,
consistent, systematic, generalizable, valid, reliable and critical.

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Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

To explain the phases of scientific

LO 6 research.

The phases of research are (a) choosing a research topic and formulating the research problem;
(b) selecting the appropriate method, techniques and type of research; (c) sampling; (d)
preparing measurement instruments; (e) gathering data; (f ) interpreting the results and
reporting the findings. The researcher first chooses a research topic in a general level, then
makes a detailed literature review, then formulizes a specific research problem and develops
hypotheses. After this phase, the researcher decides which methods and techniques to use in
Summary

the research. Then the researcher decides on the sample size and selects the sample by using a
proper sampling technique. After selecting the sample, the researcher prepares measurement
instruments and then gathers data from the sample through these instruments. Then the
researcher analyses the data. In the final phase, the researcher interprets the findings, compares
and integrates them with the literature and writes the research report.

To compare the main methodological

LO 7 approaches in sociological research.

The Positivist approach depends on the assertion that science has only one logic and any
intellectual activity can be considered as scientific if only it matches this logic. For Positivism,
there is only one scientific method, all sciences use this method, the only difference among
them is their study subjects. According to Positivism, there are social laws regulating the
social world, and these laws and social reality itself exist independent of humans. Positivist
researchers test hypotheses in a theoretical frame in order to make predictions about social
facts and put forward universal social laws. However, according to Interpretive approach,
social facts are not fixed and stable, they constantly continue to be established. Thus, it
is not possible to put forward certain casualties in the social world. For the Interpretive
approach the social world is established through the cultural relations, the meaningful and
intentional actions of people, in other words, it does not exist independent of human activity,
as Positivism argues. For this reason, Interpretive approach argues that social reality cannot
be investigated with the methods physical scientists use to investigate physical realities. The
purpose of social research for Interpretive approach is not to explain the casualty relationships,
it is to understand and interpret social action and social life. The Critical approach has some
characteristics of both Positivist and Interpretive approaches. It claims that social reality exists
independent of human actions as Positivism also does. However, unlike Positivism, it argues
that social reality is shaped by social, political, economic and cultural factors. For critical
approach, social reality changes in time, it is not possible to understand it only by looking
to its superficial appearance. This approach focuses on the conflict and change in society.
According to Critical approach, the purpose of social science is to criticize and transform
social relations. This transformation will be possible by revealing the underlying mechanisms
of social relations and thus by providing power to powerless people. Feminist approach is
the approach based on feminist theories and adopted by researchers who have a feminist
consciousness. The purpose of feminist researches is to reveal how gender and power relations
are penetrated in every aspect of social life. They also aim to empower powerless women
in patriarchal societies. Postmodern approach rejects all organized belief systems, including
social theory and the notion of linear historical development and progress. For Postmodern
approach, there is no difference between social science and art or literature. It argues that
research cannot have a function other than describing, and all descriptions are the same in
terms of their value. The description of a scientist is not more valuable or more valid than the
description ordinary people.

34
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Introduction to Sociology

To explain qualitative and

LO 8 quantitative research designs

Quantitative design depends on the Positivist

approach. The aim of quantitative researches is to explore
the social laws through revealing the casualty relations
between social facts. Concepts are transformed into
measurable variables, the measurement instruments are
developed elaborately, and data are gathered with precise

Summary
measurements. Samples are large and are selected through
probability sampling techniques. The findings of the
research are presented with charts, tables and graphics.
Data gathering techniques used in quantitative research
design are structured (controlled) observation, structured
(controlled) interview, questionnaire, experiment, quasi-
experiment and survey. Qualitative research design is
based on Interpretive approach and aims to understand
and interpret the perspectives of the social actors and the
reasons and motivations of social actions. The purpose
of qualitative research is to understand how people
constitute meaning and social reality in their natural
social contexts. It aims to define social facts in depth and
in detail and to interpret the complex relations among
the social facts from inside their own social contexts. The
standardized measurement instruments are not used in
qualitative research, the main data-gathering instrument
is the researcher. Samples are smaller and judgmentally
selected, the findings are presented verbally, in a way
that shows the details, depth and variety of the data. In
qualitative research design, data are gathered through
unstructured (not controlled, in-depth) interview,
focus group interview, unstructured (not controlled)
observation, semi-structured observation, life story
interview, oral history, case study and document review.

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Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

1 Which of the following refers to the socially 6 Which of the following data gathering tools is
organized social behavior pattern that reflects the used in quantitative research design?
established appearance of the society, which are A. Life story interview
continuously repeated, maintained and approved B. Oral history
by the social norms? C. In-depth interview
A. Social institution D. Questionnaire
B. Social fact E. Unstructured observation
Test Yourself

C. Social action
D. Role 7 In which of the following observation designs
does the researcher hide his/her researcher identity
E. Norm and tries to become a member of the observed
group?
2 In which of the following societies are social A. Complete observer
inequalities less than others? B. Observer as researcher
A. Post-industrial society C. Observer as participant
D. Participant as observer
B. Industrial society
E. Complete participant
C. Hunting and gathering societies
D. Traditional states
8 Which of the followings is a theoretical question?
E. Agrarian societies
A. What is the life expectancy at birth in Turkey?
B. Why is the life expectancy at birth higher in
3 Which of the following is a necessary condition societies that are more egalitarian?
for a behavior to be considered as social behavior? C. Are there differences in the life expectancy at
A. To be acted by at least three people birth in Turkey and in India?
B. To be approved by society D. Is the life expectancy at birth same in rural and
urban areas of Turkey?
C. To be appropriate for the roles of the individuals E. How did life expectancy at birth change in the
D. To be continuous last century in Turkey?
E. To be oriented at the behaviors of other people
9 Which of the following phase of research
4 Which of the following statements about comes first before the others?
socialization is right? A. Sampling
A. It begins in adolescence. B. Data gathering
C. Preparing measurement instruments
B. It ends with marriage.
D. Data analysis
C. Not every person needs the socialization process. E. Formulation of the research problem
D. It is the process of learning to live as a human.
E. Only the family is important in the socialization 10 “The higher the size of an individual’s social
process. network, the more s/he participates in volunteer
activities for NGOs”. What is the independent
5 Which of the following refers to a characteristic of variable in the hypothesis above?
scientific knowledge? A. NGOs
B. The number of the volunteer activities the indi-
A. Ambiguity
vidual participated
B. Explicitness
C. The size of the social network of the individual
C. Sophistication
D. The individual
D. Subjectivity
E. The will of participating volunteer activities
E. Sensuality

36
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Introduction to Sociology

If your answer is not correct, review

1. A If your answer is not correct, review 6. D
“Research designs and techniques in
“Fundamental concepts in sociology”.
sociological research”.

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. c If your answer is not correct, review
“Fundamental concepts in sociology”.
If your answer is not correct, review
7. E
“Research designs and techniques in
sociological research”.

If your answer is not correct, review

3. E If your answer is not correct, review 8. B
“Question types in sociological research
“Fundamental concepts in sociology”.
problems”.

4. D If your answer is not correct, review 9. E If your answer is not correct, review
“Fundamental concepts in sociology”. “Scientific method and research process”.

5. B If your answer is not correct, review 10. C If your answer is not correct, review
“Science and Method”. “Scientific method and research process”.

What are the suicide types that Durkheim claimed?

In what ways the degree of social integration and

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

moral regulation of the society influence suicide?

Durkheim claims that there are four kinds of suicide. These are egoistic,
altruistic, anomic and fatalistic suicide. While the egoistic and the altruistic
suicides are influenced by social integration levels, the anomic and the
fatalistic suicides are influenced by moral regulation levels of the society. Very
low levels of social integration are related to egoistic suicide. Egoistic suicide
occurs when family, work and community ties weaken, people can not bound
to social groups and find little social guidance about values, norms, traditions
and goals. Because of the lack of social integration, they feel that they do
not belong to the society. When bonds weaken due to loss of family, loss of
friends, or a retirement, probability of egoistic suicide increases. Very high
levels of social integration are related to altruistic suicide. Altruistic suicide
your turn 1 occurs when there is extreme social regulation, when the goals of the group or
the society are considered more important than the individual’s personal goals.
For example, the Japanese Kamikaze pilots in the World War II committed
suicide for the sake of political reasons; which is an example of altruistic
suicide. Very low levels of moral regulation are related to anomic suicide.
Anomic suicide occurs when people have moral confusion, lack enough
moral guidance and regulation. This happens especially in periods of serious
economic, social or politic changes. When the old rules of, and expectations
from life become outdated and the new rules or expectations are not set yet,
people do not know where they fit in the society and the likelihood of anomic
suicide increases. Very high levels of moral regulation are related to fatalistic
suicide. The opposite of anomic suicide, fatalistic suicide occurs when people
are excessively regulated and disciplined. For example, people in prisons may
prefer to die rather than continue to live under oppressive conditions.

37
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Society, Sociology and Sociological Research

How do we choose in which level to study? Can we

study the same topic at more than one level? Try to
answer this question by giving examples for each level
Suggested answers for “Your turn”

of sociology.

Some topics are limited to a particular level of inquiry. For example, if we want to
study the transformation in the political systems as a consequence of the mobiliza-
tion of the global community, we should study in the macro level. However, many
topics can be studied in any of the three levels. The level choice depends on the
interests of the researcher, the approach s/he adopts, the type of information s/he
your turn 2 needs. For example, crime or gang activity may be studied in three levels. In micro
sociology, the sociologist can study the inner mechanisms of a specific gang. S/he
may conduct a research on the interaction and communication patterns among
the members of the gang. Or s/he may study what it means to be a gang member
to the members of the gang. On the meso level, sociologist may investigate the
interactions between different gangs. On the macro level, sociologist can compare
the gang activity in different societies, or the relation between the change in the
economic system and the increase in the number of gangs.

Sociologist George Herbert Mead is well known for his

theory of the social self, which includes the concepts of
‘self,’ ‘me,’ and ‘I.’ What do you think are the differences
among the self, me and I?

According to Mead’s theory of the social self, the self has two sides as “me” and
“I”. The “me” side represents learned behaviors, attitudes, and expectations of
others and of society, of the generalized other. So the “me” is the socialized
aspect of the individual, it is the social self. On the other hand, the “I” is the
response to the “me”, it is the individual impulse. The “me” exercises societal
control over one’s self and prevents someone from breaking the rules or boun-
your turn 3 daries of societal expectations. The “I” allows the individual to express creati-
vity and individualism and understand when to possibly bend and stretch the
rules that govern social interactions. The “me” is the organized set of assumed
attitudes of other people, and the “I” is the response of an individual to the
attitudes of the others. The ‘I’ and the ‘me’ together make up the “self ”.

38
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Introduction to Sociology

Try to give an example of how Positivist and Interpretive

approaches would examine the same topic

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

Let’s think that two researchers, one adopting the Positivist approach and the
other the Interpretive approach, would study on the topic of criminal behavior.
The researcher who adopts Positivist approach would develop hypotheses about the
causes of criminal behavior. S/he will claim that some variables such as education
your turn 4 level, income level, or the size of the personal network influence the number of
the criminal actions individuals are involved in. The researcher, through testing
these hypotheses, would try to put forward the universal laws related to criminal
behavior. Then, depending on these laws, s/he would try to make predictions about
criminal behavior in the future. The other researcher, adopting the Interpretive
approach, would try to observe criminal people in their own social environments,
to understand crime from their perspective. In the research, s/he would define
the interactions among them in detail. The researcher would try to understand
the meanings the criminals attribute to crime, and the reasons that lie behind the
criminal actions.

Try to find a research problem that is only suitable

for quantitative design, and another which is only
suitable for qualitative research.

For example, if a researcher wants to predict the results of the next political
elections, s/he has to design a quantitative research, because a qualitative research
would not enable the researcher to make generalizations and predictions. Or, let’s
think that a researcher wants to learn whether there is a relation between income
level and health status in Turkey. The researcher may develop a hypothesis and
claim that the higher the income level gets, the better the health status gets.
Then he tests this hypothesis on a large sample which represents the population
of Turkey, and accepts or rejects this hypothesis at the end of the research. This
kind of aims cannot be reached with qualitative design. On the other side,
let’s think that a researcher observes that poor and rich people give different
your turn 5 reactions to serious diseases. S/he thinks that poor people meet this situation
calmly with a deep fatalism, but the rich strive aggressively for seeking cures. The
researcher wants to learn why poor and rich people give different reactions to
serious diseases. In this case, the researcher should conduct a qualitative design,
which enables her/him to collect in-depth data about the thoughts, attitudes
and beliefs of the people. A quantitative design is not suitable for this kind of
a research problem, because it does not allow to collect in-depth verbal data.

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References

Abercrombie, N; Hill, S. and Turner, B. S. (2006). Jary, D. and Jary, J. (2005). Collins Internet Linked
The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology. Great Dictionary of Sociology. Glasgow: Harper Collins.
Britain: Penguin.
Johnson, Allan, G. (2000). The Blackwell Dictionary
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