INSTRUMENTATION

PART-1

Prepared By

RAJAN SINGH PAL

Oil Processing
Petroleum is a complex mixture of organic liquids called crude oil and natural gas, which occurs naturally in the ground
and was formed millions of years ago. Crude oil varies from oilfield to oilfield in colour and composition, from a pale yellow
low viscosity liquid to heavy black 'treacle' consistencies.
Crude oil and natural gas are extracted from the ground, on land or under the oceans, by sinking an oil well and are then
transported by pipeline and/or ship to refineries where their components are processed into desired refined products.
Crude oil and natural gas are of little use in their raw state; their value lies in what is created from them: fuels, lubricating
oils, waxes, asphalt, petrochemicals and pipeline quality natural gas.
An oil refinery is an organised and coordinated arrangement of manufacturing processes designed to produce physical
and chemical changes in crude oil to convert it into everyday products like petrol, diesel, lubricating oil, fuel oil, bitumen.
As crude oil comes from the well it contains a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds and relatively small quantities of other
materials such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, salt and water. In the refinery, most of these non - hydrocarbon substances
are removed and the oil is broken down into its various components, and blended into useful products.
Natural gas from the well, while principally methane, contains quantities of other hydrocarbons - ethane, propane, butane,
pentane and also carbon dioxide and water. These components are separated from methane at a gas fractionation plant.

Petroleum consists of 3 main hydrocarbon groups:

Paraffins
These consist of straight or branched carbon rings saturated with hydrogen atoms, the simplest of which is methane (CH4)
the main ingredient of natural gas. Others in this group include ethane (C 2H6) and propane (C3H8).
With very few carbon atoms (C1 to C4) are light in density and are gases under normal atmospheric pressure.
Chemically paraffins are very stable compounds. (CnH2n+2)
Naphthenes
Naphthenes consist of carbon rings, sometimes with side chains, saturated with hydrogen atoms.
Naphthenes are chemically stable, they occur naturally in crude oil and have properties similar to paraffins.
Aromatics
Aromatic hydrocarbons are compounds that contain a ring of six carbon atoms with alternating double and single bonds
and six attached hydrogen atoms. This type of structure is known as a benzene ring.
They occur naturally in crude oil and can also be created by the refining process.

The more carbon atoms a hydrocarbon has, "heavier" it is (higher is its molecular weight) and higher is its boiling point.
Small quantities of a crude oil may be composed of compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and metals.
Sulphur content ranges from 0.5% to 5% or more. If crude oil contains appreciable quantities of sulphur it is a sour crude;
if it contains little sulphur or no sulphur it is a sweet crude.
Less than 0.5% - Sweet Crude , Between 0.5% to 2.5% - Intermediate Crude , More than 2.5% - Sour Crude.

Refining Process
Every refinery begins with the separation of crude oil into different fractions by distillation.
The fractions are further treated to convert them into mixtures of more useful saleable products by various methods such
as cracking, reforming, alkylation, polymerisation, isomerisation. These mixtures of new compounds are then separated
using methods such as fractionation and solvent extraction.
The impurities are removed by various methods, e.g. dehydration, desalting, sulphur removal and hydrotreating.
Refinery processes have developed in response to changing market demands for certain products. With the advent of the
internal combustion engine the main task of refineries became the production of petrol. The quantities of petrol available
from distillation alone was insufficient to satisfy consumer demand. Refineries began to look for ways to produce more
and better quality petrol. Two types of processes have been developed:
• breaking down large, heavy hydrocarbon molecules
• reshaping or rebuilding hydrocarbon molecules.

The refining process depends on the chemical processes of distillation (separating liquids by their different boiling points)
and catalysis (which speeds up reaction rates), and uses the principles of chemical equilibria.
Chemical equilibrium exists when reactants in reaction are producing products, but products are being recombined again
into reactants. By altering the reaction conditions the amount of either products or reactants can be increased.
Step 1 - Separation
Crude Oil is separated into its constituents by distillation & some components are further separated by chemical reactions
and by using solvents which dissolve one component of a mixture significantly better than another.
Step 2 - Conversion
The various hydrocarbons produced are then chemically altered to make them more suitable for their intended purpose.
For example, naphthas are "reformed" from paraffins and naphthenes into aromatics. These reactions often use catalysis,
and so sulfur is removed from hydrocarbons before they react with catalyst, as sulphur would 'poison' the catalysts used.
The chemical equilibria are also manipulated to ensure a maximum yield of the desired product.
Step3 - Purification
The hydrogen sulfide gas which was extracted from refinery gas in Step 1 is converted to elemental sulfur and there are
many other Hydrocarbon Sweetening and Treating Processes which are used for purification.
Step 1 – Separation
Distillation (Fractionation)
Because crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons with different boiling temperatures, it can be separated by distillation into
groups of hydrocarbons that boil between two specified boiling points.
Two types of distillation are performed: Atmospheric Distillation and Vacuum Distillation.
Atmospheric Distillation takes place in distilling column at or near atmospheric pressure. Crude oil is heated to 350-400°C
and the vapour and liquid are piped into the distilling column. The liquid falls to the bottom of column and the vapour rises,
passing through series of perforated trays (sieve). Heavier hydrocarbons condense more quickly and settle on lower trays
and lighter hydrocarbons remain as a vapour longer and condense on higher trays.
Liquid fractions are drawn from the trays and removed. In this way the light gases, methane, ethane, propane and butane
pass out the top of column, petrol is formed in the top trays, kerosene and gas oils in middle, and fuel oils at the bottom.
Residue drawn of bottom may be burned as fuel, processed into lubricating oils or is used as feedstock for cracking units.
To recover additional heavy distillates from this residue, it may be piped to a second distillation column where the process
is repeated under vacuum called vacuum distillation. It allows heavy hydrocarbons with boiling points of 450°C and higher
to be separated without them partly cracking into unwanted products such as coke and gas.
Heavy distillates which are recovered by vacuum distillation can be converted into lubricating oils by variety of processes.
The most common of these is solvent extraction. In one version of this process the heavy distillate is washed with a liquid
which does not dissolve in it but which dissolves (and so extracts) the non-lubricating oil components out of it.
Another version uses a liquid which does not dissolve in it but which causes non-lubricating oil components to precipitate
(as an extract) from it. Other processes exist which remove impurities by adsorption onto a highly porous solid or which
remove any waxes that may be present by causing them to crystallise and precipitate out.

Fractional Distillation
When a mixture of 2 liquids of different boiling points is heated to its boiling point, the vapour contains higher mole fraction
of the liquid with the lower boiling point than the original liquid ; i.e. the vapour is enriched in the more volatile component.
If this vapour is now condensed, the resultant liquid has also been enriched in the more volatile component.
Example, if a 1:1 molar mixture of benzene (b.p. 80) and toluene (b.p. 110) is heated it boils at a temperature of 92°C and
the composition of the vapour (and hence its condensate) is 71 : 29 (benzene : toluene)
If this vapour is condensed and then again brought to its boiling point then its vapour has a mole fration of 86 : 14.
A third cycle of condensation and heating produces a condensate of 94 : 6 (benzene : toluene)
This is principle of batch fractional distillation and in a distillation column many such cycles are performed continuously,
allowing almost complete separation of liquid components. In this process the more volatile components are drawn from
top of the column and least volatile ones concentrate in the lower part. In practice distillation is carried out continuously.

When two species A and B (A more volatile than B) are fed into distillation column and heated partial vapourisation occur.
The vapours richer in A, rises from the feed tray (tray 3) through the bubble caps, bubbling out through the liquid on tray 4,
setting up a vapour / liquid equilibrium. Tray 4 is cooler than tray 3, so some of component of B will condense, leaving the
vapour rising from tray 4 richer in A. The same process is repeated on tray 5, and we are left with a vapour leaving tray 5
very much richer in component A than the original feed. To keep a temperature differential between trays, the top vapour
leaving tray 5 is condensed by cooling it and some is fed back to the top of column, the remainder leaving as top product.
The liquid portion of the feed entering the column falls from tray 3 to tray 2, which is hotter than feed tray 3 temperature.
On tray 2, because of the increase in temperature, the vapour is richer in A than liquid, so composition of liquid on tray 2
is richer in component B than the original feed. This liquid falls to tray 1, where the process is repeated.
To ensure that temperature falls from tray to tray going up the column, some of the bottom product (rich in B) is heated
and fed back to the bottom tray. The remainder leaves as bottom product rich in B.

By use of cooled top product (reflux) and heated bottom product (reboil), Temp. difference between trays is maintained
and fractional distillation occurs. The liquids drawn from any of the trays will contain varying concentrations of A and B,
changing from a mixture rich in B at the bottom tray, to a mixture rich in A at top tray.
In fractionation/distilling petroleum or crude oil we are considering not just the two components, but many components.
However same principles apply and by feeding heated oil to a fractional distillation column, we can by withdrawing liquid
from various trays, separate the oil into varying fractions. However, when withdrawing liquid from the intermediate trays,
some of the light product that bubbles through the liquid on each tray is present. This can be removed by passing steam
through withdrawn fraction in small distillation column (called a stripper). The mixture of steam and light material obtained
as a top product from the stripper is returned to the main distillation column.
Crude oil separation processes
The first step in petroleum refining is the fractionation of crude oil in atmospheric and vacuum distillation towers.
Heated crude oil is physically separated into various fractions or straight-run cuts differentiated by specific boiling-point
and in order of decreasing volatility, as gases, light distillates, middle distillates, heavy distillates and residuum.
Fractionation works because the gradation in temperature from the bottom to the top of the distillation tower causes the
higher-boilingpoint component to condense first while lower-boilingpoint fraction rise higher in tower before they condense
Within the tower, rising vapours and descending liquids (reflux) mix at levels where they have compositions in equilibrium
with each other. Trays are located at levels (or stages) which remove a fraction of liquid which condenses at each level.
In a typical two-stage crude unit, the atmospheric tower produces light fractions / distillate and is immediately followed by
a vacuum tower which processes the atmospheric tower residuals.

Atmospheric Distillation
In atmospheric distillation towers, the desalted crude feedstock is preheated using recovered process heat.
It then flows to direct-fired crude charge heater, where it is fed into distillation column just above the bottom at pressures
slightly above atmosphere & temperatures from 350-400°C, to avoid undesirable thermal cracking at higher temperatures.
The lighter (lower boiling point) fractions diffuse into the upper part of the tower and are continuously drawn off and will be
directed to other units for further processing, treating, blending and distribution.
Fractions with the lowest boiling points, such as fuel gas and light naphtha, are removed from the top of the tower by an
overhead line as vapours. Naphtha, straight-run gasoline is taken from the upper section of tower as an overhead stream.
These products are used as petrochemical and reformer feedstocks, gasoline blending stocks, solvents and LPGs.
Intermediate boiling range fractions, including gas oil, heavy naphtha and distillates, are removed from the middle section
of the tower as side streams. These are sent to finishing operations for use as kerosene, diesel fuel, fuel oil, jet fuel,
catalytic cracker feedstock and blending stocks. Some of these liquid fractions are stripped of their lighter ends, which are
returned to the tower as downflowing reflux streams.
The heavier, higher-boiling-point fractions (called residuum, bottoms or topped crude) which condense and remain at the
bottom of the tower, are used for fuel oil, bitumen manufacturing or cracking feedstock, or are directed to a heater and into
the vacuum distillation tower for further fractionation.

Vacuum Distillation
Vacuum distillation towers provide the reduced pressure required to prevent thermal cracking when distilling the residuum,
or topped crude, from the atmospheric tower at higher temperatures. The internal designs of some vacuum towers are
different from atmospheric towers in that random packing and demister pads are used instead of trays.
Larger diameter towers may also be used to keep velocities lower. A typical first-phase vacuum tower produce gas oils,
lubricating oil base stocks, heavy residual for propane deasphalting. A second-phase tower, operating at lower vacuum,
distills surplus residuum from the atmospheric tower which is not used for lube stock processing, and surplus residuum
from the first vacuum tower not used for deasphalting.
Vacuum towers are typically used to separate catalytic cracker feedstocks from surplus residuum. Vacuum tower bottoms
may also be sent to a coker, used as lubricant or asphalt stock or desulphurized and blended into low-sulphur fuel oil.

Control temperatures, pressures and reflux must be maintained within operating parameters in order to prevent
thermal cracking from taking place within the distillation towers.
Step 2 - Conversion
Cracking Process
Cracking breaks down heavier hydrocarbon molecules (high boiling point) into lighter more useful products.
These processes include Catalytic Cracking, Thermal Cracking and Hydro-Cracking.

Catalytic Cracking is used to convert heavy hydrocarbon obtained by atmospheric and vacuum distillation into more useful products.
In this process the feedstock undergoes chemical breakdown under controlled heat (450-500°C) and pressure, in presence of catalyst -
a substance which promotes the reaction without itself being chemically changed.
Small pellets of silica - alumina or silica - magnesia have proved to be the most effective catalysts.
The cracking reaction yields, LPG, petrol, cracked gas oils, liquid residue called cycle oil, light gases and solid coke residue.

There are three basic functions in all catalytic cracking processes:

· Reaction – The feedstock reacts with catalyst and cracks into different hydrocarbons.
· Regeneration – The catalyst is reactivated by burning off coke.
· Fractionation – The cracked hydrocarbon stream is separated into various products.

There are 3 basic types of catalytic cracking processes:

· Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC)
· Moving Bed Catalytic Cracking
· Thermofor Catalytic Cracking (TCC).

Fluid Catalytic Cracking process uses catalyst in form of very fine powder which flows like liquid when agitated by steam or vapour.
The feedstock entering the process immediately meets a stream of very hot catalyst and vaporises. The resulting vapours will keep the
catalyst fluidised as it passes into the reactor, where the actual cracking takes place and where it is fluidised by hydrocarbon vapour.
The catalyst next passes to steam stripping section where most of volatile hydrocarbon is removed It then passes to regenerator vessel
where it is fluidised by a mixture of air and the products of combustion which are produced as the coke on the catalyst is burnt off.
The catalyst then flows back to reactor. Catalyst undergoes continuous circulation between Reactor, Stripper & Regenerator section.
The catalyst is usually a mixture of aluminium oxide and silica. Most recently, the introduction of synthetic zeolite catalysts has allowed
much shorter reaction times and improved yields and octane numbers of the cracked gasolines.
Moving-Bed Catalytic Cracking is similar to fluid catalytic cracking; However the catalyst is in form of pellets instead of fine powder.
The pellets move continuously by conveyor or pneumatic lift tubes to a storage hopper at top of unit and then flow downward by gravity
through the reactor to a regenerator. The regenerator and hopper are isolated from the reactor by steam seals.
The cracked product is separated into recycle gas, oil, clarified oil, distillate, naphtha and wet gas.
Thermofor Catalytic Cracking, the preheated feedstock flows by gravity through the catalytic reactor bed. Vapours are separated from
the catalyst and sent to fractionating tower. The spent catalyst is regenerated, cooled, recycled, and flue gas from regeneration process
is sent to a carbon monoxide boiler for heat recovery.

Thermal Cracking uses heat to break down the residues from vacuum distillation.
Thermal cracking is the breaking of hydrocarbon molecules into smaller compounds usually olefinics due to absence of extra hydrogen.
Long chain paraffins can rupture anywhere. For cyclic compounds the break tends to be at a point where the straight chain is attached.
The products of thermal cracking tend to have high olefin, napthalene and aromatic contents.
Thermal cracking products are used as input feedstocks by many process units in refineries (alkylation, reforming, hydrocraking etc.)
Cracked gases (olefins) are converted to blending components by alkylation. Naphtha is upgraded to high quality petrol by reforming.
Gas oils are used as input feedstock for Hydrocracking. Heavy residue is converted to coke & is used for making electrodes, graphites.

Visbreaking is mild form of thermal cracking which reduces pour point of waxy residues & significantly lowers the viscosity of feedstock
without affecting its boiling-point range. Residual from atmospheric distillation tower is mildly cracked in heater at atmospheric pressure
It is then quenched with cool gas oil to control overcracking and flashed in a distillation tower.
The thermally cracked residue which accumulates in bottom of fractionation tower is vacuum flashed in stripper and distillate is recycled
Steam Cracking produces olefins (CnH2n : Alkenes) by cracking large hydrocarbon molecules at pressures slightly above atmospheric
and at very high temperatures. The Olefins (CnH2n : Alkenes) from steam cracking are used as a input feedstock for alkylation process.
Naphtha produced from steam cracking usually contains benzene, which is extracted prior to hydrotreating.
Coking is a severe form of thermal cracking used to obtain straight-run gasoline (coker naphtha) and various middle distillate fractions
used as catalytic cracking feedstocks. This process completely reduces hydrogen from the hydrocarbon molecule, that the residue is
form of almost pure carbon called coke. The most common coking processes are delayed coking & continuous coking (contact or fluid),
which depending upon reaction, time, temperature and crude feedstock, produce 3 types of coke-sponge, honeycomb and needle coke.

Hydrocracking can increase the yield of petrol components, as well as being used to produce light distillates.
Hydrocracking is catalytic cracking in the presence of hydrogen. It also produces isobutane (isoparaffin) which is used in alkylation units
Hydrocracking is a two-stage process combining catalytic cracking & hydrogenation, where light / heavy gas oils are cracked
in the presence of hydrogen and special catalysts to produce more desirable products.
Hydrocracking is also a treating process, as hydrogen combines with contaminants (sulphur , nitrogen), allowing them to be removed.
Hydrocracking has advantage over catalytic cracking, as high-sulphur feedstocks can be processed without previous desulphurization.

Feed (Gas Oil) is mixed with hydrogen, heated & sent to reactor vessel with fixed bed catalyst where cracking/hydrogenation take place
Products are sent to fractionator for separation. The hydrogen is recycled. Residues from fractionator is mixed again with hydrogen,
reheated & sent to a second reactor for further cracking under higher temperatures and higher pressures.
After hydrocracking process it is necessary to build or rearrange some of lighter hydrocarbon molecule into high quality petrol or jet fuel.
Therefore hydrocracking products are sent for many chemical process such as polymerization, alkylation, reforming and isomerisation.
Combining Process
Combining process, Polymerization & Alkylation are used to join together hydrogen-deficient molecules called olefins (CnH2n : Alkenes),
which are recovered from catalytic cracking and thermal cracking, in order to create more desirable gasoline blending stocks.

Polymerisation
Under pressure and temperature and over an acidic catalyst, light unsaturated hydrocarbon react and combine with each other to form
larger hydrocarbon molecules. Polymerisation is used to react olefins (light unsaturated hydrocarbon as ethylene, propylene, butylene)
to obtain high octane olefinic petrol blending components.

Polymerization is process of combining two or more unsaturated organic molecules (olefins) to form single heavier molecule with same
elements in same proportion as original molecule. It convert olefins from catalytic/thermal cracking into heavier higher-octane molecules
The olefin feedstock is pretreated to remove sulphur compounds and other undesirables, and then passed over a phosphorus catalyst,
usually a solid catalyst or liquid phosphoric acid, where an exothermic polymeric reaction occurs. This requires use of cooling water and
injection of cold feedstock into reactor to control temperatures at various pressures. Acid in the liquids is removed by caustic wash &
liquids are fractionated & acid catalyst is recycled. The vapour is fractionated to remove butanes & neutralized to remove traces of acid.

Alkylation
Alkylation is a reaction of propylene or butylene with isobutane to form a long-branched-chain isoparaffin called alkylate.
Olefins (CnH2n : Alkenes) such as propylene and butylene are produced by catalytic cracking and thermal cracking.
Alkylation refers to the chemical bonding of these light molecules with isobutane to form larger branched-chain molecules (isoparaffins)
that make high octane petrol. Olefins (propylene or butylene) and isobutane are mixed with an acid catalyst. They react to form alkylate,
plus some normal butane, isobutane and propane. The resulting liquid is neutralised and separated in a series of distillation columns.
Isobutane is recycled as feed and butane and propane sold as liquid petroleum gas (LPG).

Alkylation combines the molecules of olefins produced from catalytic cracking with those of isoparaffins in order to increase the volume
and octane of gasoline blends. Olefins will react with isoparaffins in the presence of a highly active catalyst, usually sulphuric acid or
hydrofluoric acid or aluminium chloride to create a long-branched-chain isoparaffinic molecule, called alkylate (iso-octane), with
exceptional anti-knock quality. The alkylate is then separated and fractionated. It is a low temperature reaction hence needs refrigation.

Sulphuric acid alkylation - The feedstocks including propylene, butylene and fresh isobutane enter the reactor where they contact the
sulphuric acid catalyst. The reactor is divided into zones, with olefins fed through distributors to each zone and the sulphuric acid and
isobutanes flowing over baffles from zone to zone. Reaction heat is removed by evaporation of isobutane. The isobutane gas is
removed from the top of the reactor, cooled and recycled, with a portion directed to the depropanizer tower. Residual from the reactor is
settled and the sulphuric acid is removed from the bottom of the vessel and recirculated. Caustic and/or water scrubbers are used to
remove small amounts of acid from process stream which then goes to de-isobutanizer. Debutanizer isobutane overhead is recycled
and remaining hydrocarbons are separated and sent to blending.
Hydrofluoric acid alkylation. There are two types of hydrofluoric acid alkylation processes: Phillips and UOP.
In the Phillips process, olefin and isobutane feedstock is dried and fed to a combination reactor/settler unit. The hydrocarbon from the
settling zone is charged to main fractionator. The main fractionator overhead goes to a depropanizer. Propane, with trace amounts of
hydrofluoric acid (HF), goes to an HF stripper and is then catalytically defluorinated, treated and sent to storage. Isobutane is withdrawn
from main fractionator and recycled to reactor/settler and alkylate from the bottom of the main fractionator is sent to a splitter.
UOP process uses two reactors with separate settlers. Half of dried feedstock is charged to first reactor along with recycle and make-up
isobutane and then to its settler where acid is recycled and hydrocarbon charged to second reactor. The other half of feedstock goes to
second reactor, with the settler acid being recycled and hydrocarbons charged to main fractionator. Subsequent processing is similar to
Phillips in that the overhead from the main fractionator goes to a depropanizer, isobutane is recycled and alkylate is sent to a splitter.

Rearranging Process
Reforming
Reforming is process which uses pressure, temperature, catalyst (platinum) to bring about chemical reactions which upgrades naphtha
into high octane petrol and petrochemical feedstock or dehydrogenation. In reforming process only the chemical composition changes.
The naphthas are hydrocarbon mixtures containing paraffins and naphthenes.
The naphtha feedstock usually comes from atmospheric distillation or catalytic cracking or thermal cracking or hydrocracking processes
Reforming converts Naptha (paraffins and naphthenes) into isoparaffins and aromatics, used to blend higher octane petrol.
• paraffins are converted to isoparaffins
• paraffins are converted to naphthenes
• naphthenes are converted to aromatics
Most reactions in reforming result in production of Hydrogen because aromatics don’t need as many hydrogen as paraffin & naphthene.
But reforming is also a user of hydrogen, Hydrogen must be mixed with feed to keep high concentration of hydrogen vapors in reactor.
This prevents carbon from depositing on catalyst constract to cracking process. Carbon reacts with hydrogen & forms hydrocarbon gas.
The end products of the reforming processes are Reformate (mainly aromatics -high octane), Hydrogen , methane , ethane and butane.

Isomerisation
Isomerisation is chemical rearrangement of straight-chain hydrocarbons (paraffins), into branches attached to main chain (isoparaffins).
This is done for two reasons:
• they create extra isobutane feed for alkylation unit (Isomerisation of normal butane into isoButane)
• they improve octane number of straight chain paraffins (Pentane & Hexane) by converting them into isoparaffins (high octane).
Isomerisation is achieved by mixing normal butane with a little hydrogen and chloride and allowed to react in the presence of a catalyst
to form isobutane (isoparaffin), plus a small amount of normal butane and some lighter gases.
The products are separated in fractionator. Lighter gases are used as refinery fuel and normal butane is recycled & again used as feed.
Pentanes & Hexanes are lighter components of petrol. Isomerisation is used to improve petrol quality by converting these hydrocarbons
to higher octane isomers (isoparaffins). The process of isomerization for Pentanes & Hexanes is same as that for butane isomerisation.
Step 3 – Purification
Hydrotreating
A number of contaminants or impurities are found in crude oil. As the petroleum fractions travel through processing units,
these impurities can damage the equipment, the catalysts and the quality of the products.
Hydrotreating is one way of removing many of the contaminants from many of the intermediate products or final products.
In the hydrotreating process, the entering feedstock is mixed with hydrogen and heated to 300 - 380°C.
The feedstock combined with the hydrogen then enters a reactor loaded with a catalyst which promotes several reactions:
• hydrogen combines with sulphur to form hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
• nitrogen compounds are converted to ammonia
• any metals contained in the oil are deposited on the catalyst
• some of the olefins, aromatics , naphthenes becomes saturated with hydrogen to become straight chain paraffins
and some cracking takes place causing the creation of some methane, ethane, propane and butanes.

Sulphur Recovery Plants

The hydrogen sulphide created from hydrotreating is a toxic gas that needs further treatment.
The usual process involves two steps:
• the removal of the hydrogen sulphide gas from the hydrocarbon stream
• the conversion of hydrogen sulphide to elemental sulphur, a non-toxic and useful chemical.
Solvent extraction using a solution of diethanolamine (DEA) dissolved in water is applied to separate hydrogen sulphide
gas from process stream. The hydrocarbon gas stream containing the hydrogen sulphide is bubbled through a solution of
diethanolamine solution (DEA) under high pressure, such that the hydrogen sulphide gas dissolves in the DEA.
The DEA and hydrogen mixture is the heated at a low pressure and the dissolved hydrogen sulphide is released as a
concentrated gas stream which is sent to another plant for conversion into sulphur.

Hydrocarbon Sweetening and Treating Processes

Many products such as thermal naphthas from visbreaking, coking or thermal cracking and high-sulphur naphthas and
distillates from crude-oil distillation, require treating in order to be used in gasoline and fuel oil blends. Distillation products
including kerosene & other distillates may contain trace amounts of aromatics, naphthenes and lubricating-oil base stocks
may contain wax. These undesirables are removed either at intermediate refining stages or just prior to sending products
to blending and storage, by refining processes such as solvent extraction and solvent dewaxing. A variety of intermediate
and finished products including middle distillates, gasoline, jet fuel and sour gases need to be dried and sweetened.
Treating is performed either at an intermediate stage in the refining process or just before sending finished products to
blending and storage. Treating removes contaminants from oil, such as organic compounds containing sulphur, nitrogen
and oxygen, dissolved metals, inorganic salts and soluble salts dissolved in emulsified water. Treating materials include
acids, solvents, alkalis and oxidizing and adsorption agents. Acid treatments are used to improve the odour, colour and
other properties of lube base stocks, to prevent corrosion and catalyst contamination, and to improve product stability.
H2S which is removed from “dry” sour gas by an absorbing agent (diethanolamine) is flared and or converted to sulphur.
The type of treatment and agents depends on crude feedstock, intermediate processes and end-product specifications.

Solvent Treatment Processes

Solvent extraction separates aromatics, naphthenes and impurities from product streams by dissolving or precipitation.
Solvent extraction prevents corrosion, protects catalyst in subsequent processes and improves finished products by
removing unsaturated, aromatic hydrocarbons from lubricant and grease base stocks.
The feedstock is dried and subjected to continuous countercurrent solvent treatment. In one process, feedstock is washed
with a liquid in which the substances to be removed are more soluble than in the desired resultant product.
In another process, selected solvents are added, causing impurities to precipitate out of product. The solvent is separated
from the product stream by heating, evaporation or fractionation, with residual trace amounts subsequently removed from
raffinate by steam stripping or vacuum flashing. Electric precipitation may be used for separation of inorganic compounds.
The solvent is then regenerated to be used again in the process.
Typical chemicals used in the extraction process include a wide variety of acids, alkalis and solvents, including phenol and
furfural, as well as oxidizing agents and adsorption agents. In the adsorption process, highly porous solid materials collect
liquid molecules on their surfaces. The selection of specific processes and chemical agents depends on the nature of the
feedstock being treated, the contaminants present and the finished product requirements.

Vapour Pressure
Vapour Pressure is a measure of surface pressure it takes to keep the liquid from vaporizing.
A light hydrocarbon like propane will have a very high vapour pressure, since it is very volatile.
A heavier hydrocarbon like gas oil will have a very low vapour pressure, since it will vapourise very slowly.
Vapour Pressure is a function of temperature, Hence the vapour pressure is usually defined at 15°C.
 COKING
Coking is a severe form of thermal cracking used to obtain straight-run gasoline (coker naphtha) and various middle distillate fractions
used as catalytic cracking feedstocks. This process so completely reduces hydrogen from the hydrocarbon molecule, that the residue is
form of almost pure carbon called coke. The most common coking process are Delayed Coking and Continuous Coking (contact/fluid),
which depending upon the reaction, time, temperature, crude feedstock, produce 3 types of coke-sponge, honeycomb and needle coke.

Delayed Coking
In delayed coking, feedstock is first charged to fractionator to separate lighter hydrocarbons and then combined with heavy recycle oil.
The heavy feedstock is fed to the coker furnace and heated to high temperatures at low pressures to prevent premature coking in
heater tubes, producing partial vaporization & mild cracking. Liquid/vapour mixture is pumped from heater to one or more coker drums,
where hot material is held approximately 24 hours (delayed) at low pressures until it cracks into lighter products.
After the coke reaches a predetermined level in one drum, the flow is diverted to another drum to maintain continuous operation.
Vapour from drums is returned to fractionator to separate, gas, naphtha, gas oils and to recycle heavier hydrocarbons through furnace.
The full drum is steamed to strip out uncracked hydrocarbons, cooled by water injection and decoked mechanically by an auger rising
from bottom of drum or hydraulically by fracturing coke bed with high-pressure water ejected from a rotating cutter.

Continuous Coking
Continuous coking (contact/fluid) is moving bed process which operates at lower pressures & higher temperatures than delayed coking.
In continuous coking, thermal cracking occurs by using heat transferred from hot recycled coke particles to feedstock in a radial mixer,
called a reactor. Gases and vapours are taken from the reactor, quenched to stop further reaction and fractionated.
The reacted coke enters a surge drum and is lifted to a feeder and classifier where the larger coke particles are removed.
The remaining coke is dropped into the reactor preheater for recycling with feedstock. The process is automatic in that there is a
continuous flow of coke and feedstock and coking occurs both in the reactor and in the surge drum.
FLUID COKING Process : Feed (vacuum residue, 565°C-plus) enters the scrubber (1) for integrated, direct contact heat exchange with
reactor overhead effluent vapors. The scrubber condenses higher boiling hydrocarbons in the reactor effluent (typically > 525°C) and
recycles these along with fresh feed to reactor. Lighter overhead vapors are sent to conventional fractionation and light ends recovery.
In reactor (2), feed is thermally cracked to full range of lighter products and coke. Coke inventory is maintained by transferring bed coke
from the reactor to the burner (3) via a coke transfer line.
Depending upon feed, 15%-25% of coke is burned with air to satisfy heat requirements, eliminating the need for an external fuel supply.
Hot coke from burner is circulated back to reactor (through coke transfer line),supplying heat necessary to maintain reactor temperature
and to sustain the thermal cracking reactions. The balance of the coke is withdrawn and sold as a product.
Burner also produces low heating value flue gas that is usually sent to CO boiler for further energy recovery through steam production.
Step-1
(Separation)
Atmospheric Distillation Unit separates crude oil into various fractions which are differentiated by specific boiling-points.
Vacuum Distillation Unit further distils or separates the residual bottoms after atmospheric distillation.

Step-2 (Conversion)
Catalytic Cracker Unit (Fluid Catalytic Cracking, Moving-Bed Catalytic Cracking, Thermofor Catalytic Cracking) upgrade
heavier fractions from atmospheric distillation or vacuum distillation into lighter and more valuable products.
Thermal Cracking Unit (Visbreaking, Steam Cracking) upgrades vacuum residues by thermal cracking them into lighter,
and more valuable reduced viscosity products.
Coking Units (Delayed coking, Continuous coking- contact or fluid ) process very heavy residual oils into gasoline,
leaving petroleum coke as residual product and which depending upon reaction, time, temperature, crude feedstock will
produce three types of coke - sponge, honeycomb, needle coke.
HydroCracker Unit uses hydrogen and catalyst to upgrade light & heavy gas oils into lighter and more valuable products.

Polymerisation Unit Under pressure and temperature, over an acidic catalyst, light unsaturated hydrocarbon basically olefins reacts
and combine with each other to form larger hydrocarbon molecules.
Alkylation Unit It reacts propylene or butylene with isobutane to form a long-branched-chain isoparaffins called alkylate
which is a high-octane component for gasoline blending.

Reformer Unit uses pressure, temperature, catalyst (platinum) to bring chemical reactions that upgrade naphtha to high octane petrol
Reforming process converts Napthas which are hydrocarbon mixtures of paraffins and naphthenes into isoparaffins and aromatics.
An important byproduct of a reformer is hydrogen which is used either in the hydrocracker or the hydrotreaters processes.
Isomerization converts linear molecules (paraffins) to branched molecules (isoparaffins) for blending or feed to alkylation.

Dimerization Unit converts olefins into higher-octane gasoline blending components. Example, butenes can be dimerized
into isooctene which may subsequently be hydrogenated to form isooctane. There are also other uses for dimerization.
Merox Unit treats LPG, kerosene or jet fuel by oxidizing mercaptans to organic disulfides.
Alternative processes for removing mercaptans are known, e.g. doctor sweetening process and caustic washing.

Step-3 (Purification)
Desalter Unit washes out salt from the crude oil before the crude oil enters atmospheric distillation unit.
Hydrotreater Unit In the hydrotreating process, the entering feedstock is mixed with hydrogen & heated to 300 - 380°C.
The feedstock combined with hydrogen, enters reactor loaded with catalyst where sulphur combines with hydrogen (H2S)
Amine Gas Treater, Claus Unit, Tail Gas Treatment convert H2S from hydrodesulfurization into elemental sulfur.
Wastewater Collection and Treating Systems generally consist of API separators, dissolved air flotation (DAF) unit and
further treatment units such as an activated sludge biotreater to make water suitable for reuse or for disposal.
Solvent Refining Units use solvent such as cresol or furfural to remove unwanted, mainly aromatics from lubricating oil.
Solvent Dewaxing Units remove the heavy waxy constituents petrolatum from vacuum distillation products.

Utility Units such as cooling towers circulate cooling water, boiler plants generates steam, and instrument air systems
include pneumatically operated control valves and an electrical substation.
Liquified gas storage vessels store propane / similar gaseous fuels at pressure sufficient to maintain them in liquid form.
These are usually spherical vessels or "bullets" (i.e., horizontal vessels with rounded ends).
Storage Tanks store crude oil and final finished product, usually cylindrical, with some sort of vapor emission control and
surrounded by an earthen berm to contain spills.
Gas Processing
WELLHEAD
* Each operating well produces wet sour gas.
* The two-phase stream flows through flowlines to separately located Gas Treatment Units (GTU)

GAS TREATMENT UNIT (GTU)

* The flowlines from wellheads combine in GTU Multi-Selector manifolds.
* The two-phase stream is cooled in Inlet Coolers & then enters the bottom integral separator of TEG contactor where the
liquids are removed from the wet sour gas.
* The purpose of Dehydration Unit is to water dew point the gas with TEG contactor to a level below minimum expected
pipeline operating temperature 0 °C at operating pressure to avoid condensation of water and thus preventing corrosion.
* The Wet Sour Gas is changed to Dry Sour Gas in Gas Treatment Units (GTU).
* The dry sour gas is then sent to processing facilities through the infield gas pipelines.
* The sour condensate/water from TEG Dehydration column integral separator is sent through infield condensate/water
pipelines to processing facilities.
* The rich TEG from TEG Contactor is sent via infield rich TEG pipeline for TEG Regeneration Units.
* The lean TEG returns from TEG Regeneration Unit via infield lean TEG pipeline.
* TEG – TRI ETHYLENE GLYCOL – Used to dehydrate or dew point wet sour gas to dry sour gas.
* Processing Facility consists of Slug Catchers. The Slug Catcher downstream of GTU manifold prevents the liquids slugs
entering gas trains. The dry sour gas from slug catcher goes for processing.

ACID GAS ABSORPTION

* The dry sour gas passes through Acid Gas Absorption Unit where H 2S, CO2 are removed to meet sales gas specification
* Amine is used to remove the impurities like H2S and CO2 from dry sour gas.

DEHYDRATION
* The dry sweet gas is chilled in Dehyration Inlet Chiller and then water dew pointed in the Dehydration Unit using TEG.
* Acid Gas Absorption, Dehydration Units are designed to meet sales gas specification for Sulphur, Carbon Dioxide and
water dew point/hydrate formation temperature.

HYDROCARBON DEWPOINTING
* The dry sweet gas is then further chilled in Gas/Gas Exchangers before being letdown in pressure via Turbo Expander
into Low Temperature Separator.
* The liquid hydrocarbons from Low Temperature Separator are fed to Condensate Stabilisation Unit.
* The hydrocarbon dew pointed gas from Low Temp. Separator goes to suction of ReCompressor via Gas/Gas Exchanger
and Dehydration Inlet Chiller.
* The Re-Compressor boosts the gas pressure utilising energy from Turbo-Expander.
* From Re-Compressor the gas is routed to storage and metering and to gas export line.
ACID GAS REGENERATION
In an Acid Gas Regeneration Unit the rich amine from AGA is converted back to lean amine and sour gas high in H2S is
generated and sent to Sulphur Recovery Unit where sulphur is extracted.

SULPHUR RECOVERY UNIT

The sour gas from Acid Gas Regeneration Unit goes to Sulphur Recovery Unit producing molton sulphur.
The molton sulphur produced from SRU, feeds the common Sulphur Pelletisation and Bagging Plant.

CONDENSATE STABILISATION
* The condensate/water pipelines from GTU passes through 3-phase Liquid Separators via Inlet Liquid Heater which
raises the condensate/water temperature to 60 °C to promote quick and easy separation.
* The sour gas is sent to Thermal Oxidisers through the Rich Amine Flash Columns.
* The sour unstabilised condensate is sent to Condensate Stabilisation Unit.
* The Condensate Stabilisation Unit takes majority of the condensate from Inlet Liquid Separator, Low Temperature
Separators and Turbo Expander Inlet Knock Out Drum.
* The condensate passes through Condensate Flash Drum (3-phase separator) before entering Condensate Stabiliser via
Stabiliser Feed/Bottom Exchanger. The Condensate Stabiliser has reboiler to provide the stripping vapours.
* The stabilised condensate product leaves the bottom of Condensate Stabiliser Column to condensate storage & export
via Condensate Product Pump, Stabiliser Feed/Bottom Excahnger and Stabilised Condensate Cooler.
* Sour overheads gas of Condensate Stabiliser Column goes to Thermal Oxidisers through Rich Amine Flash Columns.

PRODUCED WATER SYSTEM

* The produced water system takes majority of the sour water from the Inlet Liquid Separators, TEG Regeneration Units,
Acid Gas Regeneration Units, Condensate Flash Drums and SRU.
* Sour water is first passed through sour water degassing drum before entering sour water stripper via stripper feed pump
and sour water feed/bottom exchanger.
* The flashed gas from degassing drum are fed to sour water stripper using steam ejector.
* Sour water stripper has a kettle reboiler to provide the stripping vapours.
* The stripped water leaves the bottom of stripper column to disposal water vessel via stripped water pump, sour water
feed/bottom exchanger and stripped water cooler. The sour gas from sour water stripper goes to sulphur recovery units.
* Disposal water is sent for further treatment to evaporation pond.
WELLHEAD FACILITIES
Each Wellhead consist of the following:
• Choke valve
• Wellhead hydraulic panel
• Bolt type strainer upstream choke valve to remove debris from wells
• Corrosion Inhibitor Chemical Injection Package
• Provision for well killing operations and Burn pit
The wellheads are connected to Gas Treatment Unit (GTU) by flowlines with suitable Corrosion Allowance.
Provision for continuous corrosion inhibitor dosing upstream of choke valve is provided to minimize extend of corrosion.
The flowlines are protected from over-pressure by installing an ESD valve upstream of choke which closes based on 2oo3
pressure voting system at choke downstream (HIPPS). Additionally, relief valves are provided at GTU end of the flowlines.
Portable pig trap systems at wellhead & GTU end to enable pigging operation on flowline during shutdown maintainence.

GTU FACILITIES
Inlet Facilities
Wet Sour Gas from production wells is routed via individual flowlines to the separately located Gas Treatment Unit (GTU).
Multiple flowlines are routed to each GTU where they combine in the multi-port selector manifolds (MSM).
There are 2 MSM per GTU with ½ nos. flowlines connected to each MSM. Outlet of both MSM combine into single header
Provisions are provided in both the MSM to test one flowline through the multi-phase flow metering unit via test manifold.

Dehydration
Each GTU consists of the following equipments. (2 X 100%)
• Inlet Cooler
• TEG Contactor
• Lean TEG Heater
• Liquid Filters
During normal operation, both train operate at 50% capacity & when one train is offline due to maintenance,inspection etc.
the other train would be operated at full 100% capacity.
The wet sour gas from the production header is cooled in the Inlet Cooler and then routed to the TEG Contactor.
The two-phase stream enters the bottom integral separator of TEG Contactor where condensate and water are separated
from wet sour gas. The condensate/water then passes through Liquid Filters and is routed to condensate/water manifold.
Wet sour gas from integral separator then pass to TEG Contactor where it is contacted with high concentration lean TEG
supplied from TEG Regeneration Unit.
The supply temperature of lean TEG is maintained at a small margin above the inlet gas temperature to TEG Contactor by
adjustment of the heating elements on the Lean TEG Heater.
The lean TEG will absorb the water from the gas so as to water dew point the gas to a level below the minimum expected
pipeline operating temperature of 0°C at operating pressure to avoid condensation of water and thus preventing corrosion.
Rich TEG leaving TEG Contactor is returned to TEG Regeneration Unit for regeneration.
The dry sour gas from the TEG Contactors is combined and routed to main processing facility.
The dry sour gas may be routed to flare in case of downstream upset or during start-up.

TEG Regeneration
TEG Regeneration Unit uses rich TEG from the GTU TEG Contactor. The Rich TEG is fed to the Rich TEG Flash Drum.
The regeneration process produces lean TEG by counter-current contact with stripping gas from the Fuel Gas System.
In the Rich TEG Flash Drum, dissolved and entrained gases are vented under backpressure control to SRUs.
The degassed rich TEG is filtered by TEG Filters and then pre-heated in the Hot Lean/Rich TEG Exchanger and in the
TEG Reflux Condenser in TEG still column. The TEG Reflux Condenser is U-tube type condenser inside TEG still column.
The pre-heated rich TEG is then flashed into Still Column where it is partially stripped against vapours from TEG Reboiler.
Partially regenerated TEG flows from Reboiler to be counter-current contacted with stripping gas in TEG Stripping Column
Hot Lean TEG from TEG Stripping Column passes to Lean TEG Surge Drum via the Hot Lean TEG/Rich TEG Exchanger.
A pH control solution and antifoam chemicals are injected upstream Lean TEG Pump and is pumped to TEG Contactor.
The Lean TEG Pumps operate with one duty pump and one standby. An additional TEG circulation pump is provided to
increase the availability during start-up & shutdown wherein TEG is circulated through lean/rich pipelines to keep it warm.
MAIN PROCESSING FACILITIES
Gas Inlet Facilities
Dry Sour Gas flowing from GTUs is received at dry gas manifold via dedicated infield gas pipelines, one pipeline per GTU.
Each pipeline is equipped with an Infield Gas Pipeline Pig Receiver. The manifold has two outlets with two slug catchers.
Slug Catcher liquids are routed via the Slug Catcher liquid Filters to the Condensate Flash Drum.
Cross over valves provided at inlet and outlet of two Slug Catchers for operation flexibility. Slug Catchers are designed for
total flow from GTU’s so that if one slug catcher is offline for maintenance, inspection then other can take entire load.
The dry sour gas passes to the Slug Catcher where any condensate and water is separated from the dry sour gas.
The separated gas is routed to the Acid Gas Absorption Units. (Generally 2 trains for Redundancy purposes).
A master flow controller maintains equal flow of gas to the Acid Gas Absorption Trains within the main processing facility.
If the pressure goes too high due to shutdown in any train then the gas is routed to flare.
Operator is then supposed to reduce the intake of gas by appropriately throttling the choke valve at wellheads.

Acid Gas Absorption

Generally there are 2 parallel Acid Gas Absorption Trains which treat the dry sour gas to achieve a maximum H2S+COS
of 5.0 mg/Sm3 and CO2 of 1.5%vol in export sales gas specifications.
Dry Sour Gas entering the Acid Gas Absorption Units passes through the Inlet Filter Separators.
These filters coalesce and remove any liquids and fine solid contaminants from the feed gas.
Following filtration the gas is heated with LP steam via Sour Gas Preheater to ensure that the gas remain above dewpoint
It is fed to Acid Gas Absorber where it is counter-current contacted with lean amine from Amine Regeneration Column to
remove the H2S, together with a proportion of the CO2.
Acid Gas Absorber is a trayed column design.
The Acid Gas Absorber sump is equipped with facility to skim hydrocarbons from rich amine & route them to closed drain.
The sweetened gas leaving the Absorber is routed to the TEG Dehydration Unit via the Treated Gas Knock-Out Drum.
Treated gas may be routed to flare during start-up until purity specifications are achieved. Rich amine flowing from bottom
of the Absorber is routed to the Amine Flash Drum. Rich amine from Acid Gas Absorber is flashed into Amine Flash Drum
along with off-gas from Inlet Liquid Separators. Acid gas released from Amine Flash Drum is routed to Thermal Oxidisers
or if the pressure rises too high in the vessel during upset conditions then it is sent to the HP Flare System.

Acid Gas Regeneration Unit

Generally there are 2 parallel Acid Gas Regeneration Trains.
The Rich amine passes to Rich/Lean Amine Exchanger for preheating by lean amine exiting Amine Regeneration Column
The pre-heated rich amine is then flashed into the top of Amine Regeneration Column where it is stripped against vapours
generated by Amine Regeneration Reboilers. The Reboiler which is horizontal kettle type reboiler is heated by LP steam.
Amine Regeneration column is a random packed column.
Amine Regen. Column sump is equipped with facility to skim hydrocarbons from lean amine & route them to closed drain.
Overhead vapour from column is cooled in Amine Regeneration Condenser & routed to Amine Regeneration Reflux Drum
equipped with facility to skim (HC), acid gas is released and sent to SRU or if the pressure rises too high in drum during
upset conditions then it is sent to LP Flare. The condensed liquid collected, predominately water, is returned as reflux by
Amine Regeneration Reflux Pumps to Amine Regeneration Column. It may also be sent to Sour Water Degassing Drum
in the Produced Water System. The Regeneration Reflux Pumps operate with one duty pump and one standby.

Sulphur Recovery Unit

The process design is based on superclaus process to recover elementary sulphur from an H2S containing gas stream.
Acid gas feed from TEG Regeneration Unit, Sour Water Stripping Unit is fed to SRU Sulphur Recovery Unit trains.
The SRU consists of a thermal stage in which H2S is partially burnt with preheated air followed by 3 catalytic Claus stages
and a catalytic SUPERCLAUS stage. The tail gas from the final stage is routed to the thermal oxidizer.

There are other methods to recover elemental sulphur from H2S, but superclaus is the widely used process.
Dehydration
The Dehydration Unit is designed to achieve the water dewpoint specification of -8˚C at 73.5 bara in the export sales gas.
It also ensures that hydrates do not form in Hydrocarbon Dewpointing Unit downstream & hence water dewpoint of -41°C
is met in TEG unit (the minimum hydrate formation temperature is -31 °C).
Treated gas from the Acid Gas Absorption Units passes via the Dehydration Feed Cooler to the Dehydration Inlet Chiller
where it is cooled in the heat exchange with treated dry gas from Gas/Gas Exchanger. If temperature of treated gas from
Gas/Gas Exchanger goes low, some of returning treated dry gas will automatic bypass to prevent hydrate blockage.
The treated gas then passes to the bottom integral Separator of TEG Contactor where condensate and water is removed
The condensate is routed to the Condensate Flash Drum and the water is sent to the Amine Regeneration Units.
The gas passes through the chimney tray to top packed section of TEG Contactor where it is counter-current contacted
with high concentration lean TEG supplied from TEG Regeneration Unit.
The lean TEG absorbs the water so as to achieve water dewpoint of -41°C in the gas leaving TEG Contactor.
The supply temperature of lean TEG is maintained at a small margin above the dry treated gas leaving TEG Contactor.
Also, to ensure stable operation, anti-foam is injected into the lean TEG within the TEG regeneration unit skid.
The dry treated gas is to be routed to flare during start-up until moisture specification is achieved.
The rich TEG flows from the bottom of the TEG Contactor to the TEG Regeneration Unit.

After the Dehydration units, the treated gas may go to a series of processes (NGL Recovery or Fractionation etc),
If the hydrocarbons (other than methane) like ethane, propane, butane etc are present in significant quantity and
can be separated out as a end products for sales.

If the treated gas contains mainly methane and a small traces of other hydrocarbons which are not significants,
then treated gas is passed to Hydrocarbon Dewpointing Unit, where these hydrocarbon are removed from gas or
the hydrocarbons are reduced within acceptable limits as per the export sales gas international specifications.

Hydrocarbon Dewpointing
The Hydrocarbon Dewpointing Unit is designed to achieve the specification of -5˚C at 73.5 bara in the export sales gas.
The treated dry gas from the Dehydartion unit enters the Gas/Gas Exchanger.
In the Gas/Gas Exchanger, the dehydrated gas is cooled by dewpointed gas leaving the Low Temperature Separator.
This cooling creates some condensate which is separated in the Turbo Expander Inlet Knock-Out Drum.
The treated dry gas leaves Turbo Expander KO Drum and flows to Turbo Expander and to Low Temperature Separator.
The Turbo Expander reduces the pressure and temperature. The train throughput is controlled from a pressure controller
upstream of the Turbo Expander which modulates the Turbo Expander inlet guide vanes.
Condensate collected in the Low Temperature Separators and in the Turbo Expander Inlet KO Drum is then sent to the
Condensate Stabilisation Unit via the Condensate Heater. The dewpointed gas leaving the Low Temperature Separator
is routed to the Gas/Gas Exchanger and then to the Dehydration Inlet Chiller where it is used to cool the feed stream to
the Dehydration Inlet Separator. If gas entering Low Temp Separator becomes too cold, there is risk of hydrate formation.
In this case a temperature control valve opens to bypass some of dewpointed gas around so as to re-warm the feed inlet.
Dewpointed gas leaving Dehydration Inlet Chiller is fed to Re-Compressor where it is compressed to 74.6 bara and 45˚C.
The sales gas then is routed to the Sales Gas Metering Unit.

Sales Gas Metering and Export (By Pipelines)

Sales gas enter the sales gas pipeline via the Sales Gas Metering.
The export gas pipeline is equipped with an Export Gas Pipeline Pig Launcher and Export Gas Pipeline Pig Receiver.
The export gas pipeline has block valve stations at convenient locations along route. Block valve station has pig signalers,
pressure, temperature, flow transmitters upstream / downstream of block valves stations. All these signals are transmitted
to CCR (Central Control Room) Each block valve station has also been equipped with valving arrangement as to bypass
the block valves stations for downstream pressurization at start-up and connection to mobile flare unit.
PLATFORMS
 FIXED PLATFORMS
1) Fixed Platforms
In shallow waters, it is possible to physically attach a platform to sea floor. The 'legs' are constructed of steel, extending down from platform,
and fixed to seafloor with piles. There are many possible designs for these fixed or permanent platforms.
The main advantage is their stability; as they are attached to seafloor, there is limited exposure to movement due to wind and water forces.
However, these platforms cannot be used in deep waters; it is simply not economical to build legs that long.
A shallow water complex is made of several individual platforms with different parts of the process and utilities linked with gangway bridges.
Individual platforms include wellhead platform,processing platform,accommodation platform, power generation platform, utilities platform etc.
Typically found in water depths upto 100 meters

2) Fixed Platforms - Jackup Platforms

Once a jackup platform is towed to the site, three or four 'legs' are lowered until they rest on the sea bottom.
These rigs are typically safer to operate than other types of fixed platform as the working platform is elevated above sea level.
However, jackup platforms are suitable only for shallower waters, as extending the legs down too deeply would be impractical.
Typically found in water depths upto 200 meters.

3) Fixed Platform – Gravity Base Platforms

These consist of enormous concrete fixed structures placed on the bottom, typically with oil storage cells in ‘skirt’ that rests on sea bottom.
With concrete structures, the weight of legs and offshore platform is so great, that they do not have to be physically attached to the seafloor
but instead simply rest on their own mass. The large deck area receives all parts of the process and utilities in large modules.
Typically found in water depths from 100 - 500 meters.

4) Fixed Platform - Compliant Towers or Tower Platforms

Compliant towers are like fixed platforms, but consist of a narrow tower, attached to a foundation on seafloor and extending upto the platform
This tower is flexible, as opposed to the relatively rigid legs of a fixed platform.
This flexibility allows these to operate in much deeper water as it can 'absorb' much of the pressure exerted on it by the wind and sea forces.
Despite its flexibility, the compliant tower platforms are strong enough to withstand hurricane conditions.
Typically found in water depths from 500 - 1000 meters.

A fixed platform is a type of offshore platform used for the production of oil and gas.
These platforms are built on concrete and/or steel legs anchored directly onto the seabed, supporting a deck with space for the drilling rigs,
production facilities and crew quarters. Fixed platforms are by virtue of their immobility, designed for very long term use.
Various types of structure are used steel jacket, concrete caisson, floating steel and even floating concrete.
Steel jackets are vertical sections made of tubular steel members and are usually piled into the seabed.
Concrete structures or Gravity Base structures, have in-built oil storage in tanks below the sea surface and tanks have a flotation capability,
allowing them to be built close to shore and then floated to their final position where these tanks are sunk to the seabed.
Fixed platforms are economically feasible for installation in water depths up to about 500 meters.
A fixed platform consists of a welded steel jacket, deck and surface facility. The jacket and deck make up the foundation for surface facilities.
Piles driven into the seafloor secure the jacket. The water depth at the intended location generally/usually dictates the height of the platform.
Once the jacket is secured & the deck is installed, the additional modules are added for drilling, production , crew operations, accomdations.
Surface facilities (also known as topsides) are the part of the platform that contains the drilling, production and crew quarter modules.
The size of each module is dictated by volume of fluid to be handled, the number of personnel needed to operate the facility and operations,
and the potential expansion needed to accommodate future production from other fields.
Combined, the topsides dimensions could be 60 m X 60m per deck level and with four decks resulting in an overall height of 30 meters.

A jacket is a tubular supporting structure for an offshore platform consisting of four, six or eight 2m to 4m diameter tubulars welded together
with pipe braces to form a stoollike structure. The jacket is secured to the seafloor by weight and the diameter of piles that penetrate several
hundreds of feet beneath the mudline. Typical base dimensions are 120 m X 150 m. Skirts are added to aid the jacket in fixing it to seafloor.
At the water line, dimensions can range upto 60m on a side. The water depth that the topsides will reside in normally dictates jacket height.

A pipeline is system of connected lengths of pipe that transports hydrocarbons; the pipe is usually laid/buried on seafloor by pipe-lay barge.
Pipe diameters generally range from 4 to 36 inches. The pipes may be coated in concrete for weight & use some type of cathodic protection
for long-term integrity. Distances between the production facility and its onshore destination dictate length.

Support services that make everyday operation possible includes supplies, materials and workers that can be transported by the workboats,
crewboats, supply boats, and helicopters.

After onshore fabrications of jacket is completed, it is loaded onto a very large barge (dimensions 250 m X 60 m X 20 m) that will transport
the jacket to its location. The towing of the jacket may involve the use of several tugs (upto 52,000 hp combined) over hundreds of miles,
the distance determined by where the jacket is fabricated and where the intended site is located.
In some designs, there is a jacket base section which is separate and may be in place before the actual jacket is installed.
The placement of the jacket base section prior to the jacket could provide better support during installation.
Once the jacket arrives on location, it is launched, up-ended, and lowered into position with two or more tugs.
With a beacon system or with a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) assist, the jacket is placed in position on the seafloor.
The beacon system consists of homing devices laid on the seafloor around the area of the jacket's intended site;
the beacons allow computer-aided control and monitoring of the installation process.
Then a pile and hammer-handling barge is brought into drive the piles into seafloor, through guides in legs.
A second method of pile driving is the use of an underwater hammer with ROV alignment.
Once this work is completed, the jacket is secure on location and the surface facilities can be installed.

The surface facilities are fabricated onshore and towed out on one or more crane barges.
Once on location, the crane barge(s) is moored in whatever fashion needed and installation begins.
Mooring can be done by different methods such as lines to seafloor only or a combination of lines to the jacket and the seafloor.
A crane on barge(s) transfers the modules as a whole or separately from the barge(s) to deck where workers complete the final connections.

A pipeline is connected to the jacket via a jumper at its base. A pipe-laying barge or ship installs the pipeline over the distance needed to
connect the platform to on-shore or another facility.
For deepwater applications, these vessels may be dynamically positioned and do not require any mooring system.

The nature of a component as well as the weather dictates the extent and duration of the maintenance performed on a platform.
Either divers or an ROV in deeper water inspects the jacket or anything inside its boundary to determine extent of maintenance required.
A crane barge would attempt any retrieval or replacement.
The crew can maintain any surface facility component, as drilling, production, crew quarter module & repair it with parts brought by workboat
If major repairs or replacements are needed, a crane barge transfers large materials or complete modules.

The pipelines are monitored for pressure changes in the lines and through ROV inspection by video. If leaks are detected, repairs are begun.
Clamps can be used to minimize lost fluids until a new line is laid and put on line.
Pigs are pumped through sections of the pipe to clean out inner walls, clearing them of any paraffin or hydrate coating.
(Pigs are wipers that can be several feet long and whose cross-section equals the inner diameter of the pipeline.)

With platforms, seafloor footprints are limited to the dimensions of base of the jacket and mooring systems of crane barges and workboats.
The mooring systems of the crane barges and workboats may vary, but they commonly use the jacket structure and seafloor for anchoring.

During normal operations of the surface facility, air emissions occur from the separation, compression and cogeneration components and
from other sources. Emissions can occur during installation and maintenance of of components. The prime movers for the drilling operation
and the operational components for living quarters also add to the air emissions. Stored chemical may spill or ignite, adding to emissions.

Water discharges from the surface facility can occur from many sources during normal operations. Discharges may also occur during the
installation and maintenance of any component. Any of the many liquid chemicals used in operations have the potential of being spilled.
These include but are not limited to any glycol or methanol used in chemical injection, dispersant agent which used in oil-spill response,
produced waters, mud residues from the rock cuttings and cleaning agents.

From drilling operations, the cuttings account for most of the discharges. The water depth dictates the distribution of the cuttings.
In deepwater, cuttings have longer distances to travel to reach the seafloor and are distributed over a larger area.
The size and type of particle, as well as the ocean currents, affect the distribution.
This disturbance is not focused in a small area as in shallow water, where piles may accumulate after a long time.
Other impacts may include any dropped objects such as tools, spare parts and trash.
 FLOATING PLATFORMS
5) Floating Platform- Seastar Platforms
The seastar platforms are like miniature tension leg platform (TLP). The seastar consists of a floating platform, much like semi-submersible.
A lower hull is filled with water when drilling / prdoduction, which increases stability of platform against high wind and high water movement.
In addition to this semi-submersible platform, Seastar platforms also incorporate the tension leg system employed in larger platforms.
Tension legs are long, hollow tendons that extend from the seafloor to the floating platform.
These legs are kept under constant tension and donot allow any vertical movement of platform.
However their flexibility allow for side-to-side motion, which allows platform to withstand force of ocean & wind, without breaking the legs off.
Seastar platforms are typically used for smaller deep-water reservoirs, when it is not economical to build a larger platform.
They can also be used as utility, satellite or early production platforms for larger deepwater discoveries
Typically found in water depths upto 1000 meters.

6) Floating Platform- Tension Leg Platforms

A tension leg platform consists of a structure held in place by vertical tendous connected to sea floor by pile secured templates.
Tension-leg Platforms, consist of floating rigs tethered to the seabed in a manner that eliminates most vertical movement of the structure.
The structure is held in a fixed position by tensioned templates, which allows use of tension leg platform in a water depth upto 2000m
The tendous are hollow high tensile strength steels pipes that carry the spare byounacy of structure and ensures limited vertical motion.
Tension Leg Platform are larger versions of Seastar Platform. The long and flexible legs are attached to seafloor and run upto the platform.
As with Seastar platform, these legs allow for significant side to side movement (upto 6 meters) with little or limited vertical movement.
Typically found in water depths upto 2000 meters.

7) Floating Platform- Spar Platforms

Spar Platforms are moored to seabed like TLP, but whereas TLP has vertical tension tethers, Spar has more conventional mooring lines.
Spars have been designed in 3 configurations: the "conventional" one-piece cylindrical hull, second is the "truss spar" where midsection is
composed of truss elements connecting upper buoyant hull (called a hard tank) with the bottom soft tank containing permanent ballast and
the third "cell spar" which is built from multiple vertical cylinders. Spar is more economical to build for small and medium sized rigs than TLP
and has more inherent stability than TLP since it has large counterweight at bottom & doesn’t depend on mooring to hold it upright.

SPAR platforms are largest offshore platforms in use. These huge platforms consist of a large cylinder, supporting a typical fixed platform.
The cylinder however does not extend all the way down to seafloor, but instead is tethered to the bottom by a series of cables and lines.
The large cylinder serves to stabilize the platform in the water and allows for movement to absorb the deadly force of potential hurricanes.
SPAR consists of a single tall floating cylindrical hull, supporting a fixed deck.
Typically found in water depths from 300 - 3000 meters.

8) Floating Platform- Semi-Submersible Platforms

These have a floating unit that includes columns and pontoons that, if flooded with water, will cause pontoons to submerge to the depth
that is predetermined. Semi-submersible rigs are the most common type of offshore drilling rigs.
The rig is partially submerged but still floats above the drill site. When drilling, the lower hull is filled with water, providing stability to the rig.
Semi-submersible rigs are generally held in place by huge anchors. These huge anchors combining with the submerged portion of the rigs,
ensures that the platform is stable and safe enough to be used in turbulent offshore waters.

Semi-submersible Platforms having legs of sufficient buoyancy to cause structure to float, but of weight sufficient to keep structure upright.
Semi-submersible rigs can be moved from place to place & can be lowered into or raised by altering amount of flooding in buoyancy tanks;
they are generally anchored by cable anchors during drilling operations. Typcally found in water depths upto 2000 meters
Tension Leg Platform
Tension leg platform or Extended Tension Leg Platform (ETLP) is vertically moored floating structure used for offshore production of oil/ gas,
and is particularly suited for water depths greater than 500 metres and less than 2000 metres.
The platform is moored by means of tethers or tendons grouped at each of structure's corners. A group of tethers is called a tension leg.
The design of tethers is that they have relatively high axial stiffnes (low elasticity) so that virtually all vertical motion of platform is eliminated.
This allows the platform to have production wellheads on deck (connected directly to the subsea wells by rigid risers), instead of on seafloor.
This allows simpler well completion & give better control over production from reservoir & easier acces for downhole intervention operations.

A type of floating production system, tension leg platforms (TLPs) are buoyancy based facilities vertically moored to the seafloor by tendons.
While a buoyant hull supports the platform's topsides, an intricate mooring system keeps the TLP in place. The buoyancy of the facility's hull
offsets the weight of the platform, requiring clusters of tight tendons, or tension legs, to secure the structure to the foundation on the seabed.
The foundation is then kept stationary by piles driven into the seabed.
The tension leg mooring system allows for horizontal movement with wave disturbances, but does not permit vertical, or bobbing, movement,
which makes TLPs a popular choice for stability, such as in the hurricane-prone Gulf of Mexico.
The basic design of a TLP includes four air-filled columns forming a square. These columns are supported and connected by the pontoons,
similar to design of a semisubmersible production platform. Newer designs also comprise E-TLP, which includes a ring pontoon connecting
the four air-filled columns; Moses TLP which centralizes four-column hull and SeaStar TLP which includes only one central column for hull.
In Moses TLP design, the platform deck is located atop the hull of TLP. The topside of a TLP is the same as a typical production platform,
consisting of a deck that houses the drilling and production equipment, as well as the power module and the living quarters.
Dry tree wells are common on TLPs because of the lessened vertical movement on the platforms.
Most wells producing to TLPs are developed through rigid risers, which lift hydrocarbons from the seafloor to dry trees located on TLP deck.
Many times, steel catenary risers are also used to tie-in the subsea flowlines and export pipelines.

Semi-Submersible Platform
Semisubmersible platform are most common type of platform, combining the advantages of submersible with ability to work in deep water.
A semisubmersible platform generally works on the principle of the 'inflating' and 'deflating' of its lower hull with water or air.
When the lower hull is filled with water, it provides stability to the platform. Semisubmersible platforms are held in place by huge anchors.
The anchors combined with submerged portion of platform, ensure that platform is stable/safe enough to be used in turbulent offshore water.

These platforms have legs of sufficient buoyancy to cause the structure to float, but of weight sufficient to keep the structure upright.
Semi-submersible platforms can be moved from place to place; can be ballasted up/down by altering amount of flooding in buoyancy tanks,
Semi-submersible platforms are generally anchored by with chain, wire rope and/or polyester rope during the drilling / production operations,
though they can also be kept in place by the use of dynamic positioning. Semi-submersibles can be used in water depths upto 2000 meters.

The small waterline area means that its movement can get out of phase with the waves.
So even with 40 foot clearance above water, a 15 foot wave might cause problems. So they need lot of clearance both above & below water,
so there is a minimum size structure that can work for certain wave height assumptions. So it does not scale down well.
Typical oil platforms are tied to the bottom of the ocean so they do not move up and down, so they don't get out of phase with the waves.
This type of semi-submersible platform is called a tension-leg platform (TLP).

Spar Platform
Spar platform consists of a large-diameter, single vertical cylinder supporting a deck. The cylinder is weighted at the bottom by a chamber
filled with a material that is denser than water to lower the center of gravity of the platform and provide stability.
Spars are anchored to seabed by way of a spread mooring system with either a chain-wire-chain or chain-polyester-chain composition.

The spar consists of a large vertical cylinder bearing topsides with equipment.
Similar to an iceberg, the majority of a spar facility is located beneath the water's surface, providing the facility increased stability.
The main component of a spar is deep-draft floating chamber (hollow cylindrical hull). Hull is encircled with spiraling strakes to add stability.
Additionally, the bottom of the cylinder includes a ballasting section with material that weighs more than water, ensuring the center of gravity
is located below the center of buoyancy.
The deep-draft design makes spar less affected by wind, wave, currents, enabling facility to support both subsea & dry tree development.
Additionally the enclosed cylinder acts as protection for risers and equipment, making spars an ideal choice for deepwater developments.
Furthermore, the hull can provide storage for produced oil or gas.
Atop the spar hull sits the topsides, which can be comprised of drilling equipment, production facilities and living quarters.
Drilling is performed from the topsides through the hollow cylinder hull; and drilling, import/export and production risers are passed through
the enclosed hull, as well. The whole spar facility is then moored to the seafloor.
While the hull is fastened to the sea bed through various mooring techniques, spar facilities do not require moorings to stay upright.
The spar design ensures, facility will not topple even if moorings are removed because center of gravity is located below center of buoyancy

There are three types of spars, Classic Spar , Truss Spars and Cell Spars.
Classic Spar : The classic spar consists of a single cylindrical hull, with the heavy ballast at the bottom of the cylinder.
Truss Spar : A truss spar has a shorter cylindrical "hard tank" than classic spar and has a truss structure connected to bottom of hard tank.
At the bottom of the truss structure, there is a relatively small, square shaped "soft tank" that houses the heavy ballasting material.
The Truss spar is similar to the original spar design, but the cylindrical hull is shorted and a truss is incorporated below it.
The truss usually includes horizontal plates that help to decrease vertical movement. The truss spar is advantageous because it weighs less
than the original design and because it requires less steel, which costs less.
Cell Spar : A cell spar has a large central cylinder surrounded by smaller cylinders of alternating lengths.
At the bottom of the longer cylinders is the soft tank housing the heavy ballasting material, similar to a truss spar.
Cell Spar includes six pressure vessels around a seventh vessel. Resembling massive hot dogs, these pressure vessels are more easily and
cost-effectively generated through mass production. Providing the buoyancy for the facility, the vessels are held in place by a structural steel,
which extends below the vessels and keeps with the deep-draft design by providing stability.
 PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
9) Subsea System
Subsea production systems are wells located on the sea floor, as opposed to at the surface.
As in floating production system, petroleum is extracted at seafloor and then can be 'tied-back' to an already existing production platform.
The well can be drilled by moveable rig and instead of building a production platform for that well, the extracted oil and natural gas can be
transported by a riser or undersea pipeline to nearby production platform. They do not have ability to drill, but only to extract and transport.
This allows one strategically placed production platform to service many wells over a reasonably large area.
Typically found in water depths above 2000 meters.

10) Floating Production Systems

Floating production systems are semi-submersible platform, except that they contain petroleum production equipment & drilling equipment.
The platforms can be kept in place through large heavy anchors or through the dynamic positioning system used by the drillships.
In FPS Floating production systems, once drilling is completed, the wellhead is actually attached to seafloor, instead of up on the platform.
The extracted petroleum is transported via risers from this wellhead to the production facilities on semi-submersible platform.
Typically found in water depths upto 2000 meters.

11) FPSO – Floating, Production, Storage and Offloading

An FPSO is typically a tanker type hull or barge, often converted from existing crude oil tanker. Due to increasing sea depth for new fields,
they dominate new offshore field development at more than 100 meters depth.
The wellheads from seafloor is located on central or bow mounted turret, so that ship rotates freely to point with wind, waves or currents.
The turret has wire rope and chain connections to several anchors or it can be dynamically positioned using thrusters.
Most FPSO uses subsea wells. The main process is placed on the deck, while the hull is used for storage and offloading to shuttle tanker.
A new version of ship shaped FPSO is with circular hull which shows the same profile to wind, waves or current regardless of the direction.
It shares many of the characteristics of the ship shaped FPSO such as high storage capacity and high deck load but does not rotate and
therefore does not need a rotating turret.
Subsea Systems
Oil and Gas fields reside beneath many inland waters and offshore areas around the world and in the oil and gas industry the term subsea
relates to the exploration, drilling and development of oil and gas fields in underwater locations.
Under water oil field facilities are generally referred to using subsea prefix, subsea well, subsea field, subsea project, subsea development.
Subsea oil field developments are split into Shallow water and Deepwater categories to distinguish between different facilities & approaches.
The term shallow water is used for shallow water depths where bottom-founded facilities like jackup drilling rigs and fixed offshore structures
can be used and where saturation diving is feasible.
Deepwater is a term often used to refer to offshore projects located in water depths greater than 600 feet, where floating drilling vessels and
floating oil platforms are used and remotely operated underwater vehicles are required as manned diving is not practical.

Subsea production systems can range in complexity from a single well with a flowline linked to fixed platform, FPSO or onshore installation,
to several wells on a template or clustered around a manifold and transferring to fixed or floating facility or directly to an onshore installation.
Subsea production system can be used to develop reservoirs or parts of reservoir which require drilling of wells from more than one location.
Deep water conditions or ultradeep water conditions, also inherently dictate development of a field by means of a subsea production system,
since traditional surface facilities such as on steel-piled jacket, might be either technically unfeasible or uneconomical due to the water depth
The development of subsea oil/gas field require specialized equipment. The equipment must be reliable enough to safe guard environment,
and make the exploitation of subsea hydrocarbons economically feasible. The deployment of such equipment requires specialized vessels,
which need to be equipped with diving equipment for relatively shallow equipment work (i.e. a few hundred feet water depth maximum) and
robotic equipment for deeper water depths.
Subsea technology in offshore oil/gas production is highly specialized field of application with particular demands on engineering/simulation.
Most of new oil fields are located in deepwater and are generally referred to as deepwater systems. Development of such kind of fields sets
strict requirements for verification of the various systems’ functions and their compliance with current requirements and specifications.
This is because of high costs & time involved in changing pre-existing system due to specialized vessels with advanced onboard equipment.
A full scale test (System Integration Test – SIT) does not provide satisfactory verification of deepwater system because any test in labortory,
cannot be performed under conditions identical to those under which system will later operate. The industry has therefore adopted modern
data technology as a tool for the virtual testing of deepwater systems that enables detection of costly faults at an early phase of the project.
By using modern simulation tools models of deepwater systems can be set up and used to verify system's functions and dynamic properties,
against various requirements specifications. This includes the model-based development of innovative high-tech plants and system solutions
for the exploitation and production of energy resources in an safe environmentally friendly way as well as the analysis and evaluation of the
dynamic behavior of components/systems used for production and distribution of oil and gas. Another part is real-time virtual test of systems
for subsea production, subsea drilling, seismography, subsea construction equipment, subsea process measurement and control equipment.

Subsea processing can encompass a number of different processes to help reduce the cost and complexity of developing an offshore field.
The main types of subsea processing include subsea water removal, reinjection or disposal, single-phase/multi-phase boosting of well fluids,
sand and solid separation, gas/liquid separation and boosting and gas treatment and compression.
In modern offshore production facilities, separation of water, sand and gas can now be performed subsea. Subsea separation reduces the
amount of production transferred from the seafloor to the water's surface, debottlenecking the processing capacity of the development.
Also by separating unwanted components from the production on the seafloor, flowlines and risers are not lifting these ingredients to facility
on the water's surface just to direct them back to the seafloor for re-injection.
Re-injection of produced gas, water and waste increases pressure within the reservoir that has been depleted by production.
Also re-injection helps to decrease unwanted waste, such as flaring, by using the separated components to boost recovery.
On deepwater or ultra-deepwater fields, subsea boosting is needed to get hydrocarbons from seafloor to the facilities on the water's surface.
Subsea boosting negate backpressure that is applied to well, providing pressure needed from reservoir to transfer production to sea surface
Even in mid-water developments, subsea boosting or artificial lift can create additional pressure and further increase recovery from the wells,
even when more traditional EOR methods are being used.
Why operators may choose to install subsea processing equipment is that most subsea processing will increase the recovery from the field,
thus increasing profits. Additionally by enhancing efficiency of flowlines and risers, subsea processing contributes to flow management.
Also subsea processing enables development of challenging subsea fields, while reducing topside expenditures for equipment.
Whether the fields are mature and subsea processing equipment has been installed to increase diminishing production or fields incorporated
subsea processing from initial development to overcome deepwater or environmental challenges, the innovative subsea processing systems
have enabled the fields to achieve higher rates of production.
FPSO (Floating, Production, Storage and Offloading)
FPSO vessels are offshore production facilities that houses both processing equipment and storage for produced hydrocarbons.
The basic design of most FPSOs encompasses a ship-shaped vessel, with processing equipment or topsides aboard the vessel's deck and
hydrocarbon storage below in the double hull. After processing, an FPSO stores oil or gas before offloading periodically to shuttle tankers or
transmitting processed petroleum via pipelines.

FPSO is moored in place by various mooring systems, FPSO is effective development solutions for both deepwater & ultra-deepwater field.
A central mooring system allows vessel to rotate freely to best respond to weather condition or weathervane, while spread-mooring systems
anchor the vessel from various locations on the seafloor.

Usually tied to multiple subsea wells, FPSOs gather hydrocarbons from subsea production wells through a series of in-field pipelines.
Once tapped by subsea wells, hydrocarbons are transmitted through flowlines to risers which transport oil/gas from seafloor to vessel's turret
and then to the FPSO on the water's surface.

The processing equipment aboard the FPSO vessel is similar to what would be found atop a production platform. Usually built-in modules,
FPSO production equipment can consist of water separation, gas treatment, oil processing, water injection and gas compression & others.
Hydrocarbons are then transferred to the vessel's double-hull for storage.

Crude oil that is stored onboard is frequently transferred to shuttle tankers or ocean barges going ashore, via a loading hose.
Loading oil from the stern of the FPSO to the bow of the shuttle tanker is known as tandem loading.
While gas is many times transferred to shore via pipeline or re-injected into the field to boost production.

Permanently moored type FPSO are viable development solutions for a number of different offshore field situations. Because FPSOs can be
disconnected from their moorings, these offshore production vessels are optimal for areas that experience bad / adverse weather conditions,
such as cyclones and hurricanes.

As FPSOs can be moved, they are more economical solution for more marginal fields, as the vessel can be moved to another development
and redeployed once original field has been depleted. Also FPSOs are optimal choice for development when there are no existing pipelines
or infrastructure to transfer production to shore. Adding to economic advantages of FPSO, existing tankers are usually converted into FPSO.

Similar floating systems include Floating Storage & Offloading (FSO), Floating Production Systems (FPS) and Floating Storage Units (FSU)
 ICSS / SAS
Integrated Control and Safety System
Safety and Automation System
 SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)

SCADA is a control layer above a DCS/RTU system.

SCADA does not perform DCS but the elements of a DCS system can perform SCADA.

A SCADA system is event driven, while a DCS system is process driven.

A SCADA system is primarily interested in process events, while a DCS system is primarily interested in process trends.

SCADA is data-gathering oriented / event oriented: The control centre and operators are the centre of its universe.
The remote equipment is merely there to collect the data-though it may also perform some very complex process control. The SCADA system must
operate reasonably when field communications fails. The 'quality' of data shown to the operator is an important fact of the SCADA system.
SCADA needs to get secure data and control over an unreliable communications medium and maintains a database of the 'last known good values'
for operator display. It frequently needs to do event processing and data quality validation. Redundancy is usually handled in a distributed manner.
These underlying differences needs design decisions that requires more complexity in SCADA system databases and data-gathering systems than is
usually found in DCS. The DCS systems typically have more complexity in their process-control functionality.
DCS is process oriented: DCS looks at the controlled process (refinery process) as the centre of the universe. A DCS operator workstation is normally
connected with its I/O (through local wiring, FieldBus etc). When DCS operator wants to see information he makes a request directly to the field I/O
and gets a response. Field events are directly able to interrupt the DCS system and advise the operator. DCS is always connected to its data source,
so it doesnot need to maintain a database of 'current values', it generally acts on real time. Redundancy is usually handled by parallel equipment,
and not by diffusion of information around a distributed database.
Controllers in DCS system handle high speed adjustments to keep the process variable at the desired set point. These controllers receive commands
from a SCADA to change to a new setpoint. It is these controllers which ensure that deviations from the setpoints are detected and compensated.

SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition)

It is impossible to keep control and supervision on all industrial activities manually. Some automated tool or system is required which can control,
supervise, collect data, analyses data and generate reports.
A solution to meet all these demands is the SCADA system. A SCADA system usually refers to a system that coordinates, but does not control process
in real time, DCS controls the process in real time.
Human Machine Interface (HMI)
It is an interface which presents process data to a human operator and through this the human operator monitors and controls the process.
Supervisory (computer) System
The supervisory station refers to servers and software responsible for communicating with field equipment (RTUs, PLCs ) and then to HMI software
running on workstations in control room or elsewhere.
Remote Terminal Unit
It connect to sensors in the process, converting sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory system.
Communication infrastructure
It provides connectivity to the supervisory system to the Remote Terminal Units.

SCADA usually refers to a centralized system which monitors and control the entire sites or complexes of systems spread out over a very large areas.
Most control actions are performed automatically by the RTUs or DCSs. Host control functions in a SCADA are usually restricted to basic overriding or
supervisory level intervention. For example the DCS may control the flow of cooling water through part of an industrial process, but SCADA system
may allow operators to change set points for flow and enable alarm conditions, such as loss of flow/high temperature, to be displayed and recorded.
SCADA systems have distributed database, referred as tag database, which contains data elements called tags or points.
A point is a single input or output value monitored or controlled by a system. Points can be either "hard" or "soft". A hard point represents an actual
input or output within system, while soft point results from logic/mathematical operations which are applied to other points. (Most implementation
conceptually remove the distinction by making every property a "soft" point expression, which may in the simplest case equal a single hard point).
The Points are normally stored as value-timestamp pairs: a value and the timestamp when it was recorded or calculated.
A series of value-timestamp pairs generally gives the history of that point. It is also common to store additional metadata with tags or points, such as
the path to a field device or PLC register, design time comments and alarm information.

The term SCADA usually refers to a centralised system that monitors and controls a complete site. The bulk of the site control is actually performed
automatically by a Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) or by a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC). Host control functions are almost always restricted to
basic site over-ride or supervisory level capability. Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and equipment state
uses that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI
can make appropriate supervisory decisions that may be required to over-ride normal RTU or PLC controls.

SCADA software is event driven. A change of state will cause the system to generate all alarms, events, database updates and any special processing
required relating to that change directly from the recognition of that change (including any analogue alarms).
Event lists and Alarm lists are of major importance to operator, sometimes more than process data screens. Filtering of these lists is quite complex,
allowing displays sorted by plant/system area and alarm/event category/importance. Configuring alarms and events for points is relatively very easy,
as such attributes are usually added by default when a point is added to a SCADA system database.
On the down side, the display of process data can be neglected by system manufacturers. It can be difficult to draw and configure system displays,
and graphics can be dismal, although modern operating systems with off the shelf display packages are overcoming this.
 DCS (Distributed Control System)

The concept of automatic control includes accomplishing two major operations; that is the transmission of signals (information flow) back and forth
and the calculation of control actions (decision making). Carrying out these operations in real plant requires a set of hardware and instrumentation
that serve as the platform for these tasks. Distributed control system (DCS) is the most modern control platform.

A DCS refers to a control system usually of a process or any kind of dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not central in location but
are usually distributed throughout the system with each component of sub-system controlled by one or more controllers.

A DCS uses processors as controllers and uses both proprietary interconnections and communications protocol for communication.
Input/output modules form component parts of DCS. Processor receives information from input modules and sends information to output modules.
The input modules receive information from input instruments in the field and transmit instructions to the output instruments in field.
Computer & Electrical buses connect processor and modules through multiplexer or demultiplexers. Buses also connect distributed controllers with
central controller and finally to Human–machine interface (HMI) or control consoles.

DCS is process oriented: DCS looks at the controlled process (refinery process) as the centre of the universe. A DCS operator workstation is normally
connected with its I/O (through local wiring, FieldBus etc). When DCS operator wants to see information he makes a request directly to the field I/O
and gets a response. Field events are directly able to interrupt the DCS system and advise the operator. A DCS is always connected to its data source,
so it doesnot need to maintain a database of 'current values', it generally acts on real time. Redundancy is usually handled by a parallel equipment,
and not by diffusion of information around a distributed database.
Controllers in DCS system handle high speed adjustments to keep the process variable at the desired set point. These controllers receive commands
from a SCADA to change to a new setpoint. It is these controllers which ensure that deviations from the setpoints are detected and compensated.

The elements of DCS may connect directly to physical equipment such as switches, pumps, valves and to Human Machine Interface (HMI) via SCADA.
DCSs are used to control industrial processes such oil and gas refineries. Product and process control are usually achieved by deploying feed back or
feed forward control loops whereby key product and/or process conditions are automatically maintained around a desired set point.
To accomplish desired product and/or process tolerance around a specified set point, specific programmable controllers (PLC) are employed in field
and proportional, integral, differential settings on PLC are tuned to provide desired tolerance & desired rate of self-correction during process upsets.
DCSs are used extensively in process-based industries for controlling a process.

DCS systems and process control system based SCADA HMIs are state based and consider the process variable's present and past states to be the
main criteria driving the DCS. PLC protocols are generally register scanning based, with no specific change of state processing provided.
Should a point toggle between scans, it will not be seen by the DCS. If any change of states are critical (as some would be for a DCS used for SCADA
applications), a point must be latched on until it is confirmed it has been scanned, which can be difficult and non-deterministic.
Field devices do not scan points as rapidly, but may be able to present them to the DCS in an overall faster time.

DCS software tasks are generally run sequentially, rather than event driven.
Therefore alarms or events are not generated when a point changes state, but when that particular process is run.
Events and alarm lists are secondary in importance to the process displays and filtering may not be as complex and flexible.
Configuring points is a separate task, with points requiring alarms and events needing to be configured in a separate action.
The generation and display of data, especially analogue trends and standard process blocks, is more user friendly for both operator and engineer.

A DCS consists of functionally and/or geographically distributed digital controllers capable of executing regulatory control loops.
The input/output (I/O) devices can be integral with the controller or located remotely (Remote I/Os) and connected by a communication network.
The controllers have extensive computational capabilities and in addition to proportional, integral, derivative control, can generally perform logic
and sequential control.

The DCS (Distributed Control System) systems are usually designed with redundany to enhance the reliability and availability of the control system.
Redundancy is generally applied at three different levels.
• Power Supply Redundany
• Controller / I/O Redundancy
• Network/Communication Redundancy

DCS may employ one or more workstations and can be configured at the workstation or by an off-line personal computer.
Local communication is handled by a control network with transmission over twisted pair, coaxial or fiber optic cable.
A server and/or applications processor may be included in the system for extra computational, data collection and reporting capability.
 ESD (Emergency Shutdown System)

SIS (Safety Instrumented System) The safety instrumented system shall form a shutdown hierarchy treating fire & gas events, process abnormalities,
electrical isolation, fire fighting, prevent escalation as well as process segregation and blowdown.

The main purpose of an Emergency Shutdown System (ESD) is to minimize the consequences of an emergency situation, due to accidental fires or
uncontrolled release of hydrocarbon or critical process conditions.

All ESD outputs shall be energized in normal conditions. (De-energized to trip)

The Emergency Shutdown System is divided into five main levels:

Level 1 : Abandonment of facility with Automatic Depressurization (Vital Utilities – UPS Power, Emergency Lights)
Level 2 : Total Facility Shutdown (Vital Utilities + Emergency/Essential Utilities like Flare, Fire System, PAGA etc.)
Level 3 : Total Process Shutdown (Process Utilities are not shutdown) (Electrical Utilities/Loads – Normal, Emergency/Essential, Vital)
Level 4 : Process Unit Shutdown
Level 5 : Equipment / Package Shutdown
The system shall operate in a hierarchical arrangement where Level 1 is the highest level shutdown and Level 5 is the lowest level shutdown.
A shutdown initiated at a certain level shall imitate all lower levels shutdowns, but not initiate any higher level shutdowns.

The purpose of Emergency Shutdown System is to ensure that the plant is:
• Depressurized
• Electrically Dead

The Emergency Shutdown System shall initiate and control the following:
• Initiate proper ESD level and all lower levels in the shutdown hierarchy
• Sequential Blowdown of entire facility
• Automatic isolation of all ignition sources
• Shutdown of all equipment except the following:
1. ESD, F&G, PAGA system are left operational during required abandonment time for a safe shutdown and evacuation process
and shall be shutdown via “timer” upon completion of abandonment.
2. Firewater Pumps
3. Emergency Lights
4. Navigational Aids
5. Emergency Radio Systems
6. Emergency Floodlights for lifeboats.

Level 1 is the highest shutdown level in shutdown hierarchy.

Level 1 push-button shall be provided for manual activation in preparation for total facility abandonment.
Level 1 shall be possible to initiate by activation of push-buttons located in:
• Central Control Room (CCR)
• Helideck area
• Lifeboat Embarkation Areas (PLS muster station)

Level 2 pushbutton is used if gas is observed or if observed gas leak cloud reaches in non-hazardous areas.
Fire detection in non-hazardous areas shall not initiate any ESD action but shall initiate alarms in the CCR.
Level 3 pushbutton is used if there is confirmed fire and confirmed gas scenarios in hazardous areas.
Level 2 and Level 3 shall be possible to initiate from :
• Automatics actions from F&G system
• Manual activation of Level 1 and Level 2 push-buttons
• A limited number of critical process conditions

F&G initiated ESD

ESD (Emergency Shutdown System) shall automatically be initiated upon confirmed gas detection within all areas (hazardous and non-hazardous)
and confirmed fire detection within all classified zones or hazardous areas.
Fire detection in non-hazardous areas shall not initiate any ESD actions but shall initiate alarms in CCR

Blowdown
Activation of manual sequential blowdown button in CCR will initiate Level 1 and start sequential blowdown sequence after 30 seconds.
Opening of blowdown valves has 30 seconds time delay to ensure that all emergency shutdown valves are closed.
30 seconds delay on opening of blowdown valves also gives operator some time to evaluate the need for activation of blowdown.
 F&G (Fire and Gas System)

SIS (Safety Instrumented System) The safety instrumented system shall form a shutdown hierarchy treating fire & gas events, process abnormalities,
electrical isolation, fire fighting, prevent escalation as well as process segregation and blowdown.

The F&G System monitors the plant for accidental fires and uncontrolled release of hydrocarbons.
The main purpose of F&G System is to detect the fire and gas hazards, wherever they are likely to occur in the plant and to alert plant personnel and
initiate preventive measures automatically or manually.

The F&G System shall consist of field mounted detection equipments, manual alarms stations, a logic control system for processing of signals, alarms
and display units (including mimic/ matrix)

All F&G outputs shall be de-energized in normal conditions. (Energized to trip)

The main function of F&G System shall be to:

• Receive inputs from Detection System, Alarm System and any other equipment related to fire protection and safety
• Process all input signals in accordance with the applicable Fire Protection Data Sheets (FPDS)
• To initiate output signals, i.e alert plant personnel by audio and visual alarms and activate fire protection systems
• To initiate shutdown actions, either hardwired or communicated on data highway to other systems / panels such as
a. ESD Included ignition source control (Hardwired)
b. HVAC Control System
c. The Safety and Automation System

The F&G System shall consist of two sub-systems:

Detection System – Used to detect fire and gas hazards, wherever they are likely to occur in plant.
1) Fire Detection System – For all areas with a potential fire risk.
Smoke Detectors (HSSD, Ionization, Photoelectric)
Flame Detectors (UV, IR, UV/IR, IR3)
Heat Detectors (Rate of Rise/Rate Compensated, Fixed Temperature, Frangible-Bulb Sprinkler System)
2) Gas Detection System – For all areas where escape of gases may give rise to hazardous situation.
Catalytic gas detector (Flammable)
Infra-Red point detectors / Infra-Red open path detectors (Flammable)
Electrochemical gas detectors (Toxic)
MOS (metal oxide semiconductor) gas detectors (Toxic)
Ultrasonic gas detectors (Flammable/Toxic)
3) A system of Manual Alarm stations (MFA)- along escape routes, entrances to all safety and fire areas

Protection System – Used to alert plant personnel, initiate shutdown actions and activate fire protection systems.
• Fire detectors / Gas detectors shall give input signals to F&G system resulting in automatic protective actions
• “Confirmed Fire” is defined as activation of two detectors in a cluster of detectors working on a voting principle
• “Confirmed Gas” is defined as activation of two detectors in a cluster of detectors working on a voting principle
• Fire / gas detected by one single detector shall always initiate alarm in CCR
• Fire / gas detected by one single detector in “high risk areas” shall start fire water pumps
• A single fire / gas detector shall only be considered if sensor head is self monitored with fault detection in CCR
In case of CONFIRMED FIRE / CONFIRMED GAS following actions may be taken:
• Alarm in control room, fire station, audible and visual alarms through PAGA
• Initiate shutdown sequence through ESD
• Initiate HVAC shutdown / damper closure
• Activate start sequence of firewater pumps
• Activate Fire Protection System ( Gases Suppression System or Water Suppression system)

The firewater pump start signal shall be direct from the F&G system logic, in addition to local starting facilities.
The F&G System shall be located in a dedicated room with accommodation facility and with a dedicated VDU with full graphic display located in CCR
for continuous monitoring and control.
The F&G system shall require minimum maintenance and has comprehensive self-checking / diagnostic fault detection capabilities.
The F&G system shall be powered from Emergency Power Supply (EPS) for minimum 24 hours upon loss of main electric power.
Upon loss of EPS, the system shall be powered from monitored UPS system (Battery Banks) for a minimum of 30 minutes.
All cabling and external equipments which are associated with the F&G system shall be routed, located and protected in a manner, which minimizes
the possibility of damage arising from explosion, fire or other physical causes.
The field equipment shall be able to withstand the environmental and mechanical loads/impacts due to rain, wind, dust etc.
F&G filed equipment which is located within mechanical ventilated unclassified areas shall be certified for use in Zone 2
F&G filed equipment which is located within mechanical ventilated classified areas (Zone1/2) and in all naturally ventilated areas shall be certified for
use in Zone 1, Gas Group IIB and Temperature Class T4
For Battery Rooms, Gas Group IIC is required.
 Packages
Classification
Instrumentation and control concept to be adopted on project for different packages will broadly be classified as Class-A, Class-B, Class-C, or Class-D.
Monitoring and Control of packages shall be incorporated within the ICSS system as far as it is practicable considering the classification on packages.
The level of integration required shall be considered on a case by case basis with the following classification structure.
The supplier shall be responsible for the supply of all the instruments and control including the necessary hardwares, softwares, engineering, design,
co-ordination, manufacturing, assembly, testing, documentation, technical support and spares. All the package instrumentation and control systems
shall be in full compliance with the requirements of the applicable codes, standards and regulations.

Class-A : All controls and safety within ICSS

Control & Safety requirements are entirely implemented in ICSS. Supplier will fully support for design and implementation of control logic if required.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification.

Class-B : Controls by ICSS and safety (Machine Protection System) within a package UCP
Control requirements are entirely implemented in ICSS & Safety requirements in UCP which will monitor machine status, vibration, temperature etc.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification,
Serial communications bit mapping schedules.

Class-C : All controls and safety within a package UCP

UCP will have full Control & Safeguarding for autonomous operation and data handover to ICSS over a serial interface, except hardwired signals from
UCP to ICSS for UCP power supply status, common alarms and ESD trip signal as minimum.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification,
Serial communications bit mapping schedules.

Class-D : All controls and safety within a package LCP (standalone systems)
Class-D package are standalone package with simple hardwired interface to ICSS. All package field instruments will be connected to field Local Panel.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Functional Design Specification.

Interfaces with the plant main piping and Instrument/Electrical systems will be at nominated flanged tie-in points & at skid edge junction boxes.

Classification for package PLC

OPTION-1 : Complete system resides in Safe Area e.g. control room, rack room, PIB/LER or Shelter.
OPTION-2 : Processor chassis resides in Safe Area e.g. control room, rack room, PIB/LER or shelter,
with remote I/O chassis mounted in the field.
OPTION-3 : Complete system resides in Weatherproof Purge Panel with cooling system in the field.
OPTION-4 : Complete system resides in Flameproof Panel with Vortex Cooler in the field.

The Packages PLC System shall comprise:

• CPUs mounted in rack. (Redundant)
• I/ O modules mounted in local or remote rack.
• Power Supply modules. (Redundant)
• Communication Subsystem. (Redundant)
• Local Operator Interface.
A local HMI with limited functionality shall be provided with each PLC System, mounted in the PLC cabinet.
This shall be utilized for display and operational adjustments in the process control PLC configuration with
required user authentication.
These facilities will be required for operator and technician assistance with startup, operation, monitoring,
fault-finding, shutdown and maintenance.
• Programming Terminal.
Provides an operator interface in the PIB when connected to the PLC Chassis.
Provide an operator interface to be used during Installation, SAT, loop testing, pre-commissioning, startup.
Provides local engineering access to PLC configuration and trouble shooting.
In addition, the terminal shall allow the coding and storage of programs ‘offline’.
The Programming Terminal shall comply with the following requirements as minimum:
* Latest operating system and anti-virus with necessary licenses, LAN / Network interface Cards, USB ports,
serial communication ports, integrated DVD R/W combo drive, 21” LCD display, optical mouse & keyboard.
* Fully configured system software package including software keys and disks, required to configure, view,
use, maintain and develop SELLER'S standard and project specific software applications.
This shall include a tool to efficiently manage back-ups of PLC configurations and system databases.
* Programming Terminal shall have isolated communication channels / cards for communication processor and
interface to the central PLC network hardware.
* Programming Terminal shall be loaded with copy of as-built rack monitoring configurations and system databases.
* Programming Terminal shall be installed within the system panel with accessories.
 MCMS (Machine Condition Monitoring System)

Condition monitoring is process of monitoring parameters of condition in machinery (vibration, temperature, axial displacement etc)
in order to identify a significant change which is indicative of a developing fault. It is a major component of predictive maintenance.
Use of conditional monitoring allows maintenance to be scheduled or actions to be taken to prevent failure & avoid its consequences.
Condition monitoring benefits, so that conditions that would shorten lifespan are addressed before they develop into a major failure.
Condition monitoring techniques are normally used on rotating equipment and other machinery (pumps, compressors, turbines etc.)
while periodic inspection using non-destructive tests techniques & fit for service evaluation are used for stationary (Static) equipment
such as steam boilers, piping and heat exchangers.

Measurements such as vibration, temperatures, shaft axial/radial displacement, velocity, acceleration, pressures, loads, efficiency,
differential expansion are taken where possible.
The parameters value are fed back into the machinery management software package which is capable of trending historical data and
providing operators with advance information on performance data, predict faults & provide diagnosis of failures before they happen.

CRITICAL MACHINERY: Machines that are vital to plant or process and without these machines the plant or process cannot function.
Unexpected shutdown or failure of these machines will cause significant production loss.
Machines in this category include the steam turbines or gas turbines, compressors, crude oil export pumps, VDU, or cracker units.

ESSENTIAL MACHINERY: Machines that are a key part of the plant or process, but if there is a failure, the process still continues.
Unexpected shutdown or failure of these machines will cause minor interruption in production.

GENERAL MACHINERY: These are the machines that make up the remainder of the plant and are generally/normally monitored using
handheld data collectors or through permanently mounted transducers to periodically scan and create a picture of health of machine.
Unexpected shutdown or failure of these machines causes Inconvenience in operation, but no interruption in production.

Equipment parameters are “monitored continuously” or “periodically scanned” through permanently mounted transducers.

Continuous Online Monitoring System with Remote Diagnostics (Critical Machines)

Transducers are mounted permanently on the equipment and machine condition parameters are continuously monitored.
Alarm/trips are triggered when values exceed configured set points.
System is equipped with special diagnostics software for monitoring and analyzing parameters e.g. Bently Nevada System1 & DM2000
In this type of systems, Equipment parameters are ‘measured’ ‘sampled’ and ‘stored in a server’ both continuously and automatically.
The system may export the data to DCS for trending which could be useful for plant operations.
It contains data storage server(s) for storing historic data. Large plants have many machines and could be a network of such servers.
In case dedicated network is designed, separate workstation(s) with diagnostic software may be installed at central location (CCR) and
used by the reliability group.
Data back‐up facility (back‐up server / Tape drive) may also be provided. Common Back‐up server can be installed at central location.

Continuous Online Monitoring System with Local Indication (without remote diagnostics) (Essential Machines)
Transducers are mounted permanenty on equipment & machine condition parameter are connected to standalone monitoring system
placed near to the machine (in field).
This type of systems, monitors the configured parameters continuously and has facility for connectivity with DCS and ESD systems for
trending and protection respectively.
This system does not have facility to store the data. There are no storage servers for storing historical data of equipment parameters.
This system generally has ‘buffered output’ ports for capturing data by handheld devices in case vibration analysis is required using
diagnostic software.

Periodic Online Monitoring System (General Machines)

In this system, parameters are monitored at defined intervals automatically and data can be stored in a server which can be used for
analysis using diagnostic software.
Numbers of transducers are connected to a monitor in daisy-chain Topology (wired network) or Mesh Topology (wireless network)
and transducers are scanned one by one in a pre-assigned sequence.
As monitor scans data one by one, scanning time for each transducer depends on the number of transducers connected to monitor.
The data scanning frequency depends on number of transducers connected to the monitor.
In this system, local display or buffered output may not be available.
This system can be connected to DCS only for ‘alarm’ and relay outputs for trip is not possible.

The system shall display following plots • Machine Train Diagram • Spectrum • Waterfall • Cascade • Bode • Polar • Time waveform
• Orbit • Shaft Centerline • Acceptance Region • Tabular list.
 ALARM MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Alarms are signal to operator that they should intervene in process operation to correct a condition in plant and return the process to a normal state
or to prevent the process from going into an abnormal or unsafe condition. It is the first hard layer in a multi-layered safety strategy.
Alarms should alert operator to a change or inform operator of the nature of change and guide the operator toward a course of corrective action.

Best practices for alarm management require distinctions between alarms and alerts.
Alerts provide a warning mechanism, but do not necessarily require immediate action.
Alarms should never be used as a warning and should always require operator action.
In short, alarms are not alerts. Alarms are not alarms unless they require operator action.

The fundamental purpose of alarm annunciation is to alert the operator to deviations from normal conditions, i.e. abnormal operating situations.
The objective is to prevent or at least minimize, physical/economic loss through operator intervention in response to the condition that was alarmed.
For most digital control system users, losses can result from situations that threaten environmental safety, personnel safety or equipment integrity,
economy of operation and product quality control as well as plant throughput. A key factor in operator response effectiveness is speed and accuracy
with which the operator can identify the alarms that require immediate action.

When a major piece of process equipment like a pump, compressor shuts down or during the startup’s of plants many alarms become unnecessary.
These alarms are no longer independent exceptions from normal operation. They indicate non-critical effects & don’t provide important information
Many of the alarms in existence today are often related only to the process variable that they are connected to, they are not aware of other alarms.
The result is may cause alarm showers or cascading alarms. These occur when one failure causes many process variables to trip their preset alarms.
The result can be catastrophic when the quantity of alarms masks the real source of the problem and causes delays in operator corrective actions.
In cases of equipment failure, startups, shutdowns, the operator must search alarm annunciation displays and analyze which alarms are significant.
This wastes valuable time when operator needs to make important operating decisions and take swift action. If resultant flood of alarms becomes
too great for the operator to comprehend, then basic alarm management system has failed as a system that allows the operator to respond quickly
and accurately to alarms that require immediate action. In such cases, operator has virtually no chance to minimize or prevent a significant loss.

Alarm Management System is usually necessary in a process manufacturing environment that is controlled by plant operator using a control system,
such as DCS or programmable logic controller (PLC). Such a system may have hundreds of individual alarms that up until very recently have probably
been designed with only limited consideration of other alarms in the system. Since humans can only do one thing at a time and can pay attention to
a limited number of things at a time, there needs to be a way to ensure that alarms are presented at rate that can be addressed by human operator,
particularly when the plant is in upset or in an any unusual conditions. Alarms also need to be capable of directing the operator's attention to most
important problem that he or she needs to act upon, using a priority to indicate degree of importance or rank for instance.

The main functions of Alarm Management System are:

• Alarm and Event Archiving

• Alarm and Events Analysis
• Alarm Enforcement
• Auditing and Traceability
• Nuiscance Alarm Reduction

Step 1: Create and adopt an alarm philosophy

A comprehensive design and guideline document that makes it clear “exactly how to do alarms right.”

Step 2: Alarm performance benchmarking

Analyze the alarm system to determine its strengths and deficiencies and effectively map out a practical solution to improve it.

Step 3: “Bad actor” alarm resolution

From experience, it is known that around half of the entire alarm load usually comes from a relatively few alarms. The methods for making them
work properly are documented and can be applied with minimum effort and maximum performance improvement.

Step 4: Alarm documentation and rationalization (D&R)

A full overhaul of the alarm system to ensure that each alarm complies with the alarm philosophy and the principles of good alarm management.

Step 5: Alarm system audit and enforcement

DCS alarm systems are notoriously easy to change and generally lack proper security. Methods are needed to ensure that the alarm system does not
drift from its rationalized state.

Step 6: Real-time alarm management

More advanced alarm management techniques are often needed/required to ensure that the alarm system properly supports, rather than hinders,
the operator in all operating scenarios. These include Alarm Grouping, Alarm Shelving and Alarm Flood Suppression Technologies etc.

Step 7: Control and maintain alarm system performance

Proper management of change and longer term analysis and KPI monitoring are needed, to ensure that the gains that have been achieved from
performing the steps above do not dwindle away over time. Otherwise they will; the principle of “entropy” definitely applies to an alarm system.
What is Alarm System
Alarms are signals which are annunciated to operator typically by an audible sound, some form of visual indication (usually colours and flashing), and
by the presentation of a message or some other identifier. An alarm will indicate a problem requiring operator attention, and is generally initiated by
a process measurement passing a defined alarm setting as it approaches an undesirable or potentially unsafe value.
Alarm systems are a way of automatically monitoring plant condition and attracting attention of operator to changes that require assessment/action.
They help the operator:
• To maintain plant within a safe operating envelope. A alarm system helps operator to correct situations before ESD (Emergency Shutdown System)
is forced to intervene. This improves the plant availability. It also reduces the demand rate on the ESD and thus increases the plant safety.
• To recognize and act to avoid hazardous situations. It is the role of ESD system to intervene before a hazard arises. Also there may be cases where
operator action following an alarm has been explicitly identified within the plant safety procedures as a measure of protection.
• To identify deviations from desired operating conditions that may lead to financial loss, as off-specification or overly expensive product or catalyst.
• Each alarm should alert, inform and guide– Alert is generally/usually provided through an audible warning or flashing indication on operator screen
Information and guidance shall be provided through text defined in the alarm message or graphic indications.
• Every alarm presented to the operator should be useful and relevant to the operator – Characteristics of good alarms are defined below.
• Every alarm should have a defined response – If there is no operator response, then it should not be an alarm.
• Adequate time should be allowed for operator to carry out his response – Alarm priority is a function of severity of impact and max response time.

The following different types of process alarms can be configured in an alarm system;
• Deviation alarms (difference of a measurement from a setpoint)
• Rate of change alarms (could be used to detect the beginning of an exothermic reaction )
• Pattern alarm (two or more plant conditions can be tracked to trigger an alarm)
• Absolute alarm (low , low-low, high, high-high alarm)
• Dynamic alarms (triggers can be used to automatically change alarm setpoints or priorities)
• Re-alarming (an alarm could be alarmed again if the problem has not been corrected from the alarm response)

Alarm Priority
Experience has shown that the use of priority bands within any one type of display is ergonomically effective for the normal presentation of alarms.
However, a plant may have more than one alarm system. Example, there may be alarms implemented within the process control system (DCS), and
some alarms (some of which are safety related) on a hard-wired annunciator, and a separate fire and gas alarm panel.
Priority 1 – High
Priority 2 – Medium
Priority 3 – Low
Priority 4 – Information meassages
Priority 5 – Maintenance Alarms

Basis for Setting Alarm Priority

Once priority levels have been defined, the next question is how to assign priority levels to each particular alarm point. Alarms are prioritise as per
two factors, severity of impact & maximum time available. This establishes objective criteria that can be used by client in determining alarm priority.
• The severity of impact (in safety, environmental, economic terms) that operator could prevent by taking corrective action associated with alarm.
When assessing severity of impact, account should be taken of other systems that will act to mitigate risk if the operator fails to respond.
• The maximum time available compared with the time required for the corrective action to be performed and to have the desired effect in process.
If there are two alarms of similar consequence but one needs fast action to prevent the consequence, and the other does not, then there may be
benefit in prioritizing the first alarm higher than the second so that it gets dealt with first.
Once severity of impact is defined, then a table of priorities
can be developed from a grid of maximum response time vs
severity of impact.

Alarm Distribution
The relative alarm priorities should be distributed nearly to the values presented in Table below and the Alarm occurrence rates as per table below.

The following is the terminology that shall be used when referring to alarms on the alarm lists:
• An alarm is raised or initiated when the condition creating the alarm has occurred.
• An alarm is standing when the condition exists at a particular point in a time (i.e. snapshot).
• An alarm is cleared when the condition has returned to normal.
• An alarm is accepted or acknowledged when the operator has indicated awareness of its presence (usually by push button or mouse click)
Operator can accept/acknowledge an alarm when it occurs or after corrective action, until then alarm remains as unaccepted/unacknowledged.
• An alarm is reset when it is in a state that it can be removed from the displayed list.
 ASSET MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

For many years, companies have taken an approach in an attempt to drive down initial investment costs as well as total operational life cycle costs.
However, producers now have access to state-of-the-art techniques such as condition monitoring which enables plant personnel to use design data
when they monitor the status of field devices and system components.
At the present time, there are 3 main approaches to asset management.
The first is the familiar trained eyes and ears of the “maintenance man”, who has a wealth of production skills and experience. These old hands can
detect changes in machine operating noise & pass this information to specialist who use experience based data to make operational recomendation.
The time lapse between detection of a malfunction and corrective action is very short and solutions are normally very pragmatic.
The second is from inspection data provided by offline checks which are made at regular intervals to detect deviation, is somewhat more reliable.
Monthly vibration checks are an example of this kind of approach.
The third is online monitoring which provides both the momentary value and the underlying trend.
All of these 3 approaches have a crucial flaw : they ignore process conditions, a major factor which influences remaining lifespan of equipment.
Since most modern field devices provide HART communication capability in addition to the analog process variable, manufacturers are turning to the
Instrument Asset Management Systems (IAMS) to improve the plant efficiency, reduce maintenance requirements and enhance overall productivity.
Plants can achieve significant reduction in operating cost & production downtime as result of implementing an effective asset management strategy.
As soon as plant equipment is commissioned, it is subject to degradation. The process, human interaction & time all conspire to corrupt the function
of process equipment and associated field devices. To control/slow the decline, plant maintenance groups are responsible for operational oversight
and timely repair of equipment. Their challenge is to keep installed assets performing while also reducing the resources and personnel required for
the maintenance function. A handheld communicator can be used for temporary on-site interaction with smart field instrumentation devices.
What’s needed is a means to interface with field instruments on a continuous plant-wide basis to capture preventative maintenance information and
conduct appropriate remote servicing activities. That’s the basic function of an IAMS.

Understanding the technology

“HART” is an acronym for Highway Addressable Remote Transducer. The HART Protocol makes use of Bell 202 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) standard
to superimpose digital communication signals at a low level on top of standard 4-20mA.
This enables two-way field communication to take place and makes it possible for additional information beyond just the normal process variable to
be communicated to/from a smart field instrument. The HART Protocol communicates at 1200 bps without interrupting the 4-20mA signal and will
allows a host application (master) to get two or more digital updates per second from smart field device, there is no interference with 4-20mA signal.
HART technology is a master/slave protocol, which means that a smart field (slave) device only speaks when spoken to by a master.
The HART Protocol can be used in various modes such as point-to-point or multidrop for communicating information to/from smart field instruments
& central control/monitoring system. Communication occur using standard instrumentation grade wire with standard wiring & termination practice.
The HART Protocol provides two simultaneous communication channels: the 4-20mA analog signal and a digital signal.
The 4-20mA signal communicates the primary measured value (in the case of a field instrument) using the 4-20mA current loop - the fastest and
most reliable industry standard. Additional device information is communicated using a digital signal that is superimposed on the analog signal.
The digital signal contains information from the device including device status, diagnostics, additional measured or calculated values, etc.
Together the two communication channels provide a low-cost and robust complete field communication solution that is easy to use and configure.
The HART Protocol provides for up to two masters (primary and secondary). This allows secondary masters such as handheld communicators to be
used without interfering with communications to/from the primary master, i.e. control/monitoring system.
The rest of the unique information in a smart instrument used for configuration, calibration, troubleshooting, maintenance and diagnostics is usually
described in its Device Description (DD) files. The DD technology has been refined to include useful graphical and organizational constructs, and this
refinement is referred to as EDDL or Electronic Device Description Language. DDs are binary files containing an electronic description of parameters
and functions needed by a host application to communicate with the device. Instrumentation vendors use specific programming tools and tokenizer
to create the encoded DD file. The software/tool that make use of the DD information are generally considered to be the asset management system.
Many equipment suppliers use FDT/DTM (Field Device Tool/Device Type Manager) technology so they can present meaningful device information.
DTMs are software components that contain device-specific data, functions and logic elements. They range from a simple graphical user interface for
setting device parameters to highly sophisticated applications that perform complex calculations for diagnostics and maintenance purposes, or even
implement complex business logic for device calibration. The DTM also contains interfaces to enable communication with connected system or tool.
Device suppliers are able to embed intelligence in DTM in way that is very difficult to accomplish with DD files, such as number of graphical construct
that cannot be expressed within DD technology. Moreover, DTM is device and revision specific so that it has knowledge about the particular version
of each device on the control network. It is interesting that automation industry attaches so much importance to the IAMS, when it is the contents of
the DTM that really have value for the end-user. The IAMS is simply a container enabling communications to devices, a way to organize information,
as well as a path to the technician or operator.
Method of Operation
HART protocol operates using the FSK principal. The digital data is made up from two frequencies –1200 Hz and 2200 Hz representing bits 1 and 0.
Sinusoidal waves of these frequencies are superimposed on the DC analog signal cables to give simultaneous analog and digital communications.
There are several reasons to have a host communicate with smart field devices. These include:
• Device Configuration or Re-configuration
• Device Diagnostics
• Device Troubleshooting
• Reading additional measurement values provided by the device
• Device Health and Status
The HART follows the basic Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), The HART protocol uses a reduced OSI model, implementing only layers 1,2 and 7
Layer 7
The application layer, brings the HART instruction into play. The master sends messages with requests for the specified values, actual values and any
other data or parameters available from the device. The field device interprets these instruction as defined in the HART protocol.
The response message provides the master with the status information and data from the slave.
For slave devices, logical uniform communication is provided by the following command sets:
Universal commands – understood by all field devices.
Common practice commands – provide functions which can be carried out by many, though not all, field devices.
Drive specific commands – provide functions which are restricted to an individual device.
DATA TRANSMISSION
Types of data transmission : Frequency shift keying (FSK)
Transfer rate : 1200 bit/s.
‘0’ bit information frequency : 2200 Hz
‘1’ bit information frequency : 1200 Hz
Signal structure : 1 start bit, 8 data bits, 1 bit for odd parity, 1 stop bit.
Transfer rate for simple variables : Approximately 2/s (poll/response)
There are two main operational modes of HART instruments:
* Analog/Digital Mode
* Multidrop Mode
Peer-to-Peer mode (Analog/Digital)
Here digital signals are overlayed on 4-20mA loop current. Both 4-20 mA current and the digital signal are valid output values from the instrument.
The polling address of the instrument is set to "0". Only one instrument can be put on each instrument cable signal pair.
Multi-drop mode (Digital)
In this mode only the digital signals are used. The analog loop current is fixed at 4 mA. In multidrop mode it is possible to have up to 15 instruments
on one signal cable. The polling addresses of the instruments will be in the range 1-15. Each instrument needs to have a unique address.

ASSET MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The Instrument Asset Management System (IAMS) is designed to manage the utilization and operation of smart field devices connected to DCS, ESD.
This includes all intelligent transmitters, positioners, multiplexers, FF segments applied to all systems.
The IAMS system supporting the field devices consists of hardware, software and network communications.
The functional scope of IAMS extends across the entire DCS and ESD systems and into the field instruments.
THE IAMS System provides functional capability at 2 levels:
Device Management
Maintenance Management

Device Management includes those functions which directly involved with operation and basic maintenance of a specific device:
* Ability to remotely perform typical configuration, calibration and maintenance for field instrument
* Detection of problems in the field instrument through device self-diagnostics
* Notification to maintenance personnel that field instrument problems exist
* Recording of device maintenance alarms
* Interactive program interfaces that can be used to access device information, initiate embedded diagnostic and maintenance routines within the
field device and precisely diagnose the nature and scope of any operating problems in the device.

Maintenance Management includes functions required to improve economic efficiency of maintenance activities associated with specific device:
* Maintaining a database of equipment information for field devices in the plant (asset registry)
* Condition monitoring through the functions of a rules engine that evaluates logical condition tests against user defined ‘triggers’ to detect and
identify devices requiring maintenance activities and issues alert messages to locations within operations, maintenance, management organizations.
* Comprehensive data viewing and reporting capabilities.

The hardware and software elements of IAMS system are located in following locations:
PIB (Plant Interface Building)
CCR (Central Control Room)
PIBs will contain control and monitoring I/O for a process area. PIB will contain a HART collector workstation with a multiport RS485 card which will
collect information directly from controller, if HART pass through I/O modules are used. If I/O modules are not HART pass through then information
will be collected from HART Demultiplexers which are used to strip HART signals from the 4-20mA signals.
The HART collector workstation will also be connected to PIN network through which it connects to IAMS servers in CCR.
CCR engineering room contains keyboard, Video, mouse, redundant servers providing maintenance management functions for the entire plant.
The central control room (CCR) and PIBs will be linked together by PIN (Plant Information Network).
This will allow maintenance management functions to be performed for any area of the plant from a central location i.e. CCR Engineering Room.
 HISTORIAN

Historians are electronic data recorders that are used for trend style data. Trend data is comprised of measurement samples over a period of time.
Prior to automation of this data collection, similar recording was accomplished with electro-mechanical pen and paper recording devices commonly
referred to as chart recorders. Chart recorders would typically produce a graph of one or more measured values over a period of time.
Modern presentation of electronically recorded historic data often mimics the appearance of the old style chart records. A graph is produced where
the measured value is presented on vertical axis, with time units presented on horizontal axis. It is not uncommon for more than one measurement
to be presented on a single graph, with each graph or “pen” denoted in a different color.
In a process control system, very common items that are historized include temperature, flow rate, pressure, level and other types of analog data.
Increasingly common is the historization of digital data, such as output or feedback states associated with valves, pumps and other discrete devices.
From an electronic storage and retrieval perspective, Historians are designed to capture a lot more data, using a lot less space as compared to the
traditional relational databases such as Microsoft SQL Server or Oracle products.
Compared to paper records, it is much simpler to manage both compliance data and process data electronically. We can quickly see three years old
data on a narrow slice of time for any key parameter of interest, compared to sorting through years worth of paper records locked away in cabinets.
Historic trend style data is often combined with traditional log style data in a variety of reports available for process systems.
Where trend style data indicates change of measurement over time, log style data presents quantitative measurements at a particular point in time.
Examples of log style data might include how much a particular ingredient was used in product batch formulation & when the ingredient completed;
how many batches of a product were made and when each one completed or when a particular sequence step such as cleaning chemical strength or
sterilization temperature was achieve.
Some examples of pairing historic trend and log style data on a single report include Clean in Place (CIP) reports where one or more graphs are
presented for temperatures, flow rates and chemical solution strengths, combined with a date/time stamp of each major step in the cleaning
sequence indicating when each started and stopped.

Operational Historian refers to database software application that historize time-based process data. The Historian software is used to record trends
and historical information about a industrial processes for future reference. It captures the plant management information about production status,
performance monitoring, quality assurance, tracking and product with enhanced data capture, data compression and data presentation capabilities.
Operational Historians are like Enterprise Historians but differ in that they are used by engineers on plant floor rather than by business processes.
They are typically cheaper, lighter weight and easier to use and reconfigure than enterprise historians.
Having an operational historian enables "at the source" analysis of the historical data that is not typically possible with enterprise historians.
Usual challenges the operational historians must address are as follows:
• data collection from real-time external systems,
• storage and archiving of very large volumes of data,
• tag organisation (typically time series, where a single sample contains the information about time stamp, value and sample quality)
• basic data limit monitoring (alarms) and user prompts (messages),
• performance of read/write operations.

Historian is generally a client/server application that collects, organizes & stores historical data. Historian architecture consists of server, collectors.
Historian accepts data from a system which includes Real Time Points (RTP), Operator Action Journals, System Monitors, Alarms, Sequence of Event
(SOE) messages, as well as receiving Asynchronous information from HART and FF devices.
The historian also gets data from OPC collector (OLE for Process Control) which can be configured to operate in the connected mode or burst mode.
In connected mode the collected data is regularly sent to the server. In burst mode, the user specifies a local buffer file size or burst time interval or
burst file size percent, when data from the circular file will be sent to the server.

Sources of data for HISTORIAN

Control System
* Real time analog and digital values
* Process Alarms time stamped and generated in Control Processors
* Sequence of Events (SOE) from ESD and DCS Fieldbus Modules
* System Diagnostics Messages
Third Party Systems
* Real time analog and digital values
* Historical analog and digital values
OPC Servers
* Historical analog and digital values
* Time stamped alarm points
Alarm Data Collection
Alarm Data Collection, storage, archive is performed by redundant historian servers. Presenting of historical alarms to operator on DCS workstation
will use historian as data sources and Alarm History Display (AHD) as the viewing mechanism.
Asset Data Collection
The regulatory control schemes (PIDs) within the CP expose the field devices in real time to all Operator & Engineering Workstations using DCS HMI.
ECB and control scheme parameter attributes are histories by the plants historian. The historical data is passed to the Asset Management Servers
from the historian using Application Programming Interface (API). DCS hosted HART and FF devices failures will be detected and communicated to
System Management notification system. In addition FF devices block errors will also be detected and notified by System Management.
System Management will generate messages sent to maintenance personnel via system key on DCS HMI and to its associated historian for archiving.
 SOE (Sequence of Events)

The Sequence of Events Recorder (SOE) module is a root-cause analysis tool for rapid response for problem resolution that is ideal for pin pointing
the cause of a service disruption in very large complex power systems.
The SOE recorder captures, records and displays in chronological order the sequence of events (SOE) prior to and during a plant trip.
The SOE recorder provides a means of recording activities leading to a potential plant upset or trip.
Understanding what happened before, during and after a process upset is fundamental in identifying what caused the upsets to occur as well as in
determining how it could be prevented in the future. Accurately recording the events that took place - in the precise order in which they occurred -
allows those investigating the incident to have an exact picture of the chain of events that led to the upset.

The SOE user interface allows viewing and filtering of the pertinent information SOE events including:
• High Speed Event Date and Time Stamp (Upto 1ms Resolution)
• Quality of Date & Time
• Description of Event
• State Value of Event

The SOE recorder offers the following benefits:

• High-speed capturing of events with 1 msec time stamp resolution
• SOE inputs available for use as control and/or monitoring signals
• Accurate system time synchronization across a system without additional hardware
• Time synchronization with Simple Network Time Protocol (SNTP) server
• Trip Report for a specified time period upon occurrence of user defined triggers
• Long-term data storage and automatic trip report generation
• SOE data output to OPC clients (e.g. Exaquantum)
• SOE viewing and reporting at multiple Human Interface Stations (HIS) and/or any other PCs via Ethernet
• SOE viewing and reporting that integrate SOE messages with process alarm and other process related events

Within a system, these types of events—especially those involving high-speed equipment—are captured by the Sequence of Events (SOE) input card
and are displayed in SOE HMI. Controllers and workstations are synchronized throughout a entire system using Network Time Protocol (NTP) server.
This allows SOE input cards to be distributed among multiple controllers, while ensuring that the events are properly synchronized.
Once events are read by controller, the controller finishes formatting the event messages before sending them to SOE collection node or recorders.
It uses the respective State Named Sets and descriptions that were configured for each channel to formulate the event message that will be viewed
in through SOE recorder on SOE HMI.
In addition to events generated by SOE inputs, the controller is also capable of producing other SOE-related event messages that are used to indicate
that a specific condition has been met.
Event messages are time-stamped by SOE input card(100ms resolution), the messages are passed in group to controller where they are synchronized
with messages coming from other SOE input cards before being sent on to the SOE collection node or SOE recorders.
Until the controller receives confirmation that an event has been successfully acknowledged by SOE collection node, the event will remain in a buffer
on the SOE input card where it originated. Generally 32 events can be buffered on each SOE input card.
If the buffer is already full and an additional event is generated then an overflow event is recorded.
Also in the event of a switchover, even if the events in the controller are lost, the secondary controller will be able to retrieve them from the buffer
in each SOE card and send them to the designated Event Chronicle.
Because events are acknowledged before they are written to disk, the workstation where events are stored must have a UPS or secure power source
to ensure the events persist through power interruptions.
The controller also resolves the event message time stamps using a Network Time Protocol (NTP) server.
Each controller in the network synchronizes with the NTP server to ensure that it is within +/- 1ms of the server.
This ensures that events generated on different SOE input cards on different controllers are accurately sequenced on the SOE recorder.

The system receives process-upset signals using SOE input card. Generally every card has 16 discrete input channels and each channel is configured
with four key pieces of information; Description, Channel type, Device Tag and a State Named Set.
The description and state named set are used to formulate the event message that is displayed on SOE HMI.
The channel type determines how the signal is handled by the system and the device tag defines the name of the device sending the incoming signal.
Using the Channel type field, each channel can be configured as either a standard discrete input or as an SOE discrete input.
Regardless of whether input channel on an SOE card is configured as standard discrete or SOE discrete, it can be used as part of any control strategy,
just like any other discrete signal coming into the system.
A channel configured to capture SOE discrete inputs reads incoming signal and determines when to generate an event based on behavior of signal.
Events are generated every time a signal changes from one state to the other.
Using State Named Set configure for channel, state of signal is translated from discrete value into more readable form & inserted into event message
Event messages are sent from SOE input card to the controller where they are then communicated to a designated Event Chronicle or SOE recroder.
From there the event is distributed to other Event Chronicles throughout the entire system.

Report Scheduling
The Sequence of Events (SOE) report is generated on demand. By default, the current time is used for the report or user can specify a historical time
that the user wants the historical report to use. The Operator Client Users Interface screen will display a button for Current SOE Report, clicking this
button will open the ‘Current SOE Report’ on the screen. Clicking the button ‘Historical SOE Report’ to specify a point in time for which user wants to
display an SOE report using historical data.
 PIN (PLANT INFORMATION NETWORK)

Plant Information Network (PIN) is information network with a redundant fiber optic backbone between Central Control Room CCR and LER/IES/PIB
that is also a parallel network to the process control network.
These two networks are connected together through common non-bridging/non-forwarding devices such as Engineering Workstations & Processors.
There is no direct connection between PIN and process control network.
PIN is also protected from direct corporate network access via Firewall & DMZ (Demilitarized Zone), so that only trusted sources are allowed access.
The Firewall sits at the junction point between PIN and Corporate Network. Using a firewall for perimeter security and segmenting the network into
different physical sub-networks, controls access & limits damage from an intentional hostile intrusion that could spread from one subnet to another.
By limiting access, the firewall reduce network related security risk as Denial of Service (DoS) attack, which could affect both PIN & process Network.

PIN Network
The Pant Information Network (PIN) is an information network with a redundant fiber optic backbone between the CCR and the LER/PIB/IES that is
parallel network to process network. Similar to process control network, PIN CCR contains redundant root switches & single switch for every PIB/LER.
Unlike the process control networks, the individual PIB/LER/IES has only a single Edge Switch that is cabled to both the root switches located in CCR.
Since every single PIN edge switch in LER/PIB/IES has one up-link to each of redundant root switches in CCR, loops may be created in PIN network.
To prevent these loops, but still allow a redundant network, the RAPID SPANNING TREE PROTOCOL (RSTP) will be used in the PIN network.
Each network (Control, Safety, PIN, PLC, MCMS, ATG, CTMS, TCS, CCS) will have their own unique set of switches to from their individual network.
The Plant Information Network (PIN) only forwards / switches Ethernet packets at layer 2 using IEEE802.1 d MAC layer bridge protocol.
Access to PIN is through Firewall & DMZ. This is to protect workstations that are multi-homed and are sitting in both PIN & process control network.
The PIN will be isolated and will not route IP Packets to any other VLAN or IP Subset. It will forward IP Packets from historian to proxy server on DMZ.
Authorized users on corporate network that wants to access historian data must do so through/via a proxy server in DMZ.

Plant Information Network Users

Operator Workstations
Operator workstations are connected to PIN and process control network. Operator workstation will serve as an interface between operator & plant.
The operator will not have access to the internal software configuration, but will be able to view graphics, change process set-points (i.e. this facility
is controlled via access password), monitor alarms and retrieve SOE information. The operator workstation will have two NIC card for connection to
CCR switches for process control network. The operator workstations will also have a single NIC card for connection to CCR switches for PIN network.
Engineering Workstations
Engineering workstations are connected to PIN and process control network. The engineering workstation will provide all the facilities offered by the
operator workstation. In addition, the engineering workstation will host control processors & give access (password controlled) to view, modify, add,
and maintain control software. The engineering workstation will have two NIC card for connection to the CCR switches for process control network.
The engineering workstation will also have a single NIC card for connection to CCR switches for PIN network.
Alarm Management Server
There are two Alarm management servers. One uses historian database for the retrieval of alarm and message data from the DCS.
The other collects alarms from OPC from the package PLC through OPC A&E collectors in PIB/LER/IES.
Each of alarm management servers will have two NIC cards for connection to CCR switches for PIN network (one to each PIN switches in CCR).
Back-up server
The back-up server on the PIN will collect the back-up from workstations and PIN workstations and servers.
The back-up servers will have two NIC cards for connection to CCR switches for PIN network (one to each PIN switches in CCR).
Historian Server
The historian application collects the RTP and alarm messages from the remote collectors in the CCR (Engineering and Operator workstations).
The main remote collector will be connected to the PIN primary switch in CCR and back-up collector is connected to PIN secondary switch in CCR.
The historian server also serves historical data to all workstations in CCR and PIB/LER/IES through the PIN.
Asset Management server (Instrument)
There are 2 Asset management servers on PIN that host Asset Management Software to collect instrument health from ESD HART Collectors in PIBs
and from the DCS hosted Foundation Fieldbus and HART devices via historian server through the PIN.
Each server will have two NIC cards for connection to CCR switches for PIN network (one to each PIN switches in CCR).
HART ESD & OPC Alarm Collectors
Workstation for HART ESD & OPC alarm Collectors are installed in PIB/LER/IES to collect data for Asset Management & Alarm Management Servers.
The collectors shall host OPC A&E client software and the collector will have a multi-port serial card that connects to HART interface boards installed
in ESD cabinets and PLC cabinets.
The HART ESD and OPC Alarm Collector will have a single NIC card for connection to CCR switches for PIN network.
Web Server (Proxy Server)
One web server per plant is connected to the PIN to provide displays to user across the PIN and corporate network.
Each web server will have two NIC cards for connection to CCR switches for PIN network (one to each PIN switches in CCR).
Documentation Server
One server connected to PIN will provide as-built documentation (as loop drawing, system architecture, PIB architecture, DCS standard documents)
relevant to plant in portable document format (pdf) to subscribers of the PIN.
Display Wall Server
A server connected to the PIN network will provide DCS real time data to video wall network through Firewall. Display wall server will communicate
to video wall network through OPC. This data is used by video wall server to update their graphics and displayed on video walls in CCR.
Firewall
A Firewall is used between the PIN and Corporate Network. It isolates un-authorized entry into the process control network through PIN network.
 TIME SYNCHRONISATION

The time synchronization must be a dual GPS based integrated time synchronization for the following:
DCS Control Processors/Worksation, ESD Control Processors, Alarm Management System, Asset Management System, Historian, Third Party Systems.

The process control network (DCS) is the primary distribution media for the time synchronization across the plant.
DCS MTK Workstation receives GPS time & distributes it to control processors & workstations across process control network from CCR to PIB/LER.
ESD communication module is used to time synchronize, the ESD systems within plant. The communication module is synchronized to 1ms of GPS.
The ESD system in CCR will then synchronize all ESD Processors over Safety LANs. System fault will be generated whenever there is communication
breakdown between GPS and the communication module card.
The ESD processors drift is 0 ms at constant temperature and upto 16 ms at max. temperature swing (0°C to 80°C oscillation).
For all other systems and sub-systems (other then Process Control Network & ESD), the NTP servers in CCR provides time synchronization through
PIN which extends from CCR to PIB/LER/IES. Servers Workstation, PLC etc. that connect to PIN can subscribe to NTP service for time synchronization.

GPS Antenna/Receiver (Main & Back-up)

The main and backup GPS Receiver use Omni-directional powered antenna to obtain synchronized pulses from satellites to determine time/position.
The GPS receiver decodes the time signals simultaneously from upto 8 satellites (minimum of 4 satellites).
The GPS antenna/receiver is housed in a single unit and must be mounted outdoors with an unobstructed view of the sky.
The antenna system is an active module which needs a 12VDC source of power. It contain GPS receiver & gives signals to Time Strobe Generator card
through a copper cable (30 meters maximum cable route for copper or fiber optic if distance is greater than 30 meters and less than 2 Kilometers).
Connection to antenna is made with 12 conductor copper cable. The connector on the antenna end of the cable is 12-pin round connector 20mm OD
and the connector on the DCS workstation end of the cable is DB-15 connector 46 mm OD.

Time Strobe Generator (Main and Back-up)

The Time Strobe Generator is a PCI card that resides in the Master Time Keeper MTK DCS Workstation.
It receives the GPS antenna system output, provides time data to control stations and workstation and also passes time strobe to the MTK modem.
Time is obtained and distributed in Universal Time Coordinated format (UTC).
Therefore the same time and date is received in all parts of the control network, regardless of the local time zone.
The PCI card (Time Strobe Generator) can maintain the stream of time strobe signals even if it does not receive signals from the GPS antenna system.

Mater Time Keeper Modem (Main & Back-up)

PCI card generates & transmits periodic time pulse using RS422 signal levels. This signal is converted via Master Time Keeper Modem (MTK Modem)
for long distance transmission via 2 fiber optic outputs to Time Strobe Converters (TSC) or Time Strobe Ethernet Hubs.
Fiber optic cable is used for the transmission of strobe between MTK Modem, Time Strobe Converter Modules (TSC) and Time Strobe Ethernet Hubs.

DCS Master Time Keeper (Main and Back-up)

The GPS antenna will be mounted at a maximum distance of 30 meters from the Master Time Keeper DCS Workstation.
MTK maintains the time source & distributes accurate time strobe pulses across process control network (DCS) to control stations and workstations.
The MTK workstation informs the control stations and other workstations what the time will be when the station receives the next time strobe.

Network Time Protocol Server (Main and Back-up)

Two rack mounted NTP server will be connected to Plant Information Network (PIN) to provide time synchronization to all servers and workstations
which are connected to PIN that subscribe to NTP service. The NTP servers will time synchronize devices to 50 msec.
IRIG-B outputs from Time Strobe Generator PCI card are used as an input to Network Time Protocol Server.
The IRIG-B is a coaxial cable based system which can extend 150 meters from the location of Time Strobe Generator PCI card.

Time Synchronization Redundancy

Time synchronization redundancy is provided by having a Primary Master Time Keeper and Back-up Master Time Keeper Workstation (MTK).
Each MTK workstation sources its GPS signal from its own GPS Antenna/Receiver. In event of failure of primary MTK the back-up MTK will take over.
All aspects of process control network (DCS) and control processors and serial interface modules are redundant.
The NTP servers are redundant, hardware redundancy for the NTP Server is provided by having two NTP servers located in CCR.
NTP prescribers (Servers, Workstation etc.) on the PIN will use one NTP server as main server and the other NTP server as back-up server.

Maintenance of DCS & ESD time synchronization

DCS time synchronization is monitored by system monitoring software. There are messages that display breakdown of time synchronization network.
All alarm related to time synchronization is part of system alarms and stored in historian.
ESD time synchronization is monitored by the ESD communication module card itself, if there is any break down in the time synchronization network,
then the ESD communication module will go in alarm condition and ESD alarm will be generated.
 NETWORKING

Generally entire network in plant is divided in 3 main network levels that is DCS process control network, Safety Network, Plant Information Network
and an individual plant wide networks for monitoring and maintenance of various other system that include PLC, MCMS, ATG, CTMS, TCS, CCS, etc.
The main 3 networks are independent & not directly connected to each other. They are connected by common non-bridging/non-forwarding devices

The core of an entire plant is the DCS process control network.

It is a dedicated redundant network that allows single failures to occur without affecting the overall functionality/reliability/efficiency of the system.
The DCS process control network contain Engineering and Operator Workstation, Control Processors (CPs) and serial communication links with the
ESD, F&G and all other third party systems.
The Plant Information Network (PIN) is a management and information system network used for activities such as data recording and file transfers.
It is protected and isolated from both DCS process control network and corporate LAN. The PIN is only connected to the DCS process control network
through non-bridging or non-forwarding operator and engineering workstation devices. It is connected to corporate LAN through a firewall in DMZ.
The safety network (ESD/F&G) is used for safety interlocks and time synchronization between ESD and F&G systems.
The safety network is only connected to DCS process control network through/via redundant serial communication links with ESD and F&G systems.

Design Principles
The DCS network consists of operator / engineering stations which host control processor and gateways related to that node communicating locally.
Nodes are segregated on a per plant basis and are designed to be completely self-sufficient in terms of both hardware and software facilities such as
printing, boot hosting & historian data collection. A common control database server is required for configuration CSA (Compound Summary Access).
The CSA server hosts the control configuration database for entire facility, with plant wise local engineering workstations located in CCR hosting the
control station software images and checkpoint files. The control stations then download their software image from their assigned host workstation.
This design basis minimizes the impact of multiple failures and allows plant to carry on operating autonomously even if inter-connecting LANs fails.
A pair of root switches forms redundant network of the DCS process control network in CCR. The root switches provide no other function other than
connecting the individual plant areas together, so that data can be viewed across the entire facility.

Network
The DCS process control network can be based on star, ring, physical star-logical ring or mesh topology.
It has a common central control room (CCR) and a remote PIB/LER/IES for each unit.
CCR contains common redundant Root Switches and CCR also has redundant Intermediate and Edge Switches for every PIB/LER/IES.
Each PIB/LER/IES themselves has a pair of Edge Switches that are cabled to the pair of Intermediate Switches located in CCR.

Loops should not be formed in the networks (Loops can be formed especially when using mesh toplogy networks)
In order for the network to work properly, only one active path should exists between two nodes.
To prevent loops and still allow a redundant network, RAPID SPANNING TREE PROTOCOL (RSTP) (IEEE 802.1w) is normally used.

The DCS workstations are multi-homed devices. There are two NIC cards for process control network and one NIC card for PIN Network.
If the primary interface loses link, the network traffic will automatically fall over to its secondary interface.

The Plant Information Network (PIN) only forwards or switches Ethernet packets at layer 2 using IEEE802.1 d MAC layer bridge protocol.
Access to PIN is through Firewall & DMZ. This is to protect workstations that are multi-homed and are sitting in both PIN & process control network.
The PIN will be isolated and will not route IP Packets to any other VLAN or IP Subset. It will forward IP Packets from historian to proxy server on DMZ.
Authorized users on corporate network that wants to access historian data must do so via proxy server.

Each network (Control, Safety, PIN, PLC, MCMS, ATG, CTMS, TCS, CCS) will have their own unique set of switches to from their individual network.
The individual network (Control, Safety, PIN, PLC, MCMS, ATG, CTMS, TCS, CCS) can be based on star, ring, physical star-logical ring or mesh topology.
INTEGRATED TURBINE & COMPRESSOR CONTROL SYSTEM (ITCCS)
The integrated turbine and compressor control system (ITCCS) provides complete integrated control solution for the entire train,
It integrates turbine controls/protection with compressor controls/protection, and its auxiliaries and related process equipment in
single unified platform for superior performance & host of benefits that positively impact Operations and Maintenance bottom line.
The independent actions of a separate turbine control system and compressor control system can / may work against each other—
adversely impacting process stability & diminishing efficiency. By integrating controls (Turbine & Compressor) into a unified system,
they work together seamlessly— optimizing performance without sacrificing reliability. The result is enhanced compressor function,
increased throughput productivity, and increased stability in the process or pipeline.

The main functions of the ITCCS (start-up sequence, load synchronization, stopping and shut down) are described below:
Gas Turbine Control
• Automatic turbine startup and sequencing
• Precise control of turbine acceleration
• Speed and load control
• Control and Sequencing
• Integrated vibration monitoring
• Integrated turbine protection and prediction
• Helper (Steam) Turbine Control

Steam Turbine Control

• Single & Double Automatic
• Extraction/Admission Control Gas Turbine Steam Turbine Motor Driver
• Extraction Pressure/Flow Control
• Inlet Pressure Limiting
• Isochronous Mode - This control mode is used on generators where the output frequency is held constant regardless of load.
• Droop Mode - Speed droop is used to control the magnitude of governor response for a given frequency change so all generators
will share response after a disturbance.

Motor Driver Control

• Compressor Inlet Throttling Control
• Starter Turbine Control
• Synchronous Motor Sequencing
• Power Limiting

Compressor Control
• Automatic startup and sequencing
• Load Sharing
• Anti-Surge Control
• Capacity Control
• Process Control
• Suction Pressure Control
• Drum Level Control Gas Turbine Compressor
• Discharge Flow Control Steam Turbine Pumps
• Discharge Pressure Control Motor Driver Fans/Blowers

ITCCS system shall also be configurable for the integration and control of a wide variety of auxiliary systems
• Lube Oil Systems
• Cooling Systems
• Vibration Systems Integration
• Fuel Valves Systems
• Servo Valve Systems: Fuel, IGV, Bleeds, etc.
• Steam/Water Injection Systems
• Fire & Gas Detection Systems
• Fire Suppression Systems
• Combustion Flame Detection Systems

Benefits
• Comprehensive, integrated control for an entire turbine-compressor train • Highly reliable – less electronics, less opportunity for
single point failure, • Easy to use – access to all data from single database, • Advanced diagnostics for quick location of process faults,
• Fewer spare parts needed – one control platform, multifunction I/O boards, • Common HMI for gas turbine and compressor allows
better data correlation for debugging and diagnostics. • Common pool of maintenance spares. • Automatic synchronization
 Gas Turbine Compressor
Steam Turbine
Motor Driver

Benefits of integrating Turbine Control System & Compressor Control System

• Comprehensive, integrated control for an entire turbine-compressor train.

• Highly reliable – less electronics, less opportunity for single point failure.

• Easy to use – access to all data from single database.

• Advanced diagnostics for quick location of process faults.

• Fewer spare parts needed – one control platform, multifunction I/O boards.

• Common HMI for gas turbine and compressor allows better data correlation for debugging and diagnostics.

• Common pool of maintenance spares.

• Automatic synchronization.
 ATG (Automatic Tank Gauging)

• Automatic Tank Gauging (ATG) system is an integrated high performance measuring and calculation system.
• Automatic Tank Gauging (ATG) system is required for assessment of tank content, tank inventory control & tank farm management.
• Tank gauging is generic name given to the measurement of liquids / gases (product) in bulk storage tanks with the aim of quantifying
how much product is in the tank, "gauging is nothing but to measure and calculate the contents of a tank".
• Automatic Tank Gauging system shall consist of advanced technology field gauges/transmitters, communication interfaces unit(s)
and a computerized inventory logging/management unit,HMI, keyboard and printer.
The gauging system shall perform continuous automatic collection of data for level, temperature, pressure contained in the tanks.
It shall also, with the real time volume, support volume calculation which shall be carried out simultaneously with data collection.
Tank Gauging shall be configured with tank strapping tables/calculations in accordance with API Manual of Petroleum Measurement.
Where safeguarding of tank is required Independent tank gauges shall be provided for safeguarding and connected to the ESD system.
The gauge used for ATG shall not be used for ESD. The gauging instrument for ATG and ESD shall be separate.

Automatic Tank Gauging system can be classified in two types:

• A volume based tank gauging system - Quantity assessment based on level and temperature measurement.
• A mass based tank gauging system - Quantity assessment based on hydrostatic pressure of the liquid column measurement.

Automatic Tank Gauging (ATG) system normally includes sensors for measurement of following tank data:
• Level
• Temperature
• Pressure (if on-line density and mass is required)
• Interface level (if required)

Data collected in most cases is used for three main processes via a human-machine interface (HMI):
• Terminal Automation & operations monitoring including overfill prevention
Reconciliation & Accounting, Resource Management, Order Management, Load Rack, Facility Access
• Inventory management to calculate storage tanks net volumes
Tank Gauging, Inventory Management, Alarm Management, Trending, Reports, Custom Graphics, Networking, Tank Automation
• Custody Transfer to buy and sell bulk products. Data is generally required for both internal accounting purposes & external taxation.
Custody transfer based on automatic tank gauging requires in addition very accurate volume measurement of transfer batches.

Automatic Tank Gauging (ATG) system normally includes following calculations:

Volume Calculation: Volume calculation support is to be provided in the Gauging System to calculate Volumes in real time.
Thermal expansion correction is to be based upon ASTM D1250 tables 54 A, B, C, and D.
Total Volume: Total volume shall be volume of fluid at the actual storage temperature. On cylindrical tanks the tank calibration table,
which is based temperature of 15°C shall be used corrected for the thermal expansion of the tank.
Gross Volume: The gross volume shall be the volume of product at the actual storage temperature.
In certain cases the total volume will consist of volume of free water at the bottom of tank (FWVOL) and above it a volume of product.
The free water volume is not automatically measured & hence will be determined by a special dip. The resulting free water level value
will be entered into the system by operator, the gross volume shall be calculated by subtracting free water volume from total volume.
Net Volume shall be product volume at the reference temperature (15°C). Net volume shall be calculated by multiplying gross volume
by the volume correction factor (VCF). In all cases the VCF factor is calculated according ASTM D1250 using tables 54A, B, C or D from
the temperature coefficient and the difference between the actual product temperature and the reference temperature (15°C).

Open and Scalable Architecture

One way to implement system architecture is to build system around Tankhub connecting all measuring devices on tank to ‘tank hub’,
normally located at the tank foot. From the tank hub, a fieldbus, often Modbus/serial based, is used to transmit data to control room.
If Tankhub is based on open industry standard, FF/Modbus, it will allow integration of any device supporting communication protocol.
Because of open design, system can later be easily expand/upgrade & suited to requirements on accuracy,performance, functionality.

Networking and Remote Access

Interoperability and remote access of tank data is necessary for efficient tank farm management. The tank gauging system should be
able to connect to all major suppliers of DCS, SCADA system, host computers, terminal automation systems or any third party system.
The advantage of connecting host computers to ATG is that not only measured value, but calculated inventory data is communicated.
Communication to office/corporate environment computers and SCADA/DCS systems can be made via OPC server / Modbus/ RS485.
To utilize redundant functionality it is also possible to build a network of several server and client PCs with tank gauging HMI software.

The ATG system HMI shall be configured for the following:

• Level (mm) • Temperature (degree C) • Net volume (Barrels) • Gross volume (Barrels) • Density (kg/m3) • Available ullage (Barrels)
• Tank No • Product • Available volume • Empty volume • Alarms • Tank Filling indication & rate • Tank Discharge indication & rate
TANK GAUGING METHODS

• Manual gauging (diptape/dipstick) • Float & tape gauges • Servo gauges • Radar gauges • HydroStatic (DP Transmitters) • Hybrid

• Manual (Hand Dipping) • Float & Tape (float based, level measurement) • Servo (displacer based, multi-variable, measurement)
• Radar (contact/non-contact : Pulse/FMCW, level measurement) • Hydrostatic (pressure and temperature based measurement)
• Hybrid (level, temperature and pressure based measurement) • Temperature (average and spot temperature measurement)
• Tank Communication Hub or Tank Serial Hub (data conversion & serial transmission) • Wireless (data transmission)

The level measurement is the basis for an accurate volume inventory calculation. The pressure measurement, combined with level,
provides a true average density measurement over the entire product level height. This average density is used for mass assessment.
The temperature is used to calculate standard volumes and densities at reference temperatures.
Radar gauges can be provided with an interface board that communicates directly with smart pressure & temperature transmitters.
The result is a unique Level Temperature Pressure and very complete measurements providing level, product-water interface levels,
average density, average temperature, vapor temperature and alarms.
CTMS (Custody Transfer Metering System)
An effective metering system is generally required to provide key data for optimizing & maximizing the commercial potential of plant.
The main intents of custody transfer metering system is to supply the major information for closure and reconcillation in calculating
production costs, efficiency ratings, Inventory management, Fuel and loss control, internal billings and sales billing of the company.
There are basically three types of custody transfer metering systems based or assigned on a specific classification of duty/application.
FISCAL ALLOCATION MATERIAL BALANCE or UTILITY

PRIMARY DEVICE shall mean flow meter, sensing instruments, compensators, piping meter-tube, piping headers, fittings and fixings.
SECONDARY DEVICE shall mean all other instruments for the purpose of measurement and calibration that include but not limited to
temperature/pressure/density compensators, computation instruments with complete functions, PLC, flow computer panels/cubicles
HMIs, switches and networking components. This instrumentation is used for the purpose of display, recording, registering, totalizing
and interfacing with the Plant DCS for each metered product stream.
ANCILLARY DEVIC shall mean on-off-valves, modulating-valves, manual-isolation-valves, flow-line-conditioners (straightening-vanes,
filters, strainers), piping-assemblies, fittings and fixings.
PROVER shall mean method used to calibrate a flow meter. Where required, these shall be supplied complete with spheres/pistons,
piping(rigid and flexible), calibration-equipment, sensing-instruments, on-off-valves including the DBB Plug type, modulating-valves,
manual-isolation-valves, piping assemblies, fittings and fixing.
SKID mean structural steelwork that support PRIMARY DEVICE, SECONDARY DEVICE, ANCILLARY DEVICE, & where applicable PROVER.
These shall consist of single fabricated base frame with piping supports, grated floor type walkways/platforms, hand rail & ladders etc.
Metering Performance
Vendor shall select suitable PRIMARY DEVICEs to provide required performances for each category of Custody Transfer flow metering.
PRIMARY/SECONDARY DEVICEs associated with rate-of-flow & compensating measurements shall be highly sensitive to flow changes
with minimal influences from line pressure changes. They shall exhibit high stability and reliability under all the operating conditions.
Overall target uncertainty values for each metering system shall be stated in process data sheets.

The main input parameters required for design of custody transfer metering system:
System characteristics – Pressure & temperature are typically specified but other characteristics such as pulsating flow from PD pump
or valve operation / location should also be considered as they may cause measurement errors for some types of meters.
Product characteristics – The basic product characteristics of viscosity, specific or API gravity, chemical characteristics and lubricating
quality must be specified. Also, any contaminates such as particulates, air or water contained in the product must be identified and
noted in an application analysis or calculations.
Flow range – This is the minimum and maximum flow rate over which the meter will operate. The flow range can also be expressed as
‘turndown range’, which is the ratio of the maximum to the minimum flow rates (e.g. differential pressure has turndown ratio of 3 : 1,
vortex 10 : 1, magnectic 50 : 1, coloris 100 : 1 etc.)
Viscosity Range – The changes in viscoscity or the viscoscity range during all operations conditions.
Accuracy – Accuracy of liquid flowmeter depends on flow range and viscosity range of the products over which meter will operates.
Accuracy of gas flowmeter depends on flow range and pressure, temperature, density of the products over which meter will operates.

The main points which shall be taken into consideration when designing custody transfer metering system are described below:
• Expected flow conditions • Area classification • Anticipated pulsation, noise and vibration • Unidirectional or Bidirectional flow
• Required flow meter size • Flow straightners • Chemical requirement for special material • Temperature, Pressure, Flow ranges
• Ambient noise conditions • Applicable mechnical standard • Governing Safety Standard • Horizontal/Sloped flowmeter mounting

The main steps involved with custody transfer metering system are as follows:
• Design and Engineering • Project Management • Manufacturing complete skids • Calibration, Integral Testing, Certification, FAT
• Shipping and Packing • Start-up, Commissioning, SAT, Training and Support

The system shall raise and indicate the following alarms as a minimum:
• Watchdog timer for each flow computer • Valve travel failure for each flow/proving run • Out of service mode for each meter
• General alarm for each flow computer • Temperature for each flow/proving run • Pressure for each flow/proving run
• Flow for each flow/proving run • Differential pressure across each strainer • Communicaton failure for flow computer
• Densitometer loop flow isolated • Watchdog timer for PROVER flow computer • Duty/proving mode for each meter
FISCAL METERING SKID FISCAL METERING CONTROL SYSTEM
• N+1 meter run configuration (Duty Meters + Master Meter) • Individual Flow computer per stream
• Turbine / Coloris meter as master meter • Redundant master flow computer
• Ultrasonic meter as duty meter • Redundant DCS communication
• Master meter proving shall be with portable prover
• Automatic proving arrangement
• Pressure Temperature compensation with PT & TT

ALLOCATION METERING SKID ALLOCATION METERING CONTROL SYSTEM

• N meter run configuration (Duty Meters) • Single flow computer per skid
• Ultrasonic/Turbine/Coloris meter as duty meter • No master flow computer required
• Meter proving shall be done offline • Redundant DCS communication
• Pressure Temperature compensation with PT & TT

Custody Transfer Metering System consist of the following components:

STREAM FLOW COMPUTER
• Collect all process data related to stream (duty meter run)
• Provide the pulse to the master flow computer for calculation
• Calculate the Gross, Net Volume and Mass for the particular stream
• Control of stream inlet, outlet and cross-over valve
• Control of flow balancing valve

MASTER FLOW COMPUTER

• Collect all process data related to prover (master meter run)
• Collect the flow data from all stream flow computer
• Calculate the Gross Volume and Mass for the Station (SKID)
• Control of master meter run and portable prover take-off and return valve

HMI SERVER
• Main engineering and operator station located in PIB/LER/IES
• Can be used for diagnosics of UFM
• Acts as a server for collecting data and history
• Updates the flow computer with batch algorithms
• Reports

HMI Client
• This is client computer based in CCR and networked with PIB/LER/IES HMI Server
• Can be used for Batching operations and Proving operations
• Can be used as Engineering Station as well

Custody Transfer Metering shall be installed in services;

• Transfer points between legal entities
• Hydrocarbon or chemical feed-stocks to process blocks
• Product lines from process blocks
• To and From Storage in Tank Farms
• Import and Export streams

Custody Transfer Metering is required for number of reasons;

• Calculate production costs
• Calculate efficiency ratings
• Inventory management
• Fuel and loss control
• Internal billings and Sales billing
• Transfer between legal entities within the plant complex
• Control the receipt of raw materials
HIPPS (HIGH INTEGRITY PRESSURE PROTECTION SYSTEM)
In the conventional design, a Pressure Safety/Relief Valve (Relief Systems - PSV, PRV) were used as the primary means of protection,
and a flare system was used to safely combust gases relieved during overpressure event. Something more robust was needed due to:
• Increased design pressures and increased flow rates
• Environmental concerns
• Constraints
• The overall risk factors associated with modern day plants and processes.
In an industrial plant, the flare systems are primarily used for burning off the gases released by the pressure relief valves during the
unplanned over-pressurization of plant equipment. Flaring & Venting constitute significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
HIPPS can be employed to prevent the over-pressurization of a plant by shutting-off the source of the high pressure gas rather than by
releasing it to the atmosphere.

HIPPS provides this critical assurance in a safe and environmentally friendly manner. These safety systems are used when applications
involve high pressure and flow rates. Chemical reactions, multiphase fluids or plugging make it difficult to properly size a relief valve.

HIPPS – high integrity pressure protection system is type of safety instrumented system (SIS) which is specifically designed to prevent
over-pressurization of a plant, such as a chemical plant or oil refinery. The HIPPS will shut off the source of the high pressure before
the design pressure of the system is exceeded, thus preventing loss of containment through rupture (explosion) of a line or vessel.
Therefore, a HIPPS is considered as a barrier between a high-pressure and a low-pressure section of an installation.

In traditional system, over-pressure is dealt with through relief system. A relief system will open alternative outlet for fluids in system
once a set pressure is exceeded, to avoid further build-up of pressure in the protected system. This leads to a flare or venting system
to safely dispose the excess fluids.
A relief system aims at removing any excess inflow of fluids for safe disposal, where HIPPS aims at stopping the inflow of excess fluids
and containing them in system. Conventional relief systems have disadvantages such as release of (flammable/toxic) process fluids or
their combustion products in environment and often a large footprint of the installation. With increasing environmental awareness,
relief systems are not always an acceptable solution. However, because of their simplicity, relatively low cost and wide availability,
conventional relief systems are still often applied.

Since HIPPS is a type of SIS (Safety Instrumented System), the requirements of HIPPS applications must be investigated thoroughly.
The SIS standards are performance-based with the safety integrity level (SIL) as the primary performance measurement.
The SIL represents the necessary risk reduction, as recognized in a user’s risk reduction analysis. Each SIL level corresponds with the
tolerable probability of failure on demand (PFD) to all HIPPS devices from the sensor through the logic solver and final elements.
The international standards IEC 61508, IEC 61511, IEC 61131 and the US standard ANSI/ISA S84.01-1996 are intended to address the
framework for design and the application of SIS in the process industry, through the definition of the assessment, design, validation
and documentation for SISs.

HIPPS module includes flowline barrier valves, pressure transmitters & controls designed to protect against overpressure in pipelines.
The module’s control system monitors the pressure of fluid flowing through the pipeline to the host platform.
Through hardwired logic, control system automatically close valves, if pressure fluctuations exceed a predetermined value in flowline.
HIPPS typically utilizes dual devices in a 1oo2 configuration (two valves in series) in conjunction with 1oo1 or 1oo2 solenoid valves.
Each solenoid can also be connected in 2oo2 configuration to reduce spurious trips by having 2 independent output from Logic Solver.
• Sensors (Initiators) that detect the high pressure • A Logic Solver, which processes the input from the sensors to an output to the
final element • Final Elements, that actually perform the corrective action in the field by bringing the process to a safe state.
In case of a HIPPS this means shutting off the source of overpressure. The final element consists of a valve, actuator and solenoids.
VESDA (VERY EARLY SMOKE DETECTION APPARATUS)

HSSD (HIGH SENSITIVITY SMOKE DETECTION)

VESDA is very early smoke detection apparatus with continuous air sampling & provides earliest warning of an impending fire hazard.
VESDA buys the critical time needed to investigate an alarm and initiate an appropriate response to prevent injury, property damage
or cause for a major business disruption.

VESDA works by drawing air into pipe network via high efficiency aspirator. Sample of this air is then passed through dual stage filter.
The first stage removes dust & dirt from air sample before it allows the sample to enter laser detection chamber for smoke detection.
The second (ultra fine) stage provides an additional clean air supply to keep the detector’s optical surfaces free from contamination,
ensuring stable calibration and long detector life. From the filter, the air sample is passed through to a calibrated detection chamber
where it is exposed to a laser light source.
When smoke is present, light is scattered within the detection chamber and is instantly identified by highly sensitive receiver system.
The signal is then processed and presented via a bar graph display, alarm threshold indicators and/or graphic display.
The VESDA detectors are then able to communicate this information to a fire alarm control panel, a software management system or
a building management system via dry contact relays or a redundant serial communication link.

Reliable VESDA systems are dependent on a network of specialty pipings which constantly and efficiently carry the air samples from
protected zones to a highly sensitive detectors. VESDA is based on pipework of standard inside diameter (ID) of 3/4" per ASTM F442.
The VESDA aspirating smoke detection is an early warning system that detects fire in the incipient stages - before flames are visible –
by detecting the products of pre-combustion in the air around the area about to ignite.
VESDA Laser detection, detector provides a sensitivity range of 0.0015 to 6% obscuration/ ft. It detects fire at earliest possible stage
and reliably measures very low to extremely high concentrations of smoke.
The VESDA system samples air from a fire zone for the presence of smoke. The air sampling system makes this possible by providing
the means for transporting air from a fire zone to the detector. The air sampling system is active, continuously drawing in air samples
by means of an integral pump. It does not rely on air or heat currents in the vicinity of the detector transporting the smoke particles
to the detector. The VESDA system can function effectively and reliabily in all kinds of environment from high air flows to still air.
The network of sampling pipes to the detector is the key element in the performance of the detection system

Air Sampling
Three basic sampling methods can be used in a VESDA system installation:
• Standard pipe sampling systems (below ceiling; in ceiling or floor void)
• Capillary tube sampling (concealed; above ceiling; within cabinets)
• Return air sampling (within duct; return air grille)
While each sampling method is suited to specific applications, more than one method is often employed to monitor a fire zone.
In some applications - particularly those in which there is movement of high volumes of air – the most effective sampling network
generally combines two methods to provide maximum coverage to a zone under all operating conditions.

The VESDA system is much like a vacuum cleaner. It sucks air from the protected environment via purpose built aspirating pipe and
fittings and samples the quality of air passing through the VESDA detection laser chamber.
The system actively draws air from the protected area through a pipe network. Sampled air is then filtered before being analyzed by
the detection chamber. The detection chamber utilizes a laser light source & photoelectric receiver circuitry to detect scattered light
caused by presence of smoke. Alarm (Pre-Alarm & Fire) & Fault conditions are reported by activating LEDs on the simple display and
dry contact relays or a redundant serial communication link to main FGS system.

An aspirating smoke detection system continuously draws air from the monitored area into the sampling pipes.
The air is drawn from the sampling pipes into the main sampling unit. In the main sampling unit, the air is analyzed by very sensitive
laser detection components. The laser detection components constantly monitor for the presence of smoke particles.
If smoke particles are detected, unit will activate alarm output relays in accordance with sensitivity selected and alarm level reached.
The High Sensitivity Smoke Detector is between 20 and 1000 times more sensitive than spot-type smoke detectors.

SUMMARY OF THE VESDA / HSSD system

• Air is continuously drawn into a pipe network attached to the detector unit.
• Air is filtered and then send to a laser detection chamber for smoke detection
• Measuring the light scatter caused by any smoke
• Processing & Communicating the information to a fire control panel/F&G system
HSSD - High Sensitivity Smoke Detection Systems are designed for critical facilities than cannot tolerate any fire-related interruption.
These types of facilities can’t wait for traditional smoke detection systems to work. They need to detect smoke during the incipient
stage of the fire, such as the tiny particles of combustion given off by overheating electrical components.
Working 24 hours a day, these systems proactively sniff the air for particles of smoke. This enables the facilities managers to locate
and deal with the source of many fires … often without having to activate fire suppression systems.
The High Sensitivity Smoke Detection Systems don’t replace the need for fire suppression systems. Instead, they function as part of an
integrated fire protection system.

High Sensitivity Smoke Detection systems working:

Air is drawn by a fan through the piping network located throughout the protected area onto various detector heads.
The system particle counter in detector head determines the size and number of particles and records the number of smoke particles.
The data is received, processed and displayed by the display and control card which can have various, adjustable levels of alarm.

HSSD design corrects shortcomings of conventional smoke detectors by using sampling pipe with multiple holes.
The air samples are captured and filtered, removing any contaminants or dust to avoid false alarms and then processed by a
centralized, highly sensitive laser detection unit. If smoke is detected, the systems alarm is triggered and signals then are processed
through centralized monitoring stations within a few seconds.

Unlike passive smoke detection systems including spot detectors. The HSSD systems actively draw smoke to the detector through
bore holes within a piping system that runs throughout the protected area. Furthurmore HSSD systems incorporate integrity
monitoring to ensure an alert is raised at any time the HSSD’s ability to detect smoke is compromised. This is not the case with passive
devices that are generally only electrically monitored with no ability to determine if smoke can actually reach the detection element.

HSSD system incorporate more than one level of alarm, generally configurable. This allows HSSD system to provide very early warning
of an event promting investigation at the earliest smouldering stage of a fire when it is easily addressed.
Other alarm levels may be configured to provide fire alarm inputs to fire systems as well as releasing suppression systems.

VESDA / HSSD systems deliver absolute protection across a wide range of industries and applications:
• Accommodation (Apartments, Hotels, Shops and Offices) • Correctional Facilities • Clean Rooms • Cold Storage
• Data & Telecom • Hospitals and Healthcare • Marine • Nuclear Facilities • Oil & Gas • Portable Switch Rooms
• Power Generation • Records Storage • Warehousing

Main advantages of VESDA / HSSD systems are

• Early warning of the fire at its incipient stage
• Origin of fire can be located
• Provides times to investigate & intervine
• Operating personal can immediately alert appropriate personal to attend the fire in its incipient stages
FIRE PROTECTION
The fire protection basics can generally be clasified in two sections “water based fire protection” & “non-water based fire protection”.

SECTION 1 : WATER BASED FIRE PROTECTION

• Wet Pipe Sprinkler System (Closed-Head Sprinklers) (Above 5 C)

• Dry Pipe Sprinkler System (Closed-Head Sprinklers) (Below 5 C)

• Deluge System (Open-Head Sprinklers)

• Pre-Action Systems
1. Single Interlock Pre-Action System
2. Double Interlock Pre-Action System

• Foam-Water System

• Water Spray System

• Water Mist System

SECTION 2 : NON- WATER BASED FIRE PROTECTION

• Chemical Suppression System (Based on Cooling or Inhibiting Effect)

• Gases Suppression System (Based on Oxygen Reduction)

 WATER BASED FIRE PROTECTION

Wet Pipe Sprinkler System (Closed-Head Sprinklers)

By a wide margin, wet pipe sprinkler systems (Closed Head) are installed more often than all other types of fire sprinkler systems.
They also are most reliable, because they are simple, with only operating components being the automatic sprinklers (closed head)
and (commonly, but not always) an automatic alarm check valve.
An automatic water supply provides water under pressure to the system piping to which these automatic sprinklers are attached.
Operation - When an automatic sprinkler is exposed for a sufficient time to a temperature at or above the design temperature.
The heat sensitive element (glass bulb or fusible link) releases, allowing water to flow from that sprinkler onto the affected area.
Each closed-head sprinkler is held closed by a heat-sensitive glass bulb or a metal link held together by a fusible alloy.
The glass bulb or the fusible link applies pressure to a pip cap which acts as a plug and prevents the water from flowing until the
ambient temperature around the sprinkler reaches the design activation temperature of the individual sprinkler head.
In a standard wet-pipe sprinkler system, each sprinkler activates independently when the predetermined heat level is reached.
Because of this, the number of sprinklers that operate are limited to only those which are nearer to fire, which helps in maximizing
the available water pressure over the point of fire origin.

Dry Pipe Sprinkler System (Closed-Head Sprinklers)

Dry pipe sprinkler system are installed in spaces where ambient temperatures may be cold enough to freeze water in wet pipe system
rendering the system inoperable. Dry pipe systems are most often used in unheated buildings, in parking garages, in outside canopies
attached to heated buildings (in which a wet pipe system is provided), or in refrigerated coolers.
Dry pipe systems are the second most common sprinkler system type. In regions using NFPA regulations, the dry pipe systems cannot
be installed unless the range of ambient temperatures reaches below 5 °C.
Operation - Water is not present in piping until the system operates. The piping is filled with air below the water supply pressure.
To prevent the larger water supply pressure from forcing water into piping, the design of valve (a specialized type of check valve)
results in a greater force on top of the check valve clapper by use of a larger valve clapper area exposed to the piping air pressure,
as compared to the higher water pressure at bottom but smaller clapper surface area.
When one or more of the automatic sprinklers are exposed to a temperature at or above the design temperature rating, it opens,
allowing the air in piping to vent from that sprinkler. Each sprinkler operates individually. As the air pressure in the piping drops,
the pressure differential across the dry pipe valve changes, allowing water to enter the piping system.
The water flow from sprinklers needed to control the fire is delayed until the air is vented from the sprinklers.
For this reason, dry pipe systems are usually not as effective as wet pipe systems in fire control during the initial stages of fire.
Advantages - Some view dry pipe sprinklers as advantageous for protection of collections and other water sensitive areas.
The advantage is that a leak in piping will cause the loss of air which raises an alarm (no water is released due to a leak in pipe).
However potential for accidental water damage is same, as dry pipe system will only provide slight delay prior to water discharge
while the air in the piping is released from the pipe.
Disadvantages - Increased complexity : additional control equipment, air pressure supply component increases system complexity.
Higher installation and maintenance costs
Increased fire response time
Because the piping is empty at the time the sprinkler operates, there is an inherent time delay in delivering water to the sprinklers
which have operated while water travels from the riser to the sprinkler, partially filling the piping which increases response time.
A maximum of 60 seconds is normally allowed, from the time a single sprinkler opens and until water is discharged onto the fire.
This delay in fire suppression results in a larger fire prior to control, increasing property damage.

Deluge System (Open-Head Sprinklers)

"Deluge" systems are those systems in which all sprinklers connected to the water piping system are open.
Because the heat sensing element present in automatic sprinklers have been removed (which results in the open head sprinklers),
the deluge valve is normally closed and must be opened as signalled by a fire alarm system.
The fire alarm initiating device is selected based on the hazard (e.g. smoke detectors, heat detectors, or optical flame detectors).
The initiation device signals the fire alarm panel, which in turn signals the deluge valve to open. Activation can also be manual,
depending on system goals. Manual activation is via electric or pneumatic pull station (switch), which signals the fire alarm panel,
which in turn signals the deluge valve to open.
Water is not present in piping until system operates. Because sprinkler orifices are open, the piping is at atmospheric pressure.
To prevent the water supply pressure from forcing water into the piping, a deluge valve is used in the water supply connection,
which is a mechanically latched valve. It is a non-resetting valve, and stays open once tripped.
Operation - Activation of a fire alarm initiating device, or a manual pull station, signals the fire alarm panel, which in turn signals the
deluge valve to open, allowing water to enter the piping system. Water flows from all sprinklers simultaneously.
These systems are used for special hazards where rapid fire spread is a concern, as they provide a simultaneous application of water
over the entire hazard. They are sometimes installed in personnel egress paths or building openings to slow travel of fire.
Pre-Action Systems
Pre-action sprinkler systems are specialized for use in locations where accidental activation is undesired, such as in museums with
rare art works, manuscripts, books, Data Centres for the protection of computer equipment from accidental water discharge.
Pre-action systems are hybrids of wet, dry, and deluge systems, depending on the exact system goal. They are of two types.
Single Interlock Pre-Action System
The operation of single interlock pre action systems are similar to deluge systems except that automatic sprinklers are used.
Typically activation of a heat or a smoke detector takes place, prior to the “action” of water introduction into the system’s piping
by opening the pre-action valve, which is a mechanically latched valve (i.e., similar to a deluge valve).
In this way, the system is essentially converted from a dry pipe system into a wet pipe system.
The intent is to reduce the time delay of water delivery to sprinkler that is inherent in dry pipe systems. Prior to the fire detection,
if the sprinkler operates, or the piping system develops a leak, the loss of air pressure in the piping will activate a trouble alarm.
In this case, pre-action valve will not open due to loss of supervisory pressure, and water will not enter the piping.
Double Interlock Pre-Action System
The operation of double interlock pre action systems are similar to deluge systems except that automatic sprinklers are used.
These systems require that both a “preceding” fire detection event, typically the activation of a heat or a smoke detector, and
an automatic sprinkler operation takes place, prior to the “action” of water introduction into the system’s piping.
Activation of either fire detector, or sprinkler alone, without the concurrent operation of other, will not allow water to enter piping.
Because water does not enter piping until both the fire detector and the sprinkler operates, double interlock pre action systems are
considered as dry systems in terms of water delivery times, and similarly require a larger design area.

Foam-Water System
A foam water sprinkler system is a special application system, discharging a mixture of water & low expansion foam concentrate,
resulting in a foam spray from the sprinkler.
These systems are usually used with special hazards occupancies associated with challenging fires, such as flammable liquids, and
airport hangars. Operation is as described above, depending on the system type into which the foam is injected.

Water Spray System

"Water spray" systems are identical to a deluge system, but the piping and discharge nozzle spray patterns are designed in such a way
so as to protect a uniquely configured hazard which is usually being a three dimensional components or equipment’s
(as opposed to a deluge system, which is designed to cover the full horizontal floor area of a room).
The nozzles used may not be listed fire sprinklers & are selected for specific spray pattern to cover three dimensional nature of hazard
(typical spray patterns oval, full circle, narrow jet). Examples of hazards protected by water spray system are electrical transformers
containing oil for cooling or turbo-generator bearing. The water spray systems can also be used externally on the surfaces of tanks
containing flammable liquids or gases (such as hydrogen). Here water spray is intended to cool the tank and its contents to prevent
tank rupture/explosion (BLEVE) and fire spread.

Water Mist System

Water mist systems are used for special applications in which creating a heat absorbent vapor is the primary objective.
This type of system is typically used where water damage may be a concern, or where water supplies are limited.
NFPA 750 defines water mist as a water spray with a droplet size of less than <1000 microns at the minimum operation pressure of
discharge nozzle." The droplet size can be controlled by adjusting discharge pressure through a nozzle of a fixed orifice size.
By creating a mist, equal volume of water will create a larger total surface area which is exposed to the fire.
The larger total surface area better facilitates transfer of heat, thus allowing more water droplets to turn to steam more quickly.
Steam which absorbs more heat than water per unit time will then more effectively cool the room, reducing temperature of flame.
Operation - Water mist systems can operate with the same functionality as deluge, wet pipe, dry pipe, or pre-action systems.
The difference is that water mist system uses compressed gas as an atomizing medium, which is pumped through sprinkler pipe.
Systems can be applied using local application method or total flooding method, similar to Clean Agent Fire Protection Systems.
 NON-WATER BASED FIRE PROTECTION

CHEMICAL SUPPRESSION SYSTEM (based on Cooling or Inhibit Effect) (FM200)(NOVAV1230)(FE-13/25/36)(Chlorobromomethane)

Effective explosion suppression requires getting sufficient amounts of chemicals or gases to the trouble area in a very short time,
adapting required dispersing equipment to withstand the environment, and immunizing the system from the outside influences
(e.g. temperature of the vessel or its surroundings). The Suppressant must also be compatible with other chemicals in the system.

Chemical fire suppression agents have some form of cooling mechanism, they extinguish fire primarily by removing heat from fire or
Chemical fire suppression agents reacts with the system and have a chemically inhibitive effect on the combustion reaction.
These systems use less volume and donot significantly reduce oxygen levels. However, as any chemical agent, high doses can be toxic,
therefore correct designs are absolutely necessary. The typical concentration of chemical system is normally between 7.9% to 8.5%.
Chemical fire suppression agents shall leave very low residue so that subsequent interruption for cleaning can be held to minimum.

Halogenated compounds mostly methane derivatives are popular suppressants. Chlorobromomethane, bromotrifluoromethane are
most commonly used. Water owes its effectiveness to a cooling action and CO2 relies upon its ability to exclude oxygen from the fire,
whereas halogenated compounds seems to have a chemically inhibitive effect on the combustion reaction.

FM200 (HFC227ea)(Heptafluoropropane) contain hydrogen,fluorine,carbon. It has no chlorine, bromine (ozone depleting compounds)
Other commonly used chemicals are Novec1230 (FK-5-1-12), DuPont FE13 (HFC23), FE25 (HFC125,Ecaro25), FE36 (HFC236fa)

Earlier HALON1301, HALON1211 were widely used, but due to the presense of CFC chlorofluorocarbons, ozone deplicting compounds,
they are now not used and replaced with CFC free agents with zero ozone depletion potential. (No no chlorine, bromine etc)

EXPLOSION SUPPRESSION HARDWARE

The hardware for explosion suppression falls into 3 categories:
• Detectors, which serve to detect the initiation of the explosion
• Control units, which initiate the corrective action in one or several directions
• Actuated devices, which blanket protected area with suppressant. The adjacent areas are vented or isolated as required.

Actuated devices produce a condition that limits the damage caused by the explosion.
The most important of these are the Suppressors and Extinguishers.
Additionally, there may be preaction vents, isolation valves, and other corrective measures initiated by detection of an explosion.

Suppressors and Extinguishers

The distinction between suppressors & extinguishers is basically in method of mounting and mechanism of release of the suppressant.
Suppressors are mounted internally to the equipment being protected. They contain a relatively small volume (upto 5000 cm3) and
are actuated by detonation of an explosive charge within the container. They are mounted close to possible sources of ignition and
provide a fast source of extinguishing chemicals.
Extinguishers are much larger in volume compared to suppressants & are mounted outside the equipment which is to be protected.
They are usually pressurized with nitrogen upto 20 bars and are fitted with a diaphragm that is opened by an explosive charge.
These units are used where more amount of suppressant is required than would be available from the small suppressor unit, such as
in large ducts, bag filters. They have an additional advantage in that they can be fitted with a new closure and refilled for reuse.
GASES SUPPRESSION SYSTEM (Based on Oxygen Reduction) (INERGEN) (ARGONITE) (ARGON) (NITROGEN) (CARBON DIOXIDE)

Gases fire suppression reduce oxygen level from 21% to below 15%. By reducing oxygen to below 15% level, fire will be extinguished.
Fires need more than 15% oxygen to combust. Anything below 15% oxygen level will not be enough for fire to sustain combustion.
The design must also consider the safety of personnel and keep oxygen levels above 12%, this will be sufficient to maintain life within
an oxygen depleted environment and medical research has shown that there are no short or long term influences on the human body.
Oxygen levels between 12% and 10% will show visible signs of effects asphyxiation oxygen levels below 10% are extremely dangerous.
Gases suppression is an effective fire suppression agent applicable to a wide range of fire hazards. Gases works quickly, with no
residual clean-up associated with a system discharge which translates into minimal business interruption.

Gases suppression systems generally reduces the oxygen level below 15%, which is minimum required level for combustibles to burn.
When gases are discharged, it introduces proper mixture of gases that still allows a person to breathe in reduced oxygen atmosphere.
The level of oxygen should never drop below 12.5% oxygen level, hence gases suppression system shall be designed very carefully.

IG55 (Argonite, Prolnert) (50% Argon, 50% Nitogen)

IG541 (INERGEN) (52% Nitorgen, 40% Argon, 8% CO2)
IG01 (100% Argon)
IG100 (100% Nitrogen)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless, and chemically inert gas that is both readily available and electrically non-conductive.
It extinguishes fire by lowering the level of oxygen that supports combustion in a protected area. This mechanism of fire suppression
makes CO2 suppression highly effective, requiring minimal clean-up, but should be used in normally unoccupied hazard locations or
otherwise avoided by personnel when discharged.

Advantages of Non-Water Based Fire Protection against Water Based Fire Protection
Water is primary tool to control structural fire. However with today sophistication, containing fire to single area is not always enough.
Critical facilities and infrastructure require an even higher level of fire protection.
Non-water based protection (chemical / gases) system work on class A, B, C fires & react quickly to extinguish fire at its earliest stages.
Using early detection & rapid extinguishment, eliminates fire, reduce damage to equipment, & increase safety of people in fire area.
These system extinguish fires as a chemical/gas, which gives them the ability to permeate into cabinets and obstructed areas.
It also makes them uniquely suited to protect the electronics hidden inside a piece of equipment, a likely place for a fire to start.
By thoroughly flooding the area with a gaseous firefighting agent, even obscured or hard to reach fires are quickly extinguished,
usually long before they can be seen. After extinguishment, agent is readily ventilated from room along with any byproducts of fire.
Unlike water, these firefighting agents are non-conductive/non-corrosive, making it safe to use on & around live electrical equipment.
There is no residue to cleanup, no lingering materials to degrade equipment and no need for expensive "Disaster Recovery" process.
Operations are brought back online and productive in a very short time.
ICSS – Integrated Control & Safety System
SAS – Safety & Automation System

ENMS – Electrical Network Monitoring System

PDCS – Power Distribution Control System
PCS – Process Control System
TCS – Turbine Control System
CCS – Compressor Control System
MCMS - Machine Condition Monitoring System
CTMS – Custody Transfer Metering system
ATG – Automatic Tank Gauging

ESD – Emergency Shutdown System

F&G – Fire & Gas System
HIPPS – High Integrity Pressure Protection System
PSD – Process Shutdown System
VIDEO WALLS
Controlling processes and monitoring plant behavior requires a number of skills from operators.
Of all information that we take in from our surroundings, 80% comes through our eyes, Hence an overview system that can be seen by all operators,
while providing them with all the vital information in blink of the eye is a necessity. This overview system must not only give an accurate information
but this must be done in a visible and legible way, keeping the operators’ abilities and limitations in mind. The overview system is a video wall.
Video walls are found in control rooms, stadiums, and other large public venues where patrons are expected to observe the display at long distances.
A video wall is a special multi-monitor setup that consists of multiple computer monitors, video projectors, television sets tiled together contiguously
or overlapped in order to form one large screen. Typical display technologies include LCD panels, LED arrays, and front/rear projection screens.

Screens specifically designed for use in video walls usually have narrow bezels in order to minimize mullion, the gap between active display areas,
and are built with long-term serviceability in mind. Such display screens often contain the hardware necessary to stack up similar screens together,
along with connections to daisy chain power, video, and command signals between screens.
A command signal may, for example, power all screens in video wall on or off, or calibrate the brightness of a single screen after bulb replacement.
Simple video walls can be driven from multi-monitor video cards, however more complex arrangements may require specialized video processors,
specifically designed to manage and drive large video walls.

Reasons for using a video wall instead of a single large screen can include the ability to customize tile layouts, greater screen area per unit cost, and
greater pixel density per unit cost, due to the economics of manufacturing single screens which are unusual in shape, size, or resolution.

What is a video wall ?

A video wall is a display and processing system comprising a matrix of projectors or monitors that function together as a single logical unit.
When compared to a single display, video walls typically provides a much larger picture size with a far greater pixel estate, since multiple screens are
combined to form a single image. Video walls are ideal for displaying large images and/or amounts of data that cannot fit onto single smaller screens.
A video wall usually dominates a significant portion of wall, and can be built with the same aspect ratio of a standard display and can be of just about
any desired shape or orientation. A video wall can comprise two, four, eight, nine, even hundred’s of screens.
Video walls have several distinct attributes and advantages, with image display capability and flexibility that simply cannot be achieved otherwise.
The investment for video walls always faces scrutiny, so it is important to sensibly identify & specify video wall system requirements for each project.
An effectively designed video wall system, with proper consideration for both environmental and human factors, ensures total viewing comfort and
optimal accessibility for everyone in the room. This in turn helps to maximize the cost-effectiveness of the in conveying visual information.
The ability to present clear, high quality images and at large sizes make video walls valuable for maintaining situational awareness in control centres,
specifically when properly integrated into its physical environment and engineered for efficient, ergonomic use.
On deciding how large a video wall should be is more than a matter of determining how many display devices are required to fill a space on a wall.
The manner in which the video wall will be used, the types and quantity of information to be presented, and the size and shape of the room should
be considered before selecting the quantity, type and resolution of displays.
A video wall in a public setting for digital signage e.g. the foyer of a corporate head office will have a very different specification on video wall as one
within a command and control centre. To help determine the best physical shape and size for a video wall, keep the following points in mind:
• The general shape and size of a video wall is determined by the layout of the room and space available on the wall, and the seating and
standing positions of the operators and supervisors.
• The distance from the closest and furthest operator from the wall.
• Ensure the display you select for the video wall has sufficiently pixel density, so that the closest viewer will not see pixel structure.
Balance this with fact that higher the display resolution, the smaller the text will appear, closer the operator need to sit in order to read it.
• Drafting window layouts will help you better define the shape and dimensions of the video wall. Be sure to account for:
1. The types of input sources.
2. The aspect ratios and native resolutions of these sources.
3. Legibility of content, particularly text, and possible need to enlarge and re-position them on the wall.
Character heights should be at least 0,006 x viewing distance to be legible.
4. The maximum number of sources to be displayed simultaneously.
Together with these suggested guidelines, be sure that the final video wall design and configuration satisfies eye and head tilt considerations.
• Apply a minimum text height of 25 mm on screen for every 4.5 m of distance between video wall & furthest viewing position in the room.
• The dimensions and resolution of each individual display unit that makes up video walls, will depend on the overall required pixel density,
the desired shape and size of the video wall, and the budget. The choice of display technology will dictate the specific screen dimensions
and resolutions available from which to choose.

The Design Process

• Establish the total available space provided and available for the video wall.
• Determine the desk and standing positions of all operators and supervisors.
• Choose between a straight wall and a curved wall through a sight line study.
• Using the same study, calculate the bottom height from the floor where the video wall should start and the top height where it should end.
• Decide on technology – LCD, LED, Rear Projections. Rear Projection-DLP is always preferred due to longer life span and its seamless displays
if space and budget constraints do not dictate otherwise.
• Try to find enough space for rear accessibility for maintenance of wall – this is for DLP systems as any servicing donot disturb the operators.
• Identify what else needs to be placed on the sides of the wall, e.g. company logos, clocks, frequency indicators etc
• Now establish the maximum size and desired shape.
• Specify the aspect ratio and resolution of individual displays.
• Ask video walls suppliers for using different screen-sizes that are available for aspect ratio to show the area that each screen size will cover.
• The configuration that covers the maximum size the best, will dictate the size and number of displays to be used.
The steps above are suficient to sensibly specify a video wall in terms of layout, size, shape, front vs. rear access for maintenance, display technology,
aspect ratio, resolution, display size, number of displays required, and number and height of the supports on which the displays will be installed.
Display Technologies

LCD Displays:
Flat-panel LCD displays have quickly become popular for video wall applications. They range in size from 40-100 inches, with a depth of 10 cm or less,
& are ideal for facilities with limited physical space and/or budgets. LCD panels designed for video walls are typically available with 16:9 aspect ratio
at resolutions as 1366 x 768 and 1920 x 1080. Recently the availability of ultra-thin bezel models –typically 7.3 mm and 5.7 mm display - to - display –
has made LCD flat panels very popular in a broad range of applications.

The principle behind the LCD’s is that when an electrical current is applied to the liquid crystal molecule, the molecule tends to untwist.
This causes the angle of light which is passing through the molecule of the polarized glass and also cause a change in angle of the top polarizing filter.
As a result little light is alowed to pass polarized glass through a particular area of LCD. Thus that particular area will become dark compared to other
The LCD works on the principle of blocking light. While constructing LCD’s, a reflected mirror is arranged at the back. An electrode plane is made of
indium-tin oxide which is kept on top and a polarized glass with a polarizing film is also added on the bottom of the device.
The complete region of the LCD has to be enclosed by a common electrode and above it should be the liquid crystal matter.
Next comes to the second piece of glass with an electrode in the form of the rectangle on the bottom and, on top, another polarizing film.
It must be considered that both the pieces are kept at right angles. When there is no current, the light passes through the front of the LCD it will be
reflected by the mirror and bounced back. As the electrode is connected to the battery the current from it will cause the liquid crystals between the
common-plane electrode and the electrode shaped like a rectangle to untwist.
Thus the light is blocked from passing through. That particular rectangular area appears blank.
Colour LCDs are those that can display pictures in colours. For this to be possible there must be 3 sub-pixels with red, green and blue colour filters to
create each colour pixel. For combining these sub-pixels these LCDs should be connected to a large number of transistors.
If any problem occurs to these transistors, it will cause a bad pixel.

LED Displays:
LED displays produce very high brightness and are frequently used outdoors or in environments with high ambient light conditions.
These are generally not found in industrial or security control room environments.
LED (Light Emitting Diodes) Displays are basically LCDs only. The difference in it is that the lamp behind the screen that was used to illuminate the
fluorescent display in LCD is replaced by small LEDs. The working of the display remains the same, but due to the use of LEDs the display screen is
much slimmer in size, power efficient and can yield a true black effect to a much greater extent.

Modular Displays:
A recent class of display products feature a compact, modular display size comparable to LED panels which are virtually seamless.
This is a new display technology used for creating video walls with many different shapes and configurations. Similar to LED systems, these displays
are not limited to standard aspect ratios and can be a rectangle, square, or some other abstract shape like a “plus” or a “top hat” shape.
Due to very low resolution,they are meant more for digital signage where it will be viewed from distance, rather than 24/7 command/control centre,
where legibility from close range is often necessary; or even security applications where facial recognition from CCTV camera images is required.

Rear Projection Displays:

A projection technology uses a projector to create a small image or video from a video signal and magnify this image onto a viewable screen.
The projector uses a bright beam of light and a lens system to project the image to a much larger size.
A front-projection technology uses a projector that is separate from the screen and the projector is placed in front of the screen.
A rear-projection technology is similar to traditional television. The projector is contained inside the box & projects image from behind the screen.

The following are different types of projection, which differ based on the type of projector and how the image (before projection) is created:
CRT projector: Small cathode ray tubes create the image in same manner that a traditional CRT television does, which is by firing a beam of electrons
onto phosphor-coated screen & then image is projected to large screen. This is done to overcome size limit of cathode ray tube which is about 40 in.
Normally 3 CRTs are used, 1 red, 1 green and 1 blue, aligned so the colors mix correctly on the projected image.
LCD projector: A lamp transmits light through a small LCD chip made up of individual pixels to create an image.
The LCD projector uses mirrors to take the light & create 3 separate red, green, blue beams, which are then passed through 3 separate LCD panels.
The liquid crystals are manipulated using electric current to control the amount of light passing through.
The lens system takes the three color beams and projects the image.
Digital Light Processing (DLP) projector: A DLP projector creates an image using a digital micromirror device (DMD chip), which on its surface contains
a large matrix of microscopic mirrors, each corresponding to one pixel in an image.
Each mirror can be rotated to reflect light such that pixel appears bright or mirror can be rotated to direct light elsewhere & make pixel appear dark.
The mirror is made of aluminum and is rotated on an axle hinge. There are electrodes on both sides of the hinge for controlling the rotation of mirror
using electrostatic attraction.
The electrodes are connected to an SRAM cell located under each pixel, and charges from the SRAM cell drive the movement of the mirrors.
Color is added to image-creation process either through spinning color wheel (used with single-chip projector) or 3-chip (red, green, blue) projector.
The color wheel is placed between the lamp light source and DMD chip such that the light passing through is colored and then reflected off a mirror
to determine level of darkness. A color wheel consists of red, green, blue sector, as well as 4th sector to either control brightnes or include 4th color.
This spinning color wheel in the single-chip arrangement can be replaced by red, green and blue light-emitting diodes (LED). The three-chip projector
uses a prism to split up the light into three beams (red, green, blue), each directed towards its own DMD chip.
The outputs of the three DMD chips are recombined and then projected.
The Video wall System shall integrate a number of OPC servers which are specific to a plant system, such as:
• Distributed Control System (DCS)
• Emergency Shutdown (ESD)
• Fire and Gas (F&G)
• Electrical Distribution Management System (EDMS)
• Electrical Load Management System (ELMS)
• Advanced Process Control (APC)
• Tankage Information System (TIS)
• Terminal Automation System (TAS)
• Analysers
• Generator Control Systems

The general architecture of a Video wall system can be represented as shown below.
LCD DISPLAY

LED DISPLAY

REAR PROJECTION DISPLAYS (CRT Projectors, LCD Projectors, DLP Projectors)

OPERATOR CONSOLES
Introduction
The Central Control Room (CCR) will monitor the entire facility and complex.
The CCR will generally provide operational management for entire facility, including production plants such as process, utilities and Offsites.
The CCR will be designed as a “High Profile, Mission Critical, Command Centre” with impressive architectures and superior interior finishes.
The Operator Consoles will be deployed within CCR so that each of operators has an overview of the Plant facilities under his management and
the interface to other facilities via display walls (Video Walls).

Operator Console Design

The CCR will be a normally manned facility 24 hours per day 365 days per year with plant operators occupying the CCR full time.
The Operator Consoles will be technology intensive comprising a diverse array of display, control and communication equipment.
The Operator Console design, in general:
Shall satisfy the functional, ergonomic and aesthetic requirements of the operational working environment.
Shall exhibit spatial efficiency, accommodating a variety of computer, communication, display and operator interface devices.
Shall exhibit an open, modular design, to facilitate future equipment retrofits, re-configurations and relocation without on-site cutting or drilling.
Shall be fabricated to industry recognized quality standards.
Shall utilise modern exterior finish materials to achieve a distinguished appearance while maintaining ruggedness and durability.
The selection of equipment shall be governed by safety, reliability, maintainability, availability of spares and service, capability for future expansion,
design margins, suitability for environment, economic considerations, maximum commonality and exchangeability of equipment, ease of operation.

Ergonomic Factors
The overall design of Operator Console shall comply with accepted human factor and ergonomic standards for modern Control & Command Centres.
The placement of equipment shall support the Operator in a variety of routine tasks and promote Operator effectiveness and health.
Due consideration shall be given to reach distances, both near field of reach and extended field of reach.
Similar, consideration shall be given to view distances, both near field of view and extended field of view.
Equipment may be arranged radially to promote efficient interfacing, and minimise overreach and twisting.
The push button stations shall house safety system interfaces as ESD/FGS push buttons (max. 20), status lamps, & Maintenance Override Switches.
The right hand angled section will house 19” rack mount facility for data network & communication interconnection equipment below work surface.
The left hand side shall house power and discrete signal distribution below the work surface.
The final design of the operator console may be curved integrating all of the features above based on a joint styling exercise.

Work Surface
In general, a smooth level work surface shall be provided. The work surface shall conform to the following characteristics:
Manufactured from metal or fire retardant particle board core with high pressure, plastic laminate surface.
Surface material shall provide a non reflective and anti-static finish.
Surface material finish shall allow direct use of LED or ball type mouse without mouse pad.
Floor to work surface height shall be 750mm (fixed)
Static Load 75 kg/m (maximum 120 kg per surface on Work surface).
The work surface shall be supplied with a nosing (waterfall edge). The nosing shall comply with the characteristics as follows:
Manufactured from a high impact, moulded polyurethane edging affixed to an extruded aluminium core.
Able to accommodate curved work surface designs up to 35cm. (14”) concave or convex radius.
Console Vendor shall provide data on the fire rating of the polyurethane material used in the nosing construction, including any toxic gases released
when exposed to a source of ignition.
The Console Vendor shall include in his proposal facilities for mounting alpha-numeric keyboards below the work surface.
The facility shall allow for an operator to access the keyboard when it is required, but allow the keyboard to be stored when not required without
compromising the normal, above surface working area.

Equipment Mounting
Operator Consoles shall accommodate a diverse array of computer, keyboards, communication equipment, display, operator interface components.
Each of the components to be installed in operator console will have a unique installation envelope and unique requirements for interconnection.
In general the facilities for equipment mounting shall conform to the following:
Equipment supports shall be suspended from a continuous horizontal structural beam.
The size and spacing of equipment supports shall be variable in order to optimise the available equipment mounting area.
Equipment mounting kits shall be interchangeable, for future flexibility.
Allow for front and rear access for equipment loading.
Equipment mounting shall provide for, but not be limited to, the following equipment.
Accommodate graphic displays utilising 21” LCD, flat screens.
Mounted on the top of the console
Mounted on a fixed arm from either a slatted wall or an extrusion.
Adjustable for height and angle.
Accommodate Console work station processors, network & communication components within operator console cavity on shelves/ trays, as follows:
Fixed or slide-out shelves/ trays for both desktop/ ‘Pizzabox’ and tower processor formats.
Optional door mounted processor shelf where this can be demonstrated to maximise accessibility and minimises console depth.
Mounting shelves/ trays manufactured from 16 Gauge precision-formed cold rolled steel, 90 kg. load capacity (fixed shelf) & 45 kg (slide-out shelf).
Door mounted shelves/ trays shall be manufactured from 14 Gauge precision-formed cold rolled steel, with 45 kg. load capacity.
Accommodate facilities for discrete signal, power and network interface, interconnection and segregation, as follows:
DIN rail mounting, for signal terminal blocks.
DIN rail mounting, for essential and non-essential power.
19” rack mounting, for network interfaces.
Packages Philosophy
 Packages
Classification
Instrumentation and control concept to be adopted on project for different packages will broadly be classified as Class-A, Class-B, Class-C, or Class-D.
Monitoring and Control of packages shall be incorporated within the ICSS system as far as it is practicable considering the classification on packages.
The level of integration required shall be considered on a case by case basis with the following classification structure.
The supplier shall be responsible for the supply of all the instruments and control including the necessary hardwares, softwares, engineering, design,
co-ordination, manufacturing, assembly, testing, documentation, technical support and spares. All the package instrumentation and control systems
shall be in full compliance with the requirements of the applicable codes, standards and regulations.

Class-A : All controls and safety within ICSS

Control & Safety requirements are entirely implemented in ICSS. Supplier will fully support for design and implementation of control logic if required.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification.

Class-B : Controls by ICSS and safety (Machine Protection System) within a package UCP
Control requirements are entirely implemented in ICSS & Safety requirements in UCP which will monitor machine status, vibration, temperature etc.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification,
Serial communications bit mapping schedules.

Class-C : All controls and safety within a package UCP

UCP will have full Control & Safeguarding for autonomous operation and data handover to ICSS over a serial interface, except hardwired signals from
UCP to ICSS for UCP power supply status, common alarms and ESD trip signal as minimum.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, I/O Database, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Start-up, Control and Shutdown Narratives, Functional Design Specification,
Serial communications bit mapping schedules.

Class-D : All controls and safety within a package LCP (standalone systems)
Class-D package are standalone package with simple hardwired interface to ICSS. All package field instruments will be connected to field Local Panel.
The package vendor shall provide following documents but not necessary be limited to:
P&IDs, Cause & Effect Diagrams, Function logic sequence, Functional Design Specification.

Interfaces with the plant main piping and Instrument/Electrical systems will be at nominated flanged tie-in points & at skid edge junction boxes.

Classification for package PLC

OPTION-1 : Complete system resides in Safe Area e.g. control room, rack room, PIB/LER or Shelter.
OPTION-2 : Processor chassis resides in Safe Area e.g. control room, rack room, PIB/LER or shelter,
with remote I/O chassis mounted in the field.
OPTION-3 : Complete system resides in Weatherproof Purge Panel with cooling system in the field.
OPTION-4 : Complete system resides in Flameproof Panel with Vortex Cooler in the field.

The Packages PLC System shall comprise:

• Power Supply modules. (Redundant)
• CPUs mounted in rack. (Redundant)
• I/ O modules mounted in local or remote rack.
• Communication Subsystem. (Redundant)
• Local Operator Interface.
A local HMI with limited functionality shall be provided with each PLC System, mounted in the PLC cabinet.
This shall be utilized for display and operational adjustments in the process control PLC configuration with
required user authentication.
These facilities will be required for operator and technician assistance with startup, operation, monitoring,
fault-finding, shutdown and maintenance.
• Programming Terminal.
Provides an operator interface in the PIB when connected to the PLC Chassis.
Provide an operator interface to be used during Installation, SAT, loop testing, pre-commissioning, startup.
Provides local engineering access to PLC configuration and trouble shooting.
In addition, the terminal shall allow the coding and storage of programs ‘offline’.
The Programming Terminal shall comply with the following requirements as minimum:
* Latest operating system and anti-virus with necessary licenses, LAN / Network interface Cards, USB ports,
serial communication ports, integrated DVD R/W combo drive, 21” LCD display, optical mouse & keyboard.
* Fully configured system software package including software keys and disks, required to configure, view,
use, maintain and develop SELLER'S standard and project specific software applications.
This shall include a tool to efficiently manage back-ups of PLC configurations and system databases.
* Programming Terminal shall have isolated communication channels / cards for communication processor and
interface to the central PLC network hardware.
* Programming Terminal shall be loaded with copy of as-built rack monitoring configurations and system databases.
* Programming Terminal shall be installed within the system panel with accessories.
Operating Philosophy
CLASS-C Packages : Control Option-1
For package PLC that communicate to the DCS via/through Modbus or OPC, the DCS shall allow the operator to have full control of these packages &
carry out all the normal operator actions that are available at the PLC HMI or pushbutton panel, where this is supported by the PLC.
All necessary alarms from the PLC’s will be transmitted to the DCS and annunciated within the Control Room(s) based on data passed via Serial Links.
The alarm handling philosophy will ensure no mismatches occur between the PLC and DCS. All the control and interlock logics shall reside in the PLC,
the DCS will only initiate actions within the PLC. Control and interlock logic resident within the PLC will not be duplicated in the DCS as far as possible.
The DCS will display interlock status and sequence progression. The Control Rooms are the central monitoring and control point for entire facility and
it is necessary to ensure that the Operators are provided with consistent status and alarm informations to enable proper operational decisions made
and correct operational actions to be undertaken without the need to go to the PLC. The packages PLC’s are located in normally unmanned locations,
although they will provide status and alarm information locally at PLC to enable monitoring and control actions to be carried out at PLC as required.
DCS/PLC Selection
A DCS/PLC selector - keyswitch, software signal or other secure method. The status of this selector will be included in serial data transfer with DCS.
Remote will be a logic 1 and Local a Logic 0. The transition between DCS and PLC will be bumpless in terms of data transfer and control outputs.
PLC Selection
With selector in this position control of field equipment, changes of control setpoint alarm levels,trip settings and all other operator allowed changes
will be available from the PLC HMI. The DCS will have a monitoring role only.
DCS Selection
With selector in this position control of field equipment will be available from Control Room via serial link. The PLC HMI will have a monitoring role.
It is not advisable to change alarm levels & trip settings in PLC from the DCS HMI. All safety/protective functions within PLC will remain in operation.
Control Setpoints
Control setpoints will be resident in the PLC. The DCS will read the value of these setpoints and display them as necessary.
Changes to the control setpoints from the Control Room(s) shall only be allowed when the “DCS/PLC” selector on the PLC’s is in the “DCS” position.
The DCS HMI will prevent changes to setpoints when the switch is in the PLC position by preventing Operator from entering changes into DCS HMI.
When the selector is in DCS position it will be possible to change the setpoints from the Control Room(s) within the setpoint limits resident in PLC’s.
Changes to these control setpoint limits will also be possible at the Control Room(s) if allowed at the PLC.

CLASS-C Packages: Control Option-2

If it is not possible to fully control the package from DCS operator HMI then Package will have a separate PLC HMI just next to the DCS operator HMI.
In this screnio, a package cannot be fully controlled by the DCS HMI via through DCS/PLC serial Interface. Hence two separate PLC HMIs are required.
One PLC-PIB HMI shall be located at normally unmanned locations PIB/LER/SHELTERS and Second PLC-CR HMI shall be located in CONTROL ROOMS.
PLC-PIB/ PLC-CR Selection
A PLC Toggle selector - keyswitch, software signal or other secure method. The status of this selector will be included in serial data transfer with DCS
PLC-CR will be logic 1 and PLC-PIB a Logic 0. The transition between PLC-PIB & PLC-CR will be bumpless in terms of data transfer and control outputs.
PLC-PIB Selection
With selector in this position control of field equipment, changes of control setpoint alarm levels,trip settings and all other operator allowed changes
will be available from the PLC HMI located at PIB/LER/SHELTER. The PLC-Control Room HMI will have a monitoring role only.
PLC-CR Selection
With selector in this position control of field equipment will be available from Control Room via FO Cable. The PLC-PIB HMI will have monitoring role.

Alarms
Alarms from following packages but not limited to will be collected directly using OPC A&E using the Alarm Collector Workstations located in the PIB.
• Machine Condition Monitoring System (MMS)
• Package Unit Control System (Anti surge controls, BMS, UPS etc)
• Supervisory Control and Monitoring System (SMC)
• Analysers
Alarms from packages that are collected by OPC A&E are also likely to be sent to DCS for command/control purposes using DCS serial interface links
for use in DCS logics (trips and interlock permissives) and for operator information and acknowledgment.
In such cases, alarm are collected twice by alarm management system. For post trip review/analysis the alarms collected using OPC A&E will be used.
To ensure consistent alarm acknowledgment for alarms collected by OPCA&E, alarm must be acknowledged from DCS workstations or from PLC HMI.
There will be no alarm acknowledgment from the PlantState Suite Alarm Analysis Servers.
Alarm Settings and Alarm Indication
All alarms associated with operation of field equipment & instruments connected to PLC will be generated within PLC and will be transmitted to DCS.
This is to ensure that alarm settings are resident in one location only. PLC will include a separate discrete alarm flag for each analogue alarm setting
within the PLC that will be configured to change when the associated alarm threshold has been crossed. These flags will be read by the DCS system
and combined within the screen and alarm displays, applications etc and will be displayed and annunciated at the DCS as if the alarm level had been
directly detected within the DCS.
The PLC supplier shall identify all necessary alarms to be transferred. This shall include process alarms, instrument faults, position status mismatches.
Time stamp on alarms from serial link will be done upon receipt of changes in values from PLC to DCS to ensure that it receives time stamp of DCS.
Alarm settings on analogue points will be resident in the PLC. Changes to these settings will only be possible at the PLC at defined access levels.
The access levels will be the same as those configured at DCS. It is not advisable to change alarm levels and trip settings in the PLC from DCS HMI.
Serial I/O is treated the same as hardwired I/O with respect to historian and trending. Serial I/O tags will be configured for historical trending.
Alarm Acknowledgement
All PLC alarms are to be handed off to the DCS system via Serial Links used for command and control at all times, these will then be annunciated and
acknowledged at the DCS according to the project alarm philosophy.
The DCS will latch the alarm upon receipt and it will only clear when the alarm has been acknowledged at DCS and has returned to a healthy state in
the PLC/field. Acknowledgement of alarms at the PLC when in DCS operation mode will be handled by one of two methods if supported by the PLC.
1. The PLC’s shall be configured to have an automatic alarm acknowledgements. This will remove the continuous audible alarms at the PLC’s end and
ensure that PLC alarm buffers are not filled. Manual alarm acknowledgement at DCS will not be transmitted to the PLC. The alarm status transmitted
will remain in alarm state until the condition returns to the healthy state. Alarms will be automatically logged/recorded within the PLC and in DCS.
2. A group alarm acknowledgement from the DCS to the PLC may also be used. All alarms in the PLC that are active will be acknowledged in the PLC
on receipt of this command. To ensure that no alarms at the PLC end are ‘lost’, the PLC’s will ensure that alarms generated by momentary devices -
e.g. vibrations sensors are latched to DCS for a configurable time period. When the PLC is in PLC operation mode alarms will be audibly and visually
annunciated at the PLC and will be manually acknowledged at the PLC HMI.
When Package is in the “DCS operational mode” (i.e. Control via DCS at Control Room(s)) it is necessary that all Package alarms are :
• Audibly annunciated at the DCS.
• Automatically acknowledged at PLC or group acknowledged via command from DCS by PLC and cleared when alarm state returns to healthy state
• All alarms to be logged at both DCS and PLC.
When the Package is in the “PLC operational mode” it is necessary that all Package alarms are :
• Audibly annunciated at PLC and DCS.
• Acknowledged by Operator at the PLC and cleared automatically when the alarm state returns to a healthy state
• All alarms to be logged at both DCS and PLC.

Trip settings
It will not be possible to changes trip settings in the PLC from the DCS HMI.
PLC Resets
Trip actions assigned within the PLC that require resets will have these resets carried out once the trip condition has cleared from the PLC.
Operator intervention will be required at the PLC to confirm that the tripped condition has cleared.
Reset (where applicable) when alarm state is healthy will require Operator reset at the PLC.

Analogue Control
All analogue inputs and analogue outputs will be scaled in the PLC, no raw counts will be passed to the DCS.
Digital Signals
All digital inputs transmitted by the PLC for status or alarm will be fail safe, e.g. loss of serial link will mean the digital input is in alarm as bad input.
Device Control
Pumps controlled by the PLC will have all logic and interlocks resident within the PLC. Starting of the pumps from the DCS will only be allowed when
the “DCS/PLC” selector is in the “DCS” position. It will be possible to send stop command to a pump at any time from the Control Room(s).
The DCS will be configured so that starting from the Control Room(s) will not be allowed when the selector is in the PLC position or when the pump is
interlocked by PLC logic – the PLC will transmit an “available” flag for each drive that is set within the PLC logic based on electrical and process status.
Where applicable, start/stop sequences will be held on PLC. The status of limit switches, available signals, desired states (open/start close/stop) and
any mismatch alarms will be transmitted by the PLC to DCS as well as the output state. The PLC will respond to start/stop commands from DCS and
carry out all the start-up sequencing and discrepancy monitoring as required and will transmit the status to the DCS.
The DCS will not carry out any discrepancy monitoring for equipment that is not directly connected to the DCS but will annunciate all such data as if
it had been derived within the DCS. Block valves controlled by the PLC will follow the guidelines outlined above for pumps.
Controllers – Auto/Manual
Controller Selection by the Control Room(s) operator to Auto or Manual modes will be allowed when the PLC is in DCS operation.
This facility will be subject to any restrictions within the PLC logic configuration. Changing “DCS / PLC “ selector between the “DCS” & “PLC” positions
will not change the modes of controllers in PLC. PLC controllers will be configured to adopt pre-defined states in event of package trip or an ESD trip.
The facility will remain active when the PLC is on DCS or PLC operation. Switching controller mode from DCS to PLC and vice versa will be bumpless.
Loss of DCS Interface to PLC
Complete loss of data transmission/communication with PLC, will result in an alarm in the Control Room(s) and all data on link (analogue and digital)
will be displayed as ‘Bad’ by change of colour or other means to alert operator. The PLC will contnue to operate in the operational mode selected at
the time of the data loss. When the link is restored the DCS will read the status of all PLC registers to update the DCS alarm and status displays and
will allow control from the Control Room(s) if “DCS” has been selected.

HUMAN MACHINE INTERFACE (HMI)

PLC which have HMI will use the same HMI conventions in terms of colours, alarm conventions etc. as defined in PLC Human Interface Software FDS.
Serial points will be trended and historised using the same conventions used for hardwired I/O points. Where a PLC graphic is duplicated on the DCS,
the DCS HMI conventions will be used as defined in the DCS Human Interface Software FDS.
PLC HMI Configuration
For ease of fault finding, maintenance and testing the PLC HMI will be configured to the same analogue and digital PLC tags transmitted to the DCS.
The use of internal PLC tags for HMI configuration will be not be used. This will ensure that the same data is displayed by both the DCS and PLC HMI.
PLC HMI Access Levels
For package PLCs that have an HMI the Operator access levels defined for the DCS will be used to ensure consistent Operator access.
FACTORY ACCEPTANCE TEST
HARDWARE INSPECTION OF CONTROL SYSTEM
1.1 HARDWARE CHECK
1.2 I/O LOADING SPECIFICATION
1.3 PROCESSOR START-UP
1.4 PROCESSOR BACK-UP FUNCTION
1.5 COMMUNICATION REDUNDANCY
INSPECTION FOR PANELS
1.1 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
1.2 APPEARANCE AND CONSTRUCTION
1.3 PANEL WIRING
1.4 POWER SUPPLY REDUNDANCY CHECK
SYSTEM CHECKS
1.5 INPUT/OUTPUT (I/O) CHECKS
1.6 COMMUNICATION WITH THIRD PARTY SYSTEM
SOFTWARE INSPECTION FOR LOGIC FUNCTIONS
1.7 LADDER LOGIC FUNCTION CHECK
1.8 GRAPHICS FUNCTION CHECK
1.8.1 ALARM CHECK
1.8.2 TREND DISPLAY CHECK
PLC PANEL FAT CHECKLIST
PLC FAT PROCEDURE CHECKLIST
PLC PUNCH LIST

HARDWARE INSPECTION OF CONTROL SYSTEM

1.1) HARDWARE CHECK:
OUTLINE : All hardware components for which test certificates exist are subject to complete testing before being staged for inspection.
Review of test certificate for testing tools shall also be provided.
OBJECTIVE : The purpose of this test is to verify test certificates for following items exist.
1. For Power Supply Modules
2. For Controller System
3. For I/O Racks
4. For Input/Output modules
5. For Communication Modules
6. Testing Tools
a) Multimeter
b) Current Source Simulator
c) Mega Ohm Meter
REFERENCE : Processor System configuration
Bill of Materials
PROCEDURE : Check that test certificates (Internal functional test report) are available for above items and examine test procedures carried out.
CRITERIA : Test certificates for all above components are available.
Comments:

1.2) I/O LOADING SPECIFICATIONS:

OUTLINE : All I/O Modules, CPU and Communication modules and Racks are assigned during detail engineering and quantity and the position of each
item installed in the I/O Rack are of utmost importance. To check module location and switch required for modules.
OBJECTIVE : The purpose of this test is to verify that all I/O Modules, Racks are correct in quantity & that each I/O Module is instaled in right position,
to check whether switch setting are correct. To check whether spare terminals are available.
REFERENCE : Approved System configuration
Panels General Arrangement drawing
PROCEDURE : Visually check that each I/O Module, CPU, Communication Modules are installed in the correct slot & check the Module Cat. Number
Visually check that each I/O Rack is correct in quantity and installed in the correct position.
Visually checks that all labeling is in order.
SPARE CAPACITY: Spare channel in I/O Module__________
Spare slots in I/O rack______________
CRITERIA : The quantity and location of the I/O Modules, CPU, Communication modules, I/O Racks are in accordance with the system configuration.
Comments:

1.3) PROCESSOR START-UP:

OUTLINE : CONTROL system goes to its operating environment on powering up, provided that all application images are stored in respective media.
OBJECTIVE: This test ensures processor automatically boots up when going from “Power Off” to “Operating environment” to check LED’s indication.
PROCEDURE: Power Off Control Processor individually or the system as a whole.
Power ON each component individually.
SCAN TIME :_______________________
CRITERIA : Each component boots up automatically. All LED’s normal.
1.4) PROCESSOR BACK-UP FUNCTION:
OUTLINE: CONTROL System provides automatic switch over from the primary to the Back-up processor when a fault occurs in primary.
Then when the faulty processor is repaired, it can be reinstalled as back-up processor without affecting operation of primary processor.
Normally, the primary CONTROL Processor is in control while the other performs ‘Listen-only’ function (monitors inputs, performs logic
but without enabling output to the field) and remains ready to take control of the remote I/O.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this test is to verify that the back-up processor becomes Active when the Primary processor fails and all I/Os remains
unaffected after the switch over.
PROCEDURE: 1. Check the ‘SEC’ LED on the Back-Up Processor.
2. Stop the Primary processor by switching the power off.
3. Check that the Back-Up Processor has taken up the control by observing the ‘PRIM’ LED becoming green.
4. Check that there is no change in the status of I/O by observing in Ladder Logic, LED’s on I/O Modules and also verifying that the O/P
relay contact with the help of multimeter. Check communication with other system.
DIAGNOSTIC : Processor “PRIM” Status is displayed on HMI
CRITERIA : The control shall be transferred promptly and correctly to back-up processor and I/O status remains the same.
COMMENTS:

1.5) COMMUNICATION REDUNDANCY:

OUTLINE : Controller System is being configured for dual Ethernet to take care of Network Redundancy.
OBJECTIVE: To check whether failure of one Ethernet leaves the process unaffected and the redundant Ethernet is functioning normally.
PROCEDURE: To simulate Ethernet failure, the connection of one Ethernet channel is removed from the EN2TR.
Under such an event, the redundant Ethernet channel should continue functioning properly without affecting the process.
DIAGNOSTIC :I/O Communication failed is displayed on HMI
Node Status is displayed on HMI
CRITERIA : Failure of one Ethernet channel should not affect the Plant operation.
COMMENTS:

INSPECTION FOR PANELS

1.1) GENERAL ARRANGEMENT:
OUTLINE : All panel manufactured for this project is subjected to client’s visual inspection to confirm that all components and accessories (i.e. Panel
lifting/fixing/cable entry etc) are in accordance to final approved panel specification.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this test is to verify that the following are in accordance with approved panel specification and approved drawings:
Visual inspection to confirm that all material is as per panel drawings.
Confirm that all components and accessories (i.e. Panel lifting/fixing/cable entry etc) are mounted as per approved panel drawings.
GROUNDING CHECK : As per Approved panel drawings
REFERENCE: Approved panel drawings
PROCEDURE: Visually check that each panel based on above objectives and verify that each panel is in order.
CRITERIA : Each panel should confirm to that defined in approved panel drawings.
COMMENTS:

1.2) APPERANCE AND CONSTRUCTION:

OUTLINE : All panel manufactured are free from scratches and deformities, which might impair the project quality and appearance.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this test is to ensure that all panels are free from scratches and deformities.
PAINT SHADE : RAL7035
REFERENCE: Panel GA Drawing
PROCEDURE: Visually check that all components are free from scratches and any kind of deformities.
CRITERIA : There should not be any external defects such as scratches and any other deformities,
COMMENTS:

1.3) PANEL WIRING:

OUTLINE : Panel wiring for this project is subjected to client’s visual/functional inspection to confirm that wiring done is in accordance with terminal
assignment and wiring drawings.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this test is to verify that the panel wiring is in accordance to:
Terminal assignment
Wiring drawings
REFERENCE : Control Panel Wiring Drawings
PROCEDURE: Visully/Functionally check that each panel wiring based on above objectives and verify that each panel wiring is in order.
Check color codes/sizes of all wires as per approved drawings..
CRITERIA : Wiring should be in accordance with the wiring drawings.
Check each cable shall have separate ferrule / Tag number
COMMENTS:
1.4) POWER SUPPLY REDUNDANCY: (INCOMING UPS REDUNDANCY SUPPLY)
OUTLINE: All system equipments are provided with redundant AC UPS incoming supply.
These incoming powers to Control Panel are feed from redundant UPS supply.
OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate that if one incoming supply to system (Panel) fails, the system (Panel) continues to work without interruption.
REFERENCE: Power Distribution Drawing.
PROCEDURE: To simulate, Incomer to one of power supply is switched off. Under such an event, redundant Power supply should continue feeding
power to all the redundant power supply units of all the equipments & the equipment functioning properly without affecting process.
CRITERIA : Failure of one AC Power Supply should not affect the Plant Operation.

1.4) POWER SUPPLY REDUNDANCY: 24VDC SMPS UNIT REDUNDANCY

OUTLINE: All the system 24 VDC powered equipments are provided with the supply from redundant 24 VDC SMPS units.
A pair of 24VDC SMPS units is provided with power supply from two different incomer AC Power feeder in panel.
OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate that if incoming feeder fails or SMPS 24VDC power supply is switched off, system continues to work without interruption
REFERENCE: Power Distribution Drawing.
PROCEDURE: One 24 VDC SMPS unit or one AC incoming feeder is switched off, second 24 VDC SMPS power supply continues to feed the power to
equipments without interruption of process.
CRITERIA : Failure of one AC Power Supply feeder to panel or failure of one 24 VDC SMPS unit should not affect the Plant Operation.
COMMENTS:

SYSTEMS CHECKS
1.5) CONTROL LOGIX I/O CHECKS:
OUTLINE: The following functions are part of the console:
1) Simulation of IO’s from PC Level and TB Level.
2) I/O Mapping,
OBJECTIVE: To ensure the proper functionality of the above mentioned functions vise:-
To Check V/s ensures that I/O’s can be Simulated ON/OFF from the TB.
To check that online modification of Ladder does not affect the process.
REFERENCE: I/O List.
PROCEDURE: Simulate of IO’s-
PC Level- At PC Level, inputs/Outputs are forced through the Software and it is observed if corresponding I/O’s are simulated in ladder.
Simulation software is written in Ladder Logic and also Simulation Graphic is developed.
CRITERIA : Simulate of I/Os at both PC and TB level should be reflected in PC as per requirement.
TEST EQUIPMENT : Multimeter, Toolkit-Screwdriver set, 4-20 mA Analog Simulator, Digital Input simulator-Jumper

1.6) COMMUNICATION WITH DCS SYSTEM:

OUTLINE: 1) Communication between PLC System & DCS System over Ethernet Network
2) DCS IO point Mapping.
OBJECTIVE: To ensure the proper functionality of the above mentioned functions vise:-
To check communication between PLC system & DCS system over Ethernet Network.
To check all IO points defined in DCS interface list are mapped properly with modbus register and its data is reflected in the DCS system.
REFERENCE: DCS Interface List.
PROCEDURE: Simulate of DCS IO Points-
At PC Level, the IO points are forced through the Software and it is observed if corresponding data is available at DCS System.
CRITERIA : Simulate of DCS IO points at PLC system should be reflected in DCS System as per requirement.
COMMENTS:

SOFTWARE INSPECTION FOR LOGIC FUNCTION

1.7) SOFTWARE-LADDER LOGIC FUNCTION CHECK
OUTLINE: The ladder logic generated by vendor for this project is based on control philosophy. The functioning of all logic is to be checked.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of test is to verify that the ladder logic generated by vendor as per control philosophy.
REFERENCE: Control Philosophy
PROCEDURE: To simulate the inputs as per ladder logic and confirm corresponding outputs. For this Simulation software is written in Ladder Logic.
CRITERIA : The Ladder logic generated should function as per the control schemes.
COMMENTS:

1.8) SOFTWARE-GRAPHICS FUNCTION CHECK

OUTLINE : The Graphics generated by vendor for this project is based on control philosophy. The functioning of all logic is to be checked.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of test is to verify that Graphics generated by vendor as per control philosophy.
ALARM CHECK : As per Alarm List
TREND DISPLAY : Analog Inputs are logged for trending
REFERENCE: Control Philosophy.
PROCEDURE: To simulate the various I/O’s. For this Simulation Graphic screen is developed in HMI
CRITERIA : The Graphic generated should function as per the control philosophy.
Check the ranges of the instruments with proper units.
COMMENTS:
FIRE and GAS
Gas detection (Flammable, Toxic, Asphyxiant) is an important element in an overall protection plan for life and property.
It is often used in conjunction with other forms of fire detection such as smoke, heat and flame detectors.

There are 3 main types of Gas hazards

Flammable - Combustion is a fairly simple chemical reaction in which oxygen is combined rapidly with another substance
resulting in the release of energy. This energy appears mainly as heat – sometimes in the form of flames.
At levels below the LEL, there is insufficient gas to produce an explosion (i.e. the mixture is too ‘lean’), whilst above the UEL, the
mixture has insufficient oxygen (i.e. the mixture is too ‘rich’). The flammable range therefore falls between the LEL and UEL for
each individual gas or mixture of gases. Outside these limits, the mixture is not capable of combustion.
The detection & early warning systems will only be required to detect levels from 0% of gas upto the lower explosive limit (LEL).
By the time this concentration is reached, shut-down procedures or site clearance should have been put into operation. In fact
this will typically take place at a concentration of less than 60 percent of the LEL value, so that there is adequate safety margin.

Toxic - Toxic gases pose a completely different type of hazard from combustible / flammable gases. Usually the hazard is
present at much lower concentrations than the LEL. Because of this, the concentration is measured in different units.
The part per million (ppm) is often used: 1 ppm is one molecule in a million molecules. The severity of the effect is usually
dependent on both the concentration of the gas present, and the time of exposure. For ex. a 5 minute exposure to 2,500 parts
per million of carbon monoxide causes no effect on man (although it kills a canary!), whereas a 160 minute exposure to 500
parts per million may kill a man. Hence acceptable limits of toxic gases are usually quoted in terms of a Time Weighted Average.
That is, an average concentration over a given time which causes no adverse effects on humans.
Short-term exposure limit (STEL) - (10 minutes) (should not be exceeded at any time during a day)
Long-term exposure limit (LTEL) - (8 hours) (8 hours a day and 40 hours for workweek)

Asphyxiant – The problem of Asphyxia is caused by a lack of oxygen for the body to use.
Rather than measuring the concentration of unwanted gas, it is more usual to measure the oxygen level to
check that it is between acceptable limits. Normal air contains around 20.8% of oxygen by volume.
It is accepted that no adverse effects are observed down to 18%. At 16% headaches and other symptoms
become apparent, and there is a risk of death at around 14%. At 6% there is no chance for survival.
An atmosphere containing less than 19.5% oxygen by volume is regarded as oxygen deficient atmosphere.
Oxygen Enrichment - It is often forgotten that oxygen enrichment can also cause a risk.
At increased Oxygen levels the flammability of materials and gases increases. At levels of 24% items such
as clothing can spontaneously combust. Oxyacetylene welding equipment combines oxygen and acetylene
gas to produce an extremely high temperature. Other areas where hazards may arise from oxygen enriched
atmospheres include areas manufacturing or storing rocket propulsion systems, products used for bleaching
in the pulp and paper industry and clean water treatment facilities.
Sensors have to be specially certified for use in O2 enriched atmospheres.

Gas Detection -There exist several gas detection technologies applied for detection of combustible / toxic gases.
Catalytic (combustible gases) can detect Hydrogen
Infrared (combustible gases) cannot detect Hydrogen
Electrochemical (Toxic Gases)
Semiconductor (Toxic Gases)
Ultrasonic (Combustible / Toxic Gases)
1) CATALYTIC GAS DETECTORS (Combustible Gas Detector)
Combustible gas mixtures will not burn until they reach their ignition temperature. However, in the presence of certain chemical media,
the gas will start to burn or ignite at lower temperatures. This phenomenon is known as a catalytic combustion. Most metal oxides and
their compounds have these catalytic properties. This kind of gas sensor is made on the basis of the catalytic principle, and therefore is
called the catalytic gas sensor. A gas molecule oxidizes on the catalyzed surface of the sensor at a much lower temperature than it’s
normal ignition temperature. All electrically conductive materials change their conductivity as temperature changes. This is called the
coefficient of temperature resistance (Ct). It is expressed as the percentage of change per degree change in temperature. (Ct)
Platinum has a large Ct in comparison to other metals. In addition, its Ct is linear between 500°C to 1000°C, which is the temperature
range at which the sensor needs to operate. Because the signal from the sensor is linear, this means that the concentration of gas
readings are in direct proportion to the electrical signal. This improves the accuracy and simplifies the electronic circuitry. Also, platinum
possesses excellent mechanical properties. It is physically strong and can be transformed into a fine wire which can be processed into
small sensor beads. Furthermore, platinum has excellent chemical properties. It is corrosion resistant and can be operated at elevated
temperatures for a long period of time without changing its physical properties. It is capable of producing a constant reliable signal over
an extended period of time.
The electrical circuit used to measure the output of catalytic sensors is called a Wheatstone bridge, when the combustible gas burns on
the active sensor surface, the heat of combustion causes the temperature to rise, which in turn changes the resistance of the sensor.
As the bridge is unbalanced, the offset voltage is measured as the signal. It is important that the reference sensor or bead maintains a
constant resistance during the exposure to the combustible gas; otherwise the measured signal will be inaccurate.

The original catalytic sensor was a coil-shaped platinum wire. The coiled shape was used to obtain a compact geometry for efficient
heating and to produce a strong enough signal to function as a gas sensor. Unfortunately, despite the excellent physical and chemical
properties of platinum, it is a poor catalyst for combustion of hydrocarbon gases. For the proper detection of hydrocarbon gases,
the sensor requires a heated surface temperature between 900°C and 1000°C so that the sensor can properly react with gases at a
sufficiently high and stable rate. At this temperature, however, the platinum starts to evaporate. The evaporation rate increases as the
gas molecules start to react with the sensor and as the sensor temperature increases. This causes a reduction in the cross-section of
the platinum wire, and, as a result, the resistance increases. This affects the sensor’s operating temperature, which shows up as zero
and span drifts. The reference wire ideally should be the same as the active wire, with the same geometry and operating temperature,
but should be non reactive with the gas. This is not practically possible, however. A compromise is made by operating the reference wire
at a temperature that is substantially lower so that no oxidation takes place in the presence of hydrocarbons. In addition, reference wire
is also chemically treated to reduce the catalytic property of the platinum. This may also be achieved by coating platinum wire with a
non-catalytic metal, such as gold. Another problem with hot platinum wire is that it becomes very soft at a temperature of 1000°C.
Therefore, it is difficult to maintain its coil shape. Also, coefficient of thermal resistance becomes less linear as temperature increases.
This situation also results in poor zero and span quality of the sensor, as well as a relatively short operating life. One way to improve
stability of the sensor is to coat the platinum wire with suitable metal oxides. Thus, the final step is to treat the finished sensor or bead
with a catalyst, such as platinum, palladium or thoria compounds.
The coating makes the sensor physically very rugged. The sensor becomes a very small mass which helps make it resistant to shock
and vibrations. Most importantly, the catalyst coating reduces the temperature needed to achieve a stable signal for hydrocarbons
between 400°C and 600°C. The use of fine diameter wire not only reduces the size of the sensor, but it also increases the signal,
because finer wire has a higher magnitude of resistive value and the signal output is the percentage change of total wire resistance.
This also reduces power consumption. The reference sensor can be constructed in the same way as the active sensor, with the
exception that the catalyst chemical is eliminated. The bead can be further treated with chemicals, such as potassium, to prevent the
reference bead from reacting with the gas. A near perfectly compensated pair of sensors is now possible.
The sensor is called a “catalytic” sensor because the use of catalyst is the main ingredient involved in proper functioning of the sensor.
The catalytic sensor is stable, reliable, accurate, and rugged, and has a long operating life. The output is linear because the platinum
wire has a good linear coefficient of thermal resistance.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The most traditional and frequently used combustible gas detection method employs catalytic oxidation. The catalytic gas sensor usually
consists of a pair of platinum wire wound resistors encased by a bead of ceramic, such as alumina. The active catalytic bead is coated
with a catalyst, such as platinum or paladium; the reference catalytic bead remains untreated. This matched pair is then enclosed behind
a flameproof sinter. In operation, the beads are resistively heated to temperatures ranging from 300°C to 700°C.
When a combustible gas comes in contact with catalytic surface, it is oxidized. Heat is released, causing resistance of wire to change.
The concentration of gas present may be found by placing the sensors into a Wheatstone bridge circuit to sense the resistance change.
Depending on the concentration of gas present, the Wheatstone arrangement produces a differential voltage between the active and
reference beads. The reference bead, or passive bead, maintains the same electrical resistance in clean air as the active bead, but does
not catalyze the combustible gas. This attempts to compensate for variations in the ambient temperature, humidity, altitude, etc.

Advantages of the catalytic detector are;

* Comparative low cost
* Responds to virtually any combustible gas

Limitations of catalytic detector are;

* Routine calibration required for effective protection
* Sensors do ‘wear out’ over a period of time
* Will not sense non combustible gases
* Sensors (catalytic Film) can be poisoned
2) INFRARED GAS DETECTORS (Combustible Gas Detector)
Infrared gas detection is used to detect combustible gases and vapours, based on the absorption of energy by hydrocarbons.
There are 2 types of detection, POINT and OPEN PATH. A point type detector is located as close to the risk as possible and
samples around the risk e.g. a storage tank. In the detector a beam of IR energy is emitted between a source and receiver,
any attenuation caused by hydrocarbons in the beam which is being electronically processed, gives a reading in LEL.
Commonly a reference beam is utilised to overcome any reduction in beam intensity due to of the optics being impaired e.g. fog,
and temperature changes.

Two Ways of Detection

1) Infrared radiation contains a wide spectral content. When this radiation interacts with gas molecules, part of the energy has
the same frequency as the gas molecule’s natural frequency and it is absorbed while the rest of the radiation is transmitted.
As the gas molecules absorb this radiation, the molecules gain energy and vibrate more vigorously. This vibration results in a
rise in the temperature of the gas molecules. The temperature increases in proportion to gas concentration, and is detected by
the detector.
2) On the other hand, the radiation absorbed by the gas molecules at the particular wavelength will cause a decrease in the
original source strength. This decrease in radiation energy can be detected as a signal also.

The infrared (IR) method relies on the IR absorption characteristics of gases to determine their presence and concentration.
IR gas detectors consist of an IR light source (transmitter) and light detector (receiver) to measure the intensity both at the
absorption wavelength and a non-absorbed wavelength. If a gas is present in the optical path, it will affect the intensity of light
transmitted between the source and the detector. This change in intensity provides the data for determining that a specific gas or
type of gas is present. This method works only for gases that can absorb infrared radiation. Most hydrocarbon based gases
absorb IR radiation at around 3.4 micrometers, which is transparent to both water and carbon dioxide vapors.
IR gas detection is rooted in the principles expressed in the Beer- Lambert Law.
T = I / Io = exp (-aLc)
Ratio of the intensity of light leaving (I) the sampling area to the intensity of light entering (Io) the sampling area
(Otherwise known as the T, the transmittance of IR) is proportional to the exponential of the absorption coefficient of the
particular gas (a), the length of sampling area (L) and the concentration of the gas (c).
Note: IR gas detectors measure transmission. This signal is not, however, linear with gas concentration.
Thus, signal processing algorithms are required to provide a linear output with gas concentration.
ACTIVE BEAM – It contains radiation at a wavelength that can be absorbed by the gas.
REFERENCE BEAM- It follows the same path as Active Beam but contain radiation at wavelength NOT absorbed by gas.

2.1) POINT INFRARED GAS DETECTORS

Point type combustible gas detectors are used to monitor the presence of flammable levels of hydrocarbon gas or vapor in
industrial environments such as refineries and chemical plants. If the concentration of the hydrocarbon gas or vapor exceeds its
Lower Explosive Level (LEL), the gas can be ignited and lead to an explosion.
Point type combustible gas detectors are therefore located at several dozen sites to monitor for gas leaks. In point IR detector,
the concentration of hydrocarbon gas is measured via the infrared absorption of an optical beam known as the active beam.
A second optical beam known as the reference follows the same optical path as the active but contains radiation at a wavelength
not absorbed by the gas. This second beam provides for the fail-to-safe operation of the point IR detector; a feature that is not
available with the Catalytic Sensor type technology.
The two wavelengths are generated by two infrared sources which have the active and reference filters attached to them, are
pulsed alternately and guided by the optics onto a common optical path. A detector receives the two optical pulses after they
have traversed the optical absorption path. All the components of the instrument are mounted inside an explosion-proof housing
with infrared transparent optical windows. Maintenance on IR detectors is typically limited to periodic cleaning of the external
optical windows and reflectors to ensure dependable performance.

The point detectors operate on a short fixed path (30 to 150 mm) between the IR light source and the light detector, assuming
uniform concentration along this path. The IR light is passed through a sample of the gas/vapor, and is received at the sensor.
The active sensor is set in the absorption band of the gas being monitored, while the reference sensor is not. The ratio of the
wavelengths are compared to determine if the gas/vapor is present.
2.2) OPEN PATH INFRARED GAS DETECTORS or LINE OF SIGHT detectors have a similar principle of operation to that of
point type detectors. However, it is a two part detector (transmitter and receiver), the IR beam is transmitted over a long distance
(10m - 150m) and they give a reading in LEL meters. Open path detectors are used as an electronic fence around the perimeter
of a facility to detect an escaping gas cloud.
Unlike point gas detectors, open path IR detectors do not pinpoint the location of a leak since the leak can occur anywhere along
the optical path. The gas concentration output for open path detectors is therefore expressed in LEL.meters or ppm.meters since
only the product of the average gas concentration and gas cloud length can be calculated. This means that a small dense cloud
of hydrocarbon gas could give the same output as a large dispersed cloud if the integral of the gas concentration over the path
length were the same.
Open path systems are particularly useful in those situations where a gas release has been dispersed by wind, natural diffusion.
The gas can still be detected, even though its point concentration may fall below normal alarm settings for point detectors.
If a gas leak creates a cloud, it generally has the following characteristics:

The highest gas concentration of a cloud is at the source and it decreases in concentration towards the edges.
The shape of the gas cloud is elongated or has an irregular pattern, depending upon air currents.
In outdoor environments gas clouds dissipate more quickly and can have very low gas concentrations.

Open path systems have the advantage of being able to cover large open areas, a line of several potential leak sources such as
a row of valves or pumps, and also for perimeter monitoring of leaks. A mirror can also be used to deflect the optical beam
around a corner to the receiver. Hydrocarbon detection systems use relatively inexpensive components and are used to monitor
larger leaks; more expensive diode laser based systems are currently available that can monitor toxic gases such as hydrogen
fluoride and hydrogen sulfide at low ppm.meter levels.
Open path gas detection is not a complete answer to gas detection, but offers another solution to gas detection challenges and
They should be used in combination with point gas detectors due to inability in targeting specific locations of gas leak.

The open path IR detectors consist of an IR light source (transmitter) and an IR light detector (receiver), usually positioned at
opposite ends of the open surveillance path (typically 10m – 150 m). As the IR beam reaches the receiver, it passes through a
focusing lens and then passes through two narrow band IR filters – an active and a reference wavelength.
The detector computes the ratio between the two signals. The instrument's output is a function of gas concentration times the
length of the surveillance path, and is expressed in units of LEL.m , ppm.m , %LEL.m. (The unit of LEL.meters is defined as:
1LEL.m equals 100% LEL over a path of one meter.) Consequently, a small dense cloud of gas and a large dispersed cloud of
gas could produce the same output. A small dense gas cloud with 100% LEL over 1 meter gives the same output as a large
dispersed gas cloud which has 10% LEL over 10 meters. In industrial applications a cloud of 5 meter combustible gas is
considered catastrophic hence upper limit for open path detectors is 5LEL.m which means 100% LEL over a path of 5 meters.
3) ELECTROCHEMICAL GAS DETECTORS (Toxic Gas Detector)
Electrochemical sensors, or cells are most commonly used in the detection of toxic gases.
They are available with different numbers of electrodes determined by the target gas, device stability and cost.
The 2 electrode electrochemical cell consists of an active (or sensing electrode) and a counter electrode connected externally via
a load resistor. These electrodes are enclosed in a case with a permeable membrane for diffusion of gas, which is submerged in
an electrolyte. As diffusion occurs, an oxidation or reduction reaction occurs at the active (or sensing electrode).
An exchange of electrons between the active electrode and the gas produces a change in the potential of the active electrode,
while a counter electrode balances the reaction. Active electrode potential must fall within a specific range for a reaction to occur.
As the target gas concentration increases, current flows causing the counter electrode to become polarized. If the gas level
continues to rise, the potential of the active electrode will eventually exceed the permitting range. When this occurs the output
becomes non-linear, thus limiting the maximum measurable concentration point.
In an attempt to compensate for this limitation a third electrode, called the reference electrode is employed. The active electrode
is held at a fixed potential relative to reference electrode. The counter electrode while free to polarize, no longer has any affect
on the active electrode. Thus, the cell is able to detect vapors over a much greater concentration range, The 3 electrode
electrochemical cell configuration is shown below.

Electrochemical sensors operate by reacting with the gas and producing an electrical signal proportional to gas concentration.
A typical electrochemical sensor consists of a sensing electrode (or active electrode), and a counter electrode separated by a
thin layer of electrolyte. Gas that comes in contact with the sensor first passes through a small capillary-type opening and then
diffuses through a hydrophobic barrier, and eventually reaches the electrode surface. This approach is adopted to allow the
proper amount of gas to react at the sensing electrode to produce a sufficient electrical signal while preventing the electrolyte
from leaking out of the sensor. The gas that diffuses through the barrier reacts at the surface of the sensing electrode involving
either an oxidation or reduction mechanism. These reactions are catalyzed by the electrode materials specifically developed for
the gas of interest. With a resistor connected across the electrodes, a current proportional to the gas concentration flows
between the anode and the cathode. The current can be measured to determine the gas concentration. The primary function of
the associated electronic driver circuit connected to the cell is to minimize the potential difference by passing current between
the active and counter electrodes, the measured current being proportional to the target gas concentration. Because a current is
generated in the process, the electrochemical sensor is often described as an amperometric gas sensor or a micro fuel cell.
Principles of Operation: Electrochemical sensors usually contain an acid electrolyte, sensing electrode, counter electrode,
reference electrode and a gas-permeable membrane. As the air diffuses into the cell, certain gases oxidize/reduce on the sensor
and a voltage differential is produced. The current produced by the chemical reaction is proportional to the concentration level of
the reacting gas. The sensing electrode is designed to catalyze a specific reaction.

Importance of a Reference Electrode: For a sensor requiring an external driving voltage, it is important to have a
stable and constant potential at the sensing electrode. In reality, the sensing electrode potential does not remain constant due to
the continuous electrochemical reaction taking place on the surface of the electrode. It causes deterioration of the performance
of the sensor over extended periods of time. To improve the performance of the sensor, a reference electrode is introduced.
This reference electrode is placed within the electrolyte in close proximity to the sensing electrode. A fixed stable constant
potential is applied to the sensing electrode. The reference electrode maintains the value of this fixed voltage at the sensing
electrode. No current flows to or from the reference electrode. The gas molecules react at the sensing electrode and the
current flow between the sensing and the counter electrode is measured and is typically related directly to the gas concentration.
The value of the voltage applied to the sensing electrode makes the sensor specific to the target gas. The micro fuel cell-type
electrochemical sensors do not require an external driving voltage. For example, an electrochemical sensor specific to oxygen
has an anode, either Pb or Cd, that supplies electrons for the reduction of oxygen at the cathode. During the oxidation of the
anode, the electrons are released which then travel via an external circuit to the cathode where oxygen molecules consume the
electrons as follows:
In acidic electrolyte
Oxidation at the anode: 2Pb + 2H2O → 2PbO + 4H+ + 4e-
Reduction at the cathode: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O
In basic electrolyte
Oxidation at the anode: 2Pb + 4OH- → 2PbO + 2H2O + 4e-
Reduction at the cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OHThe

Overall reaction in both cases is: 2Pb + O2 → 2PbO.

These types of sensors do not require a reference electrode.
4) MOS - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (Toxic Gas Detector)
Metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) detectors are most frequently used for detecting hydrogen sulphide gas (H2S).
An MOS device usually consists of a gas sensitive resistive film, a platinum heater element and an insulation medium.
The gas sensitive film is made from a basic material of tin oxide or tungsten oxide combined with other oxides, catalyst or
inhibitors to increase the selectivity of the device. Figure 8 presents a diagram of a typical MOS detector. MOS sensors measure
changes in electrical conductivity due to the presence of gas/vapor. In the presence of gas/vapor the MOS sensor produces a
change in electrical conductivity. In clean air, oxygen is adsorbed at the surface of the MOS sensor which strips electrons from
the active material and forms a potential barrier, causing the resistance to increase. If a reducing gas is present, such as H2S,
the sensor surface will adsorb the vapor and become reduced, lowering the sensor resistance. This change in resistance may be
logarithmically correlated to the concentration of the gas/vapor present. The operating temperature of the MOS sensor usually
exceeds 100°C to speed up the rate of reaction, reduce ambient temperature effects, and provide greater degree of selectivity.

Principle of Operation
A solid-state sensor consists of one or more metal oxides from the transition metals, such as tin oxide, aluminium oxide, etc.
These metal oxides are prepared and processed into a paste which is used to form a bead-type sensor. Thin film-chip sensors
are made when the metal oxides are vacuum deposited onto a silica chip, in a fashion similar to making semiconductors.
A heating element is used to regulate the sensor temperature, since the sensor exhibit different gas response characteristics at
different temperature ranges. This heating element can be a platinum or platinum alloy wire, or a thin layer of deposited platinum.
The sensor is then processed at a specific high temperature which determines the specific characteristics of the finished sensor.
In the presence of gas, the metal oxide causes the gas to dissociate into charged ions or complexes which results in the transfer
of electrons. The builtin heater, which heats the metal oxide material to an operational temperature range that is optimal for the
gas to be detected, is regulated / controlled by a specific circuit, the temperature is roughly 200°C - 250°C.
A pair of electrodes are imbedded into the metal oxide film to measure its conductivity change. The changes in the conductivity
of the sensor resulting from the interaction with the gas molecules is measured as a signal. A solid-state sensor produces a very
strong signal, especially at high gas concentrations. There are different ways of making solid-state sensors, each arrangement
making the sensor’s performance characteristics different.

Two typical styles are the following:

1. Bead-type sensor
2. Chip-type sensor

PRINCIPLE: The sensing layer is a porous thick film of polycrystalline SnO2. In normal ambient air, oxygen and water vapor
related species are adsorbed at the surface of the SnO2 grains. The sensing of target gases takes place as follows:
For reducing gases such as CO or H2, a reaction takes place with the pre-adsorbed oxygen and water vapor-related species
which decreases the resistance of the sensor. For oxidizing gases such as NO 2 and O3, the resistance increases. The magnitude
of the changes depends on the microstructure and composition/doping of the base material, on the morphology and geometrical
characteristics of the sensing layer and substrate, as well as on the temperature at which the sensing takes place. Alterations
of these parameters allow for the tuning of the sensitivity towards different gases or classes of gases.
In MOS metal oxide is applied to a non-conducting substance between two electrodes. Metal oxide is a semiconducting material.
The non-conducting substance is heated to a temperature at which the presence of a gas can cause a reversible change in the
conductivity of the metal oxide. When there is no gas, oxygen is ionized onto the surface and sensor becomes semi-conductive;
when molecules of the gas of interest are present, they replace oxygen ions, decreasing the resistance between the electrodes.
The change in resistance between the electrodes is measured electrically and is proportional to the concentration of the gas
being measured.
5) ULTRASONIC GAS LEAK DETECTORS (Combustible / Toxic Gas Detector)
Conventional gas detection methods such as point type / open path type rely on gas to come into physical contact with detectors.
Ultrasonic gas leak detection (UGLD) technology on the other hand detects gas leaks by sensing the airborne ultrasonic noise
produced by escaping pressurised gas.
A specially designed microphone unit is used as the main transducer in an ultrasonic detector. When the ultrasonic noise is
detected by a sensor one can determine the leak rate since there is a proven proportionality between the ultrasonic noise
produced by escaping pressurised gas and the leak rate. As with all conventional gas detectors the establishment of alarm levels
and detector positions is of crucial importance. Alarm limits for conventional combustible gas detection methods are based on
%LEL and LEL.m, but UGLD use the leak rate as basis. Dependent on ventilation conditions and whether the gas leak is located
in confined area a certain leak rate must exist in order to form a potentially dangerous cloud. The leak rate unit of measurement
is kg/s and it tells how many kilograms of gas are released through the leak orifice per second. According to health and safety
organisations within the oil and gas industry have classified gas leaks into 3 categories based on the potential explosion risk that
a leak would cause. The three leak categories are presented in table below.

From table one can see that a small leak has a leak rate less than 0.1 kg/s and a large leak has a leak rate higher than 2 kg/s.
Leak rates from 0.1 kg/s to 2 kg/s represent medium leaks. The potential explosion risk related to a specific leak rate may vary
depending on module design, but that is further evaluated in the chapter dealing with formulation of detection criteria.
UGLD requires the establishment of an ambient ultrasonic background noise level to decide the alarm level and assist with
selection of the optimal location. A survey of the level of background interference makes it easier to detect abnormal conditions
in form of gas leaks. The position of UGLDs is based on identifying potential sources of gas leaks. Gaskets, weld joints, and
valves in high pressure installations are potential sources of gas leaks.
As opposed to conventional gas detectors which are dependent on physical contact with gas, UGLD is able to detect gas leaks
by listening to ultrasonic noise. Due to the need for physical contact with the leaked gas the conventional gas detection will be
affected by ventilation conditions in a module. Trials showed that the UGLD sometimes are not able to differentiate between a
process gas leak and other ultrasonic noise sources. Given this result it was recommended not to initiate a process shutdown
based on UGLDs alone. In order to find the best suited positions for gas detectors it is crucial to take into consideration the
advantages and limitations of each detection technology. A gas detection system which consists of a single gas detection
technology will be very vulnerable under certain operating conditions in which the limitations of the gas detectors get revealed.
Gas detection diversity is principle of applying two or more gas detection technologies. For example certain operating conditions
which may be bad for an UGLD might not affect an IR open path detector. It may happen that an UGLD isn’t able to differentiate
between a process gas leak and other ultrasonic noise sources, but an IR open path detector can detect the presence of the
escaped gas by disruption in the beam path. Figure below shows an example of a situation where the wind direction prevents
escaped gas from a leak to be detected by point and open path gas detectors. But the UGLD which doesn’t need to be in
physical contact with the escaped gas can discover the leak by listening to the ultrasonic noise.
The application of different detection technologies in a given module will result in a more robust gas detection system with
respect to different operating conditions, thus increasing the reliability of the gas detection system. The combination of using
different detection technologies within a given area can contribute to faster detection of escaped gas because one can make use
of the individual advantages from each technology. By achieving faster detection control actions can be initiated earlier leading to
lower ignition probability and limitations of possible consequences related to ignition, hence reduced risk in case of a gas leak.
By carrying out gas dispersion simulations in software one can see how escaped gas will behave in a given module under
defined operating conditions. Results from such simulations can contribute to the assessment of advantages and limitations of
the different detection technologies and make a good basis for decision making regarding which detection technologies to apply
and hence optimize functionality and reliability of the gas detection system.
Figure shows an example of a situation where the wind direction prevents escaped gas from a leak to be detected by point and
open path gas detectors. But the UGLD which doesn’t need to be in physical contact with the escaped gas can discover the leak
by listening to the ultrasonic noise.
 FIRE DETECTION
Fire detection technology focuses on detecting smoke (particle matter), flame (light) or heat – the 3 major characteristics of fire.
All of these characteristics also have sources other than fire, such as the particle matter from aerosols, light from the sun and
heat from steam pipes. Other factors further confound the process of fire detection by masking characteristic of interest, such as
air temperature, and air movement. In addition, smoke and heat from fires can dissipate too rapidly or accumulate too slowly for
effective detection. In contrast, because flame detectors are optical devices, they can respond to flames in less than a second.
As with any type of detection method its use must match the environment and the risk within the environment.

In case of CONFIRMED FIRE or CONFIRMED GAS following actions may be taken:

• Alarm in control room, fire station, audible and visual alarms through PAGA.
• Initiate shutdown sequence through ESD ( As per ESD philosophy)
• Initiate HVAC shutdown / damper closure
• Initiate start sequence of firewater pumps
• Initiate Fire Protection System (Gases Suppression System or Water Suppression System))
SMOKE DETECTORS
Ionization Smoke Detectors
Optical Smoke Detectors
Smoke involves the thermal release of large quantities of solid and liquid particles into the surrounding atmosphere.
The size of these particles can range upto 10 um. These particles that are suspended in air are termed as aerosols.
The aerosol particles that are produced during a fire are classified into two types of fire signatures according to their
light scattering properties, namely Invisible fire signatures and Visible fire signatures.
* Flaming fires burn hotter and result in more complete combustion and produce smaller aerosols (smoke) particles
approximately < 0.3um. These smoke particles are classified as Invisible due to their inability to scatter light.
Generally ionization detectors are most effective with invisible smoke particles.
* Smouldering fires / fires that result in low temp. combustion products produce larger aerosols (smoke) particles
approximately > 0.3 um. These smoke particles are classified as Visible due to their ability to scatter light efficiently.
Generally optical detectors are most effective with visible smoke particles.

Ionization Smoke Detectors:

Ionization detectors are excellent for detecting the smaller aerosols associated with clean fires which result from
fibrous materials, i.e. paper or wood. Therefore this detector is a good selection for office areas.
Ionization Smoke Detectors have an inner and an outer chamber. The inner chamber is called ionization chamber
and outer chamber is called smoke chamber. A radioactive source Holder inside the ionization chamber and the
smoke chamber acts as positive and negative electrodes respectively. The radioactive source irradiates the air in
both the chambers to produce positive ions and negative ions. On applying a voltage across the two electrodes,
electric fields are formed. The ions are attracted to electrodes of opposite signs; some ions collide and recombine,
but a small net electric current flow between the electrodes. A sensing electrode placed between the two chambers
converts variations in the chamber currents into a voltage. When a smoke particle enters the ionization chamber,
ions become attached to them and reduce the current flowing through the ionization chamber. The current in the
smoke chamber reduces far more than of ionization. The imbalance causes sensing electrode to go more positive,
the sensor electronics monitors the voltage on the sensing electrode and produces the signal when a pre-set
threshold level is reached and causes the detector to go to the alarm state.
* Ionization detectors operate by using a small amount of radioactive material to ionize (electrically charge) the air
within a sensing chamber in the detector. The ionization of the air permits the air to conduct electricity between two
electrodes within the chamber. As smoke enters the chamber, the smoke particles become ionized and reduce the
conductivity of the air between the electrodes. This reduction in conductivity between the electrodes is sensed and
will cause the detector to respond.

Optical Smoke Detectors:

It provides a better response for mid-range to heavy aerosols such as those produced by many synthetic products.
Therefore this detector is a better selection for protecting areas where this type of material is prominent, that is
electrical switch rooms cable spreader room, rack room, where cables and electrical components are the main risk.
However at these places they are used in conjunction with ionization smoke detectors to ensure detection.
The inner chamber of an optical smoke detector consists of two main parts: an infrared LED and a photo-diode.
The LED is positioned at an obtuse angle to the photo diode. The photo-diode has an integral daylight filter for
protection against ambient light. The LED emits a burst of light every 10 second. In clear air conditions (no smoke)
the photo-diode does not receive light particles (photons) due to the collimation of the light and the angle at which
the light travels relative to the photo diode. When smoke particles enter the chamber it will excite the photo-diode by
scattering photons onto it. Then the LED emits two further bursts of light at an interval of two seconds. Due to the
presence of smoke, light is scattered on both these pulses of photo-diode causing the detector to go to alarm state.
Light scattering principle : they operate with a light source (LED) and a photosensitive device (photo-diode).
The photo-diode is not placed in the path of light beam emitted from LED. As smoke enters the sensing chamber,
light is reflected (scattered) from the smoke particles onto the photosensitive device (photo- diode) causing the
detector to respond
Light obstruction principle : they operate with a light source (LED) and a photosensitive device (photo-diode).
The photo-diode is placed in the path of light beam emitted from LED. As smoke enters the sensing chamber,
the light intensity diminishes causing the detector to respond.
FLAME DETECTORS
Infrared - Single Frequency Flame Detectors (IR- Single Frequency)
Infrared - Multi Spectrum Flame Detectors (IR- Multi Spectrum)
Ultraviolet Flame Detectors (UV)
Ultraviolet / Infrared Flame Detectors (UV/IR)

In hydrocarbon fires the vaporized fuel is dispersed in the surrounding atmosphere where it immediately reacts with oxygen and
the chemical chain reaction takes place to give off gaseous products such as CO2, H20, HC (unburned hydrocarbon molecules),
C (Soot), and CO.
Fire detection technologies throughout the years have relied on these factors for the development of fire detection devices.
The energy radiated from a fire serves as a major factor in its detection analysis. 30% - 40% of this energy is dissipated in the
form of electromagnetic radiation at various spectral ranges, such as Ultraviolet (UV), visible, infrared (IR) bands.
Flame radiation spectral pattern, being unique, allows several spectral ranges to be employed in the various detection devices.
Flame detectors usually utilize optical sensors working at specific spectral ranges (usually narrow band) that record the incoming
radiation at the selected wavelengths. The spectrum below shows the relationship between these frequencies and visible light.

1) INFRARED SINGLE FREQUENCY FLAME DETECTORS (IR-SINGLE FERQUENCY)

Infrared detectors have been available for many years; however, it has only been in recent times that technology has allowed for
stable, accurate detection to occur. There are two types of Infrared detectors, single frequency and multi spectrum.
The basic principle of operation for a single frequency IR detector
The detector is sensitive to a narrow band of radiation around the 4.4 micron range which is a predominant emission band for
hydrocarbon fuelled fires. Additionally, the sun’s radiation at this band (4.4 micron) is absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere,
making the IR flame detector solar blind. Single frequency detectors use a pyroelectric sensor, which responds to the changes
in IR radiation intensity. In addition they incorporate a low frequency band pass filter, which limits their response to those
frequencies that are characteristic of a flickering fire. In response to a fire signal from the sensor, electronic circuitry in the
detector generates an output signal.
Advantages of single frequency IR detector :
Highly immune to optical contaminants like oil, dirt, dust and high speed of response.
Insensitive to solar, welding, lightning, X-rays, sparks, arcs etc
Disadvantages of single frequency IR detector ;
Generally not suitable for non-carbon fires
Rain, ice and water vapour on the detector lens will inhibit detection. All IR detectors suffer to some degree from absorption of IR
radiation by water (as droplets, mist or snow). The absorption of IR is significant and is max. at the wavelength of interest 4.4um.
This absorption, coupled with refraction and internal reflection of droplets on the faceplate, renders the IR3 detector extremely
prone to disruption by water.

2) INFRARED MULTI SPECTRUM FLAME DETECTORS (IR-MULTI SPECTRUM)

The basic principle of operation for a multi spectrum IR detector :
The detector has 3 sensors, each sensitive to a different frequency of radiation. The IR radiation which is emitted by a typical
hydrocarbon fire is more intense at the wavelength accepted by one sensor than the other two. Electronic circuitry in the detector
translates the difference in intensity of the three sensors to a ratio that along with a synchronous flicker must be present before a
fire signal is produced. This allows detector to reject high intensity flickering black body radiation sources
In common with single frequency IR detectors, IR3 detectors respond to 4.4um emission associated with hydrocarbon flames.
However in addition to this ‘principal’ wavelength, IR3 detectors also view the flame at two other wavelengths, one on either side
of the 4.4um emission feature (these are typically located around 4 um and 5 um but may vary from one vendor to another).
This approach allows easy discrimination between a true hydrocarbon fire and unwanted ‘background’ radiation sources.
Advantages of multi spectrum IR detector :
Virtually immune to false alarms
Long detection range (60 metres to some fires)
Disadvantages of multi spectrum IR detector :
Typical response time is longer when compared to single frequency detectors

IR detectors are sensitive to most hydrocarbon fires (liquids, gases, and solids). Fires such as burning metals, ammonia,
hydrogen and sulphur do not emit significant amounts of IR in the detector's sensitivity range to activate an alarm. IR detectors
are suitable for applications where hydrocarbon fires are likely to occur and high concentrations of airborne contaminants and /
or UV radiation sources may be present. The detector should be used with caution when the presence of hot objects and the
potential for ice build up on the detector are likely.
3) ULTRAVIOLET FLAME DETECTORS (UV)
A UV detector uses a sensor tube that detects radiation emitted in 100 nm - 300 nm range.
It is important to note that ultraviolet radiation from the sun that reaches earth starts at 280nm. If the UV detector's sensor has a
wide range then it will be triggered by the sun’s rays, which means it will then be only suitable for indoor use. There are sensors
available with a range of 180nm to 250nm. Virtually all fires emit radiation in this band, while the sun’s radiation at this band is
absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere. The result is that the UV flame detector is solar blind. The implication of this feature is that
the detector can be used indoors and outdoors. In response to UV radiation from a flame that falls within the narrow band, the
sensor generates a series of pulses that are converted by the detector electronics into an alarm output.
Ultraviolet cannot penetrate through smoke, dust, fuel particles. UV detection is effective with almost any clean fire. Any burner
flame which will characteristically cause smoke or fuel particles to be present between the flame and the sensor makes UV
detection problematical.

Advantages of UV detector :
Responds to hydrocarbon, hydrogen and metal fires
High speed response – under 10 milliseconds
Solar insensitive

Disadvantages of UV detector :
Will respond to welding at long range
May respond to lightning, X-rays, sparks, arcs, and corona
Some gases and vapours will inhibit detection
Some UV sensors have a wide detection range resulting in solar false alarms

UV detectors are sensitive to most fires, including hydrocarbon (liquids, gases, solids), metals (magnesium), sulphur, hydrogen,
hydrazine and ammonia. The UV detector is the most flexible general purpose optical fire detector available. They are fast,
reliable, have few false alarm sources and respond to virtually any fire. UV cannot penetrate through smoke, dust, fuel particles.
UV detection is effective with almost any clean fire. Any fire which will characteristically cause smoke or fuel particles to be
present between the flame and the sensor makes UV detection problematical

4) ULTRAVIOLET / INFRARED FLAME DETECTORS (UV/IR)

A UV/IR detector consists of an UV sensor and single frequency IR sensor paired to form one unit.
The 2 sensors individually operate the same as previously described, but additional circuit processes signals from both sensors.
This means the combined detector has better false alarm rejection capabilities than the individual UV or IR detectors.

Advantages of UV/IR detector :

Virtually immune to false alarms
High speed response – under 500 milliseconds
Solar, welding, lightning, X-rays, sparks, arcs, and corona insensitive

Disadvantages of UV/IR detector :

Not recommended for non carbon fires
Some gases and vapours will inhibit detection due to blinding of the UV sensor

Since the UV/IR detector pairs two sensor types, it will typically only detect fires that emit both UV and flickering IR radiation.
UV detectors will respond to virtually all fires including hydrocarbon (liquids, gases, and solids), metals (magnesium), sulphur,
hydrogen, hydrazine and ammonia. IR detectors will only respond to hydrocarbon fires. Since the IR detector is not sensitive to
burning metals, ammonia, hydrogen and sulfur the combined unit will not respond to these fires. The detector is suitable for
applications where hydrocarbon fires are likely and other sources of radiation may be present (X-rays, hot surfaces, arc welding).
They maintain constant protection while arc welding takes place. The UV/IR detectors are highly reliable with fast response times
and low propensity to false alarms.
The UV sensor itself is a good fire detector, however, it is easily activated by alarm stimuli such as; welding, lightning, X-rays and
solar spikes. In order to prevent false alarms caused by these sources, the IR sensing channel was added. The IR spectral
channel has a spectral signature characteristic to fire in addition to the fires UV flame detector spectral signature, together they
serve as a reliable detector for most mid-range applications. Even this advanced technology has its limitations, since each type
of fire has its own specific ratio of UV to IR output. For example, a hydrogen flame generates a high amount of UV radiation with
very little IR, while a coal fire will generate little UV radiation and a high amount of IR radiation. Since the dual UV/IR detector
combines both signals to an AND gate there could be a type of fire which will not be detected.
HEAT DETECTORS
Rate of Rise
Fixed Temperature Detectors
Heat detectors are based on principle of detecting the thermal output of a fire. The heat generated from combustion
is dissipated throughout the area by laminar and turbulent convective heat flows created by heated gases.
Turbulent flow is induced & regulated by fire plume thermal column effect of heated air/gases above the fire surface.
The fire plume characteristics are determined by the heat rate of flame combustion and the ceiling height.
Additionally variables such as proximity to walls, room configuration, ceiling obstruction can affect the transport of
convective heat flow necessary for thermal detector operation.
A heat detector sensitivity to fire depends on gas temperature which is influenced by heat rate of flame combustion,
the ceiling height and the radial position of the detector.

Rate of Rise Detectors:

They have a matched pair of negative coefficient thermistors.
(Active Sensor) One thermistor is exposed and is therefore in thermal contact with the surrounding air and responds
quickly to changes in air temperature, while the other thermistor is thermally insulated from the surrounding air and
responds less quickly (Reference Sensor). Under stable conditions they are in equilibrium and have same value.
If the air temperature increases rapidly a temperature difference develops between the two thermistors and the
resistance of the exposed thermistor becomes less than that of the insulated thermistor. The ratio of the resistances
of the two thermistors is monitored and a fire alarm is generated if the ratio exceeds a factory preset value.
This feature of the operating principle determines ‘rate of rise’ response of detector. An alarm is generated when
rate of temperature rise exceeds 6 - 9 °C /minute.

Fixed Temperature Detectors

These heat detectors may be of bi-metal switch design or fixed electronic thermal sensor (fusible type) design.
These are designed with a pre-set fixed temperature trip point e.g. 60, 75 or 900°C. If the preset temperature value
is exceeded, contacts of the switch changes and generates an alarm signal. The detector will give a low-level alarm
if the temperature increases to 25% of its preset value. Fixed temperature heat detectors are the simplest type of
heat detectors and are designed to alarm when the sensing element reaches a predetermined temperature.
Generally the surrounding air temperature must be considerably higher than the heat detector rating in order to
raise the heat detector element to the operating temperature. This condition is known as thermal lag.
Fixed temperature heat detectors are fusible element type, continuous line type or bimetallic type.
* The fusible element type operates similar to a sprinkler head where a fusible metal melts at a predetermined
temperature releasing a spring under tension and initiates an alarm signal.
* The continuous line type heat detector generally consists of parallel wires separated by a heat resistive insulation.
When the insulation melts away at a predetermined temperature (from a fire), the wires come into contact and an
alarm is initiated (basis of Linear Heat Detection Cable).
* The Bimetallic type detector relies on two joined metals with different coefficients of expansion. As metals expand
(at different rates) when heated, the bimetal will deflect towards the metal with the lower coefficient of expansion.
This deflection is normally designed to close a contact and initiate an alarm.
METHODS OF PROTECTION
 FLAMEPROOF (Exd)

EN IEC 60079-1
The enclosure of flameproof equipment is designed to withstand an internal explosion. The enclosure joints permit products of combustion,
and the resulting expansion of gases, to be relieved through the joints and not to permit that explosion to transmit through to the external
atmosphere.

Ex-d is a type of protection in which the parts that can ignite an explosive gas air mixture are placed in an enclosure which can withstand
the pressure developed during an internal explosion and which prevents the transmission of explosion to surrounding external atmosphere.

Flameproof Enclosures are constructed to withstand an internal gas explosion without damage to the enclosure and to cool the hot gases
produced by explosion as they exit the enclosure along flame paths. Gases in most critical gas groups ( IIC) require longer flame paths to
cool the gas and sometimes thicker walls to contain the increased pressure of the internal explosion.

The principles of the flameproof protection concept are:

• No external hot surfaces above temperature class.
• Design of enclosure joints must comply with the requirements of the standard.
• Plastic and cemented parts contributing to the flameproof properties of enclosure undergo high temperature and humidity testing.
• Parts fitted inside an enclosure may include sparking contacts, semi-conductor devices and batteries.
• Flexible enclosure walls or elements of enclosure walls are not permitted.

FLAMEPROOF vs EXPLOSIONPROOF
Flameproof Enclosures are constructed to withstand 1.5 times the explosive pressure of the gases.
Explosionproof Enclosures are constructed to withstand 4 times the explosive pressure of the gases.

CONSIDERATION FLAMEPROOF EXPLOSIONPROOF

Not Allowed
Field Drilling Acceptable
Must be drilled by manufacturer
Pressure testing 1.5 times maximum 4 times maximum
Construction Lighter Heavier
Joints Threaded, flat, spigot Threaded, flat, labyrinth (serrated)
Wiring room Not a major design consideration Major design consideration
Factory drilled directly into the enclosure or
Entries field drilled into an Ex-e enclosure (indirect entry) Field or factory drilled directly into enclosure

Flameproof Enclosures contain the explosion and allow gases to cool

as they escape across the joints.
A potentially explosive mixture can be present inside a flameproof enclosure due to heating and cooling cycle of electrical equipment use.
An gas/air mixture can be sucked in and expelled as the temperature changes. If the gas/air mixture inside the enclosure is between the
Lower Flammable Limits and Upper Flammable Limits and a spark ignites the mixture, an explosion will occur.

1) Temperature changes can suck gas/air mixtures into the enclosure

2) When the gas/air mixture is between the the Upper and Lower
Flammable Limits and a spark occurs, ignition and an internal explosion
can occur.

3) The hot compressed gases are forced out through the flamepath, but
must not ignite any surrounding external potentially explosive
atmosphere. flamepath cools the hot, compressed gases as they are
expelled, preventing any explosions of external atmospheres.

All internal components in the Ex-d enclosure must have a clearance of at least 12 mm from the internal enclosure wall. In addition,
obstructions adjacent to the external flamepath can cause “pressure piling” which results in an abnormally high explosion pressure.

Minimum Distance from Obstructions

Gas Group Distance

IIA 10mm

IIB 30mm

IIC 40mm
It is assumed that flammable gases in the surrounding atmosphere can enter the flameproof enclosure by thermal cycling or breathing.
A flameproof enclosure is built to withstand the pressure developed during internal explosion following ignition without damaging enclosure
In addition to withstanding an internal explosion, the flamepath width and gap in a flameproof enclosure must cool the hot flaming gases as
they pass through the flamepath to prevent ignition of any surrounding explosive atmosphere.

Flameproof Enclosures -Tested at 1.5 times the maximum pressure obtained during explosion tests.
Explosionproof Enclosures -Tested at 4 times the maximum pressure obtained during explosion tests.
Because of the difference in testing, Flameproof enclosures may have lighter construction and the joints may not be as wide as those on
Explosionproof enclosures.

The pressure inside a flameproof enclosure during internal explosion can rise to 10 bar. There is also the possibility of pressure piling and
detonation due to secondary ignition of compressed gases inside an enclosure, that can result in pressures of 30 bar.
Pressure piling is the increase in explosion pressure above normal expected pressures caused by the ignition of a pre-compressed gas.
This can result from modifications such as internal sub division of the flameproof enclosure or external obstruction adjacent to flamepath.
The static pressure tests requirements for Flameproof Enclosures are 10 bar for IIA / IIB Gas & 15 bar for IIC Gases.
* Flat joints (Bolted Design) can only be used with IIA and IIB gases.
* Threaded or spigot joints are used in IIC applications because of the close tolerance and length of flamepath formed by thread.
* The minimum number of thread engagements shall not less than 5.
* The depth of engagement upto 100 cubic cm is 5 mm & above 100 cubic cm not less than 8 mm.

Flameproof
This protection method is the only one based on explosion-containment concept. In this case, the energy source is permitted to come in
contact with the dangerous air/gas mixture. Consequently, the explosion is allowed to take place, but it must remain confined in enclosure
built to resist the excess pressure created by an internal explosion, thus impeding the propagation to the surrounding atmosphere.
The theory supporting this method is that the resultant gas jet coming from enclosure is cooled rapidly through enclosure’s heat conduction
and the expansion and dilution of hot gas in the colder external atmosphere. This is only possible if the enclosure openings or interstices
have sufficiently small dimensions.

Distinctions between Flameproof and Explosionproof

In Europe, flameproof enclosure is used which can withstand 1.5 times the maximum explosion pressure.
In North America, explosionproof enclosure is used which can withstand 4 times the maximum explosion pressure.
Furthermore, in North America the installation regulations (NEC 500) specify metal conduit to be used for the field wiring installation. It is
also assumed here that air-gas mixture can also be present within the conduit system. Therefore, resulting explosion pressures must be
taken into consideration. The conduit connections is constructed according to specification and sealed with appropriate casting compound.
The housing is not constructed gas-tight but large openings are not permitted on enclosure, but small ones are inevitable at junction point.
Some of these gaps may serve as pressure relief points. Escaping hot gases are cooled to the extent that they cannot ignite the potentially
explosive atmosphere outside the housing. Ignition is prevented if the minimum temperature and the minimum ignition energy of the
surrounding potentially explosive atmosphere is not reached. For this reason the maximum opening allowed for a particular type of joint
depends on the nature of explosive mixture and width of the adjoining surfaces (joint length). The classification of a flameproof enclosure is
based on the gas group and the maximum surface temperature which must be lower than the ignition temperature of the gas present.

Testing Method
Thermal Test
Usually a thermal test is the first test to be conducted, to determine the maximum temperature of components and parts under maximum
service conditions (i.e. using manufacturer’s rating for the device, related to the maximum ambient temperature in service). An additional
test at 0.9 to 1.1 times rated voltage may also be conducted at this time to determine maximum surface temperature. Again this is related
to maximum ambient temperature in service.

Thermal Endurance
Non-metallic enclosures and cemented joints contributing to the flameproof properties of the enclosure undergo thermal endurance (high
humidity and high temperature) of non-metallic parts. This is followed by impact testing, unless the item is a component intended to be
fitted inside another enclosure.

Reference Pressure
A series of tests are conducted to determine maximum internal explosion pressure. The tests involve filling the enclosure with an explosive
mixture of gas and igniting it. Special transducers fitted to the enclosure measure the resulting pressure. The internal arrangements of the
equipment may be configured in various options determined by the manufacturer and additional tests carried out to measure the highest
explosion (reference) pressure.
Depending on the arrangement of internal parts, some configurations may give rise to higher internal explosion pressure. This is because
the complexity of the internal shapes may slow the speed at which the internal explosion occurs. When the explosion is slower, the rise in
internal pressure compresses the unburned mixture before it is ignited. This is called ‘pressure piling’.

Overpressure
Following these tests a hydrostatic overpressure test is conducted, to verify mechanical strength of the enclosure. Leakage of test fluid
through flameproof joints is permitted. Flame transmission following overpressure tests the test sample is also subjected to a series of
flame transmission tests, using the same explosive mixture of gas as before. The sample is also placed in an explosive atmosphere.
When the internal explosive mixture is ignited, it is not permitted for this to ‘transmit’ through the flameproof joints to the outer external
atmosphere. For equipment that has an ambient temperature range higher or lower than –20°C to +40°C the reference pressure
overpressure and flame transmission tests may be conducted at the extremes of low and high ambient specified by the manufacturer.
INCREASED SAFETY
 INCREASED SAFETY (Ex e)

EN 60079-7
Any Exe enclosure must have a minimum rating of IP54 and must withstand minimum mechanical impact of 7Nm.
Ex e "Increased Safety” : Type of protection applied to electrical apparatus that does not produce arcs or sparks in normal service, in which
additional measures are applied to give increased security against possibility of excessive temperatures or the occurrence of arcs sparks."
Ex e "Increased Safety" This method of protection works by taking extra measures with electrical components to make sure there are no
sparks or hot-spots developed in normal operation or under fault conditions. The total power dissipated in a junction box is also restricted,
to keep the temperature rise to a safe level.
Ex e “Increased Safety” - The risk of ignition due to electrical effects is greatly reduced by attention to detail in terminations (making sure
there is very little chance of a terminal coming loose, etc), reducing the specifications for voltage and current-carrying capability and by
specifying minimum separations between potential-carrying parts, etc.
Increased Safety ”Ex e” protection is based on the premise that an explosion cannot occur if a spark cannot occur,
“a type of protection in which increased safety measures are applied so as to give increased security against the possibility of excessive
temperatures and occurrence of arcs or sparks for electrical apparatus which does not normally produce arcs or sparks in normal service”
Ex e is used for equipment that does not include spark or heat producing components in normal service and where “increased safety”
measures have been implemented to further reduce these risks. An Exe enclosure only needs a rating of IP54 to prevent water ingress
leading to electrical fault and sparking. It does not have to withstand pressure nor include “flamepaths” to safely release hot gasses
associated with an internal explosion. A simple example of apparatus suitable for increased safety protection would be cable junction box.
As a single method of protection it cannot be used for electric component which could produce arcs or sparks.
Increased Safety “Ex e” is intended for products in which arcs and sparks do not occur in normal service nor under fault conditions and in
which the surface temperatures are controlled below incendive values. Increased Safety is achieved by enhancing insulation values and
creepage and clearance distances above those required for normal service, thus providing a safety factor against accidental breakdown.

Key Design Features

Enclosure: must be constructed to withstand mechanical impact and provide a minimum IP54 degree of ingress protection (IP Rating).

Terminals for external connections: must be dimensioned for intended connection and ensure that conductors are securely fastened.

Internal connections: must not be subject to undue mechanical stress and shall be made using specified methods
They must be designed to allow the conductor to be easily inserted and clamped, so that contact pressure is maintained without reducing
the cross sectional area of the conductor and shall incorporate a positive locking device to prevent conductors working loose by vibration.

Clearance: between bare conductive parts must not be less than the values specified according to the rated voltage.
Creepage distances: must not be less than the values specified according to the rated voltage and the Comparative Tracking Index (CTI)
of the insulating material.

Creepage Distance: The shortest distance between live parts, or live parts to earth over the
surface of the insulation material. Creepage distance follows the contour of the groove.
Clearance distance: the shortest distance in air between live parts or live parts to earth.
Clearance distance is the “line of sight” distance.

Temperatures: of parts of equipment must be limited so as not to exceed values which would affect the thermal stability of the material
and the T-Class relating to the ignition of explosive atmospheres. The combination of wire and terminals in an enclosure will produce a
temperature rise under load conditions. Care must be taken during installation to ensure that heat dissipated by this combination does not
exceed the maximum temperature classification of enclosure. The maximum wattage of enclosure should be clearly marked on enclosure.
The current should be reduced and the heat shall be dissipated, so that the temperature of enclosure doesn’t rise beyond T- classification
For instrumentation circuits and other low current applications (not exceeding 8 amps), it is highly unlikely that there will be any significant
temperature rise under normal operating conditions.

GROUNDING (EARTHING) OF EX-e TERMINAL BOXES

Certified Ex-e terminal boxes must be provided with internal or external ground connection of an adequate size for the wiring configuration.
(Ex-e terminal boxes are not designed to carry earth fault currents.) The main internal/external ground connection must be connected to
main system earth with correct coded wire of adequate size but not less than 4 mm2. All exposed metal parts must be grounded together
and to the main ground terminal.

Increased Safety Enclosures:

These enclosures provide an alternative to flameproof enclosures and are commonly made of steel, fiberglass, and die cast aluminum.
They are intended to house electrical equipment that will not generate an arc or spark during normal operation. Additional measures are
taken to prevent possibility of excessive heat, ingress of water or dust, resistance to impact, thus preventing any explosion from occurring.
Flameproof Enclosures:
Theses enclosures are typically a bolted construction design or screw cover design made up of stainless steel or die cast aluminum.
They are intended to house electrical equipment that could possibly cause an arc or spark during normal operation leading to explosion.
With sufficient wall thickness and sufficient flamepath lengths, the flameproof enclosures will withstand an internal explosion pressures and
will extinguish any flame before transmitting hot gases to the outside hazardous atmosphere.
 FLAMEPROOF - INCREASED SAFETY (Ex de)

Flameproof “Ex d”
For the purposes of all explosionproof and flameproof construction standards, it is assumed that the atmosphere inside the enclosure will
have the same composition as that surrounding the enclosure - regardless of the sealing capability of the enclosure. So, with an explosive
atmosphere inside the actuator which also contains spark producing components, an internal explosion will occur. To gain certification the
“flameproof” or “explosionproof” enclosure must therefore provide:
“a type of protection in which components capable of igniting an explosive atmosphere are placed in enclosure which can withstand the
pressure developed during an internal explosion and which will prevent the transmission of the explosion to the explosive atmosphere
surrounding the enclosure.”
The Enclosure must therefore enclose all spark-producing components within an enclosure capable of withstanding the pressure created
when the explosion takes place. The pressure achieved will be related to the type of gas, internal free volume and the internal geometry of
the enclosure and it is for this reason that the type of gas present will affect the type of certification the enclosure must have.
As enclosures include joints, cable entries and covers, all construction standards prescribe methods by which they can be safely achieved.
Interfaces must be of a minimum length. Be it a flange, spigot or thread design and with the gap between components closely controlled.
The principle applied here is that the hot expanding gas resulting from explosion must be “squeezed” through the small gap or “flamepath”
between components to get to the outside. The flamepath joint absorbs heat from the gas to the point where on reaching the outside it is
cooled and cannot ignite the surrounding explosive atmosphere.
Some Ex d enclosure has a flameproof terminal barrier between the main enclosure and the terminal box enclosure. This provides a
“double sealed” terminal area for protection from water ingress during installation, cabling, connection process when the terminal cover is
removed. The barrier also divides the enclosure so that the both sides are segregated within the “d” enclosure. An explosion on either side
of the terminal barrier will not be transmitted to the other side or to the outside.

Increased Safety “Ex e”

Increased safety ”Ex e” protection is based on the premise that an explosion cannot occur if a spark cannot occur,
“a type of protection in which increased safety measures are applied so as to give increased security against the possibility of excessive
temperatures and occurrence of arcs or sparks for electrical apparatus which does not normally produce arcs or sparks in normal service”
Ex e is used for equipment that does not include spark or heat producing components in normal service and where “increased safety”
measures have been implemented to further reduce these risks. An Exe enclosure only needs a rating of IP54 to prevent water ingress
leading to electrical fault and sparking. It does not have to withstand pressure nor include “flamepaths” to safely release hot gasses
associated with an internal explosion. A simple example of apparatus suitable for increased safety protection would be cable junction box.
As a single method of protection it cannot be used for electric component which could produce arcs or sparks.

Flameproof - Increased Safety “Ex de”

By definition, increased safety type of protection cannot be used to enclose switches, contactors, etc that may produce arcs or sparks in
normal service and therefore it cannot be applied to the complete Electrical Unit containing components that may give ARCS or SPARKS.
However, it can be applied to the terminal compartment where there are no such components, providing this compartment is segregated
from flameproof enclosure which must still meet the full requirements of construction standards relating to flameproof as described above.
Electrical Unit containing components that may give ARCS or SPARKS therefore can only use increased safety type of protection in
addition to flameproof type protection.
So for full electrical unit, the only possibility is for the part of the enclosure containing switches, contactors etc to comply with the
flameproof “d” type protection requirements with the segregated terminal part complying with the increased safety “e” type protection
- ending up with a combined -“Exde” arrangement. The “d” comes before the “e” because flameproof part of enclosure is the major part.
To meet the increased safety construction standard the termination of power, control and indication cabling within the segregated terminal
compartment must be arranged in such a way as to provide increased safety from producing hot spots or sparks. Terminals must be fixed
and of such a design to prevent “the possibility of self-loosening”, a set minimum distance apart and insulation material used must resist
electrical tracking, aspects all designed to prevent sparks. The terminal compartment only needs a rating of IP54 to stop water ingress
leading to corrosion, which may cause electrical fault and sparking. It does not have to withstand pressure nor include “flamepaths” to
safely release hot gasses associated with an internal explosion.
Exe type of protection for the terminal compartment relies on preventing sparks or hot spots occurring. If a spark or excessive heat were to
occur, due to fault or loose connection for instance, this could cause ignition of an explosive gas within the enclosure. As the enclosure
does not have to withstand pressure or include flamepaths the explosion would be transmitted to surrounding atmosphere. It is therefore
vital that “increased safety” measures applied by the manufacturer to minimise the risk of sparks or excessive heat are followed properly.
 WIRING PRACTICES
Conduit Systems
In the case of installation using the conduit system, the electrical lines are drawn as single wires into enclosed metal conduits.
The conduits are connected to the housings or enclosures by means of fittings and equipped with a seal at each entrance point.
The entire conduit system is flameproof. The aim of seal is to prevent explosions which occur inside housing from transmitting into conduit.
Otherwise extremely high explosion pressures would be created as a result of pre-compression in long cylindrical tubes of conduit system.
For this reason, it is recommended that seals shall be installed not just at the entrance points but at specific intervals in the conduit system.
Drains must be installed at low points at which condensate can accumulate.

Cable Systems
Cable systems are mainly used in Europe under the zone system. In this method high-quality cables are laid uncovered.
It is only in areas in which mechanical damage could be expected that they are laid in conduits that are open at both ends.
In case of direct cable entry, the connecting cables are entered directly into the flameproof enclosure. Only cable glands that have been
specially certified for this purpose may be used for this type of entry. The flexible gasket and the cable sheath must form a flameproof joint
through which no flames can penetrate. For this reason attention must be paid to the appropriate selection of cable gland depending on
both the type/structure of cable and the installation location of equipment . If the flameproof enclosure has to be used in a IIC atmosphere
or if the flameproof enclosure has a volume bigger than 2 dm3 in Zone 1 with gas groups IIA,IIB then the cable glands have to be sealed
(Compund Seal Barrier). The flameproof enclosure primarily depends here on the care taken by electrician when connecting the cables.
In case of indirect cable entry, the connecting cables are entered via cable glands into a connection chamber in the type of protection
“Increased Safety” and connected to the terminals which are also provided in “Increased Safety”.
From here, the individual wires are conducted via flameproof bushings into the flameproof enclosure. The cable bushings are installed by
the manufacturer with the result that ( by contrast with direct entry) a routine test of the factory wired flameproof enclosure can be made.
The installation engineer need only open the connection chamber for the connection, not the flameproof enclosure.

In case of Ex d unit, the glands shall be Ex d or compound sealing barrier type Ex d, and the cable shall be sealed on inner & outer sheet.
In case of Ex e Unit, the glands shall be Ex e and the cable can be sealed only on outer sheet.
In case of Ex de Unit, the gland can be Ex e and the cable can be sealed only on outer sheet.

Exd Cable Glands - The sealing shall be on Inner sheet and Outer sheet
Exe Cable Glands - The sealing shall be on Outer sheet

Junction Boxes (having only terminals) without electronic parts that can cause spark can be used for Increased Safety applications.
If the JB contains series and end of line resistors which are considered as ignition capable then the junction box has to be flameproof.
Combined Equipment: Electrical Actuator (Ex de): It means that the Electric Motor is in Ex d compartment, insulator with wires leads to the
Ex e part of the compartment where the terminals are located.
 PRESSURIZATION

EN IEC 60079-2
The entry of external atmosphere into the enclosure of electrical apparatus is prevented by maintaining a protective gas inside enclosure,
at higher pressure than external atmosphere (usually 0.5mbar) or preventing the formation of explosive atmosphere inside the enclosure.
The overpressure is maintained either with or without a continuous flow of the protective gas.

Ducting Requirements
All ducts and their connecting parts shall be able to withstand a pressure equal to 1.5 times the maximum overpressure specified by the
manufacturer of the pressurized apparatus for normal operation or the maximum overpressure that the pressurizing source can achieve
with all the outlets closed where the pressurizing source ( for example fan) is specified by the manufacturer of the pressurized apparatus
(with a minimum of 2 mbar).
The materials used for ducts and connecting parts shall not be adversely affected by the protective gas or by flammable gas or vapours.
Ducting should be located in a non-hazardous area as far as is reasonably practicable. If ducting passes through a hazardous area and
the protective gas is at a pressure below atmospheric then the ducting shall be free from leaks. Pressurizing apparatus, such as inlet fan or
compressor that is used to supply protective gas should be installed in a non-hazardous area. Where the drive motor and its equipment’s
are located within the supply ducting or where the installation in a hazardous area cannot be avoided, the pressurizing apparatus shall be
suitably protected. Ducts for exhausting the protective gas should preferably have their outlets in a non-hazardous area.
Consideration shall be given for fitting spark and particle barriers (devices to guard against ejection of ignition-capable sparks or particles)
Apparatus
Zone of exhaust duct outlet
A B
ZONE 1 Required Required
ZONE 2 Required Not Required
A = apparatus which may produce ignition-capable sparks or particles in normal operation
B = apparatus which does not produce ignition-capable sparks or particles in normal operation
* If the temperature of the enclosed apparatus constitutes a hazard upon failure of pressurization,
a suitable device shall be fitted to prevent the rapid entry of the surrounding atmosphere in to the
pressurized enclosure.
The minimum purge time specified by the manufacturer for the pressurized enclosure shall be increased by the minimum additional
purging duration per unit volume of ducting specified by the manufacturer multiplied by the volume of the ducting.
The manufacturer shall specify minimum and maximum overpressure in service and maximum leakage rate at the maximum overpressure.
In Zone 1, the purging of the enclosure which is being protected is compulsory, it cannot be omitted in any circumstances.
In Zone 2, if the atmosphere within enclosure and associated ducting is well below the LEL (25% LEL) then purging may be omitted.
Additionally gas detectors may be used to check whether the gas in pressurized enclosure is flammable.
Dust Environment (Zone 21/Zone 22) purging is not required, the dust if present is cleaned manually & enclosure is directly pressurized.
Purging is required where hazard is due to presence of flammable gases/vapors, but where hazard is due to dust purging is not required

The protective gas used for purging, pressurization, dilution shall be non-combustible and non-toxic.
It shall also be substantially free from moisture, oil, dust, fibres, combustibles and other contaminating material that may be dangerous or
affect the satisfactory operation and integrity of the apparatus. It will usually be air although an inert gas may also be used.
The protective gas shall not contain more oxygen by volume than that normally present in air (21%). Where air is used as protective gas,
the source shall be located in non-hazardous area and usually in such a position as to reduce the risk of contamination in air it is sucking.
Consideration shall be given to the effect of nearby structures on air movement, changes in the prevailing wind direction and velocity.
The temperature of the protective gas should not normally exceed 40 "C at the inlet of enclosure. (In special cases, a higher temperature
may be permitted or a lower temperature may be required, in which case the temperature will be marked on the pressurized enclosure.)

Purging in an enclosure is the technique of passing a quantity of protective gas through enclosure and ducts, so that the concentration of
the explosive gas atmosphere is brought to a safe level. (below 25%LEL)
Purging is the process of supplying compressed air or inert gas at proper flow rate and pressure in order to reduce the concentration of
hazardous gases inside the enclosure to a safe level.

Pressurization in an enclosure is the technique of guarding against the ingress of external atmosphere into an enclosure or room by
maintaining a protective gas inside at a pressure above that of the external atmosphere. (0.5mbar above the external atmosphere)
Pressurization is the process of supplying compressed air or inert gas within an enclosure to a pressure where there is no ingress of
external hazardous atmosphere.

Dilution in an enclosure is the technique of continuous supply of a protective gas, after purging, at such a rate that the concentration of a
flammable substance inside the pressurized enclosure is maintained at a value outside the explosive limits at any potential ignition source
Dilution is the process of supplying protective gas which continuously removes or dissipates flammable gases inside protected enclosure
Dilution may require the use of nitrogen to blanket the enclosure. Otherwise a higher flow of instrument air will likely be required.

Unpurged areas should be eliminated by proper location of protective gas supply inlet and outlet connections and by consideration the effect of partitions.
For gases or vapours that are heavier than air the inlet for protective gas should be near the top of enclosure and outlet near the bottom of the enclosure.
For gases or vapours that are lighter than air the inlet for protective gas should be near the bottom of enclosure and outlet near the top of the enclosure.
Locating inlets and outlets at opposite sides of the enclosure promotes cross ventilation.
Internal partitions (e.g. circuit boards) should be located in such a way that the flow of protective gas is not obstructed. The use of a manifold or baffles can
also improve the flow around obstructions.
Protection by pressurization is divided into 3 types (px, py, pz) which are selected based upon external explosive atmosphere (Zone1/2),
whether there is potential for internal release of hazardous material,whether the apparatus within pressurized enclosure is ignition-capable.
The protection type then defines design criteria for the pressurized enclosure and the pressurization system.

px - pressurization that reduces classification within pressurized enclosure from zone 1 to non-hazardous.
py - pressurization that reduces classification within the pressurized enclosure from zone 1 to zone 2.(Devices shall be suitable for Zone 2)
pz - pressurization that reduces classification within pressurized enclosure from zone 2 to non-hazardous.

External Zone Flammable substance is present Enclosure contains Enclosure does not contain
classification inside the enclosure ignition-capable apparatus ignition-capable apparatus
1 NO Type px Type py
2 NO Type pz No pressurization required
1 Gas/vapour Type px Type py
2 Gas/vapour Type px Type py
1 Liquid Type px (inert) Type py
2 Liquid Type pz (inert) No pressurization required*
* Protection by pressurization is not required since it is considered unlikely that a fault causing a release of liquid
will simultaneously occur with a fault in the equipment that would provide an ignition source.
The protective gas shall be inert if "(inert)" is shown after the pressurization type

In px type
a) when the minimum flow rate of protective gas is achieved and overpressure is within specified limits, the purge timer can be started.
b) after expiry of the time, the electrical apparatus is then available to be energised;
c) if there is a loss in overpressure, the power shall be automatically disconnected, audio and visual alarms shall be raised.
d) a pressurized enclosure that contains hot parts requiring a cool-down period shall not open readily without the use of a key or tool.

In py type
a) when the minimum flow rate of protective gas is achieved and overpressure is within specified limits, the purge timer can be started.
b) after expiry of the time, the electrical apparatus is then available to be energised and shall be suitable for use in Zone 2.
c) if there is a loss in overpressure, the power need not to be disconnected, but audio and visual alarms shall be raised.
d) a pressurized enclosure that contains hot parts requiring a cool-down period shall not open readily without the use of a key or tool.

In pz type
a) when the minimum flow rate of protective gas is achieved and overpressure is within specified limits, the purge timer can be started.
b) after expiry of the time, the electrical apparatus is then available to be energised.
c) if there is a loss in overpressure, the power need not to be disconnected, but audio and visual alarms shall be raised.
d) a pressurized enclosure that contains hot parts requiring a cool-down period shall not open readily without the use of a key or tool.

* For px and py, manufacturer shall specify the minimum purge flow and time to satisfy the test. The minimum purge flow and time may be
based upon five-enclosure-volume purge if the testing station determines that such a purge is adequate. ( >5 enclosure volume changes)
* For pz, manufacturer shall specify the minimum purge flow and time to ensure that enclosure is atleast purged by five enclosure volumes
of protected gas. The quantity of protective gas may be lower if effective purging is demonstrated by test. (<5 enclosure volume changes)
* The purging flow rate shall be monitored at the outlet of the pressurized enclosure.
For px actual flow shall be monitored. For py, pz, flow may be deduced, example from the enclosure pressure or a defined orifice at outlet.

PROTECTING MULTIPLE ENCLOSURES FROM SINGLE SOURCE

Protected enclosures should be connected from the smallest to largest enclosure in series.
Connections should be sized to allow proper operation of the pressurization system.
Conduit or wireways may be utilized as protected enclosures or as connections between protected enclosures.
All pressurized conduit and wireways should be sized to allow proper protective gas flow through the protected enclosures
Purging is defined as a process of supplying a flow of clean air or an inert gas to the inside of an enclosure to reduce hazardous internal
airborne impurities to an acceptable safe level. The flow must provide the enclosure interior with a positive pressure greater than the
ambient pressure to be sufficient to take the hazardous elements out of the enclosure to this acceptable level. Standards require the
internal air volume to be changed four times every for enclosures and ten times per hour for motors. During the purging process a
minimum positive pressure of 0.25 mbar for flammable gases/vapors area and 1.25 mbar for combustible dust area must be maintained.
Pressurization is defined as process of supplying a flow of clean air or inert gas to the inside of enclosure to increase internal air pressure
above external atmosphere pressure thus preventing entrance of hazardous elements into enclosure. Although it is very similar to purging,
pressurization is not used to clean out impurities or hazardous gases that may exist inside enclosure. (usually a overpressure of 0.5 mbar)

The Concept of Purge/Pressurization

The concept of purge/pressurization allows the use of standard NEMA 4/12 enclosures in a hazardous locations. Purge/Pressurization
equipment must be attached to enclosure supplying a flow of clean air or an inert gas to maintain a positive pressure inside the enclosures
and to reduce the internal concentration of hazardous material and gases to a safe level.
The process starts by purging the interior of enclosure to remove hazardous impurities (gases) to the acceptable levels of concentration.
Once these levels are met, the process changes to that of pressurization. This change does not lead to a break in flow of air or inert gas
because it would be then be possible for hazardous contaminants to enter/re-enter the enclosure possibly leading to unacceptable levels.
Pressurization now keeps the pressure inside the enclosure constant and above the ambient pressure so that the lower pressure that is
external hazardous atmosphere cannot penetrate the enclosure.

Purge/Pressurization types
In some cases Purging of the enclosures before pressurization is not required.
For Class I, purging is required to remove flammable gases and vapors from the enclosure interior.
For Class II, purging is not required, although combustible dusts must be manually removed before starting pressurization.

There are 3 types of pressurization:

• Type X – Reduces classification within the enclosure from Zone 1 to non-hazardous.
• Type Y – Reduces classification within the enclosure from Zone 1 to Zone 2. (Devices shall be suitable for Zone 2)
• Type Z – Reduces classification within the enclosure from Zone 2 to non-hazardous.

Type X purge/pressurization
This type of pressurization is defined to reduce classification within enclosure from Zone 1 to non-hazardous.
The internal equipment can be rated for general-purpose, non-hazardous locations.
The purge/pressurization system and the electrical power source must be interlocked since a power failure to the pressure system and not
the internal equipment could result in an explosion due to the continuous presence of a hazardous atmosphere in zone 1 areas.
The internal pressure must be maintained at 0.25 or 1.25 mbar, depending on whether the external hazardous atmosphere is Class I or II.

Type Y purge/pressurization
This type of pressurization is defined to reduce classification within the enclosure from zone 1 to zone 2.
All internal protected equipment must be rated for zone 2.
The interlock between power system and pressurization system is optional, but there is audible and visual alarms to notify low pressure.
The internal pressure must be maintained at 0.25 or 1.25 mbar, depending on whether the external hazardous atmosphere is Class I or II.

Type Z purge/pressurization
This type of pressurization is defined to reduce classification within the enclosure from zone 2 to non-hazardous.
The internal equipment can be rated for general-purpose, non-hazardous locations.
The interlock between power system and pressurization system is optional, but there is audible and visual alarms to notify low pressure.
The internal pressure must be maintained at 0.25 or 1.25 mbar, depending on whether the external hazardous atmosphere is Class I or II.

Differences between X, Y, Z
For Type X and Z the internal equipment can be rated as general purpose equipment, but for Type Y zone 2 rated equipment is required.
Purging time for Type Y and Z is based on inlet airflow rate to enclosure. Type X purging time is based on outlet airflow rate to enclosure.
The removal of power to enclosure is not required on loss of pressure for Type Y and Z systems. In Type X power disconnect is required..
In principle it can be said that Type Y and Z systems are cheaper than Type X systems.
HAZARDOUS AREA
National Electric Code (American) IEC-International Electro-Technical Commission (European)
Class I : Locations containing Flammable Gases or Vapors
Class II : Locations containing Combustible Dusts
Class III : Locations containing Ignitable Fiber or flying

Division/Zone Designations
Division/Zone identifies the likelihood of hazardous atmosphere being present.
Division Method Zone Method Zone Method
(North America) IEC Standard IEC Standard

Ignitable mixture present continuously (long periods or permanent) Division 1 Zone 0 (Gas) Zone 20 ( Dust )
More than 1000 Hours/year , Continuous source of release

Ignitable mixture present during normal operation (Occasionally) Division 1 Zone 1 (Gas) Zone 21 ( Dust )
Between 1000 Hours/year-10 hours/year , Primary source of release

Ignitable mixture is not normally present (Short Duration) Division 2 Zone 2 (Gas) Zone 22 ( Dust )
Less than 10 Hours/year , Secondary source of release

Gas Groups/Dust Groups

Hazardous locations are grouped according to their ignition properties that is (Minimum Ignition Energy) & (MESG)
NEC-National Electric Code (American) IEC-International Electro-Technical Commission (European)
GROUP I - Mining Applications (Methane)
GROUP II - Industrial Applications (Other Than METHANE)

IIC MSEG < 0.5mm

IIB MSEG 0.5mm – 0.9mm

IIA MSEG > 0.9mm

TEMPERATURE Maximum Surface Temperature of the Apparatus (°C) Ignition Temperature of Flammable materials (°C)

T1 450 > 450

T2 300 > 300
T3 200 > 200
T4 135 > 135
T5 100 > 100
T6 85 > 85
The Maximum Temperature of the Apparatus should always be LESS than the Ignition temperature of gas

ZONE 0 ZONE 1 ZONE 2

Intrinsic Safety : Ex ia Intrinsic Safety : Ex ib Non-Incendive : Ex n
Flameproof : Ex d
Increased Safety: Ex e
Pressurization : Ex p
Powder Filling : Ex q
Oil Immersion : Ex o
Encapsulation : Ex m
Pressurization : Ex p
Powder Filling : Ex q
Oil Immersion : Ex o
Encapsulation : Ex m
SAFETY VALVES

RELIEF VALVES
Introduction
As soon as mankind was able to boil water to create steam, the necessity of the safety device became evident.
As long as 2000 years ago, the Chinese were using cauldrons with hinged lids to allow (relatively) safer production of steam.
At beginning of 14th century, chemists used conical plugs and later, compressed springs to act as safety devices on pressurised vessels.
Early 19th century, boiler explosions frequently resulted from faulty safety devices, which led to development of first safety relief valves.

The principle device used to prevent overpressure in plant is safety relief valve. The safety valve operates by releasing a volume of fluid
from within plant when predetermined maximum pressure is reached (setpoint), thereby reducing the excess pressure in a safe manner.
As the safety valve may be the only remaining device to prevent catastrophic failure under overpressure conditions, it is important that
any such device is capable of operating at all times and under all possible conditions.

Safety valves should be installed wherever maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) of a system or pressure-containing vessel may be exceeded.
In steam systems, safety valves are used for boiler overpressure protection and other applications such as pressure reducing controls.
Although their primary role is for safety, safety valves are used in process operations to prevent product damage due to excess pressure.
Pressure excess can be generated in a number of different situations, including:

• An imbalance of fluid flowrate caused by inadvertently closed or opened isolation valves on a process vessel.
• Failure of a cooling system, which allows vapour or fluid to expand.
• Compressed air or electrical power failure to control instrumentation.
• Exposure to plant fires.
• Ambient temperature changes.

The terms 'safety valve' and 'safety relief valve' are generic terms to describe many varieties of pressure relief devices that are designed
to prevent excessive internal fluid pressure build-up. A wide range of different valves is available for many different applications.

There are several notable differences between the terminology used in the Europe and USA.
One of the differences is that a valve referred as 'safety valve' in Europe is referred as 'safety relief valve' or 'pressure relief valve' in USA
In addition, the term 'safety valve' in the USA generally refers specifically to the full-lift type of safety valve used in Europe.

If Constant Back Pressure is less than 10% of Set Pressure – Conventional Safety Valve
If Constant Back Pressure is more than 10% but less than 50% of Set Pressure-Balanced Safety Valve
If Constant Back Pressure is more than 50% of Set Pressure – Pilot Safety Valve
If Variable Back Pressure is less than 50% of Set Pressure – Balanced Safety Valve
If Variable Back Pressure is more than 50% of Set Pressure – Pilot Safety Valve
If Operating Pressure is more than 90% of Set Pressure – Pilot Safety Valve

The ASME / ANSI PTC25.3 standards applicable to the USA define the following generic terms:
Pressure Relief Valve - A spring-loaded pressure relief valve which is designed to open to relieve excess pressure and to reclose and prevent the
further flow of fluid after normal conditions have been restored.
It is characterized by rapid-opening 'pop' action or by opening in manner generally proportional to increase in pressure over the opening pressure.
It may be used for either compressible fuids (gases) or incompressible fluids (liquids), depending on design or application.
This is a general term which includes safety valves, relief valves and safety relief valves.

Safety Valve - A pressure relief valve actuated by inlet static pressure and characterized by rapid opening or pop action.
Safety valves are primarily used with compressible gases and in particular for steam and air services. However, they can also be used for process type
applications where they may be needed to protect the plant or to prevent spoilage of the product being processed.

Relief Valve - A pressure relief device actuated by inlet static pressure having a gradual lift generally proportional to the
increase in pressure over opening pressure. Relief valves are commonly used in liquid systems, especially for lower capacities.
They can also be used on pumped systems as pressure overspill devices.

Safety Relief Valve - A pressure relief valve characterized by rapid opening / pop action or by opening in proportion to the
increase in pressure over the opening pressure, depending on the application & which may be used either for compressible
fluid (gases) or incompressible fluid (liquid).
In general, the safety relief valve will perform as safety valve when used in a compressible gas system, but it will open in proportion to overpressure
when used in liquid systems, as would a relief valve.

The European standards (BS 6759 and DIN 3320) provide the following definition:
Safety Valve - A valve which automatically, without the assistance of any energy other than that of fluid concerned, discharges a certified amount
of the fluid so as to prevent a predetermined safe pressure being exceeded and which is designed to re-close and prevent the further flow of fluid
after normal pressure conditions of service have been restored.
Safety Valve Design
Although the principal elements of a conventional safety valve in USA or Europe are similar, the design details can vary considerably.
In general DIN style valves (commonly used throughout Europe) tend to use simpler construction with a fixed skirt (or hood) arrangement
whereas the ASME style valves common in the USA have a more complex design that includes one or two adjustable blowdown rings.
The position of these rings can be used to fine-tune the overpressure and blowdown values of the valve.

For a given orifice area, there may be a number of different inlet / outlet connection sizes, as well as different body dimensions such as
centreline to face dimensions. Furthermore, products of European origin have differing dimensions and capacities for same nominal size.
Orifice area are referred by a letter. It is common for valves with same orifice letter to have different sizes of inlet and outlet connection.
For example, 2" x J x 3" and 3" x J x 4" are both valves which have the same orifice size ('J), but they have differing inlet and outlet sizes
as shown before and after the orifice letter respectively. A 2" x J x 3" valve would have a 2" inlet, a 'J' size orifice and a 3" outlet.

The basic spring loaded safety valve referred to as 'conventional' is simple, reliable, self-acting device providing overpressure protection.
The basic elements consist of a right angle pattern valve body with valve inlet connection, mounted on the pressure-containing system.
The outlet connection may be screwed or flanged for connection to a piped discharge system normally through the flaring network
However in compressed air systems, the safety valve will not have an outlet connection and fluid is vented directly to the atmosphere.

The valve inlet (or approach channel) can be either a full-nozzle or a semi-nozzle type.
A full-nozzle design has entire 'wetted' inlet tract formed from one piece. The approach channel is the only part of safety valve that is
exposed to process fluid during normal operation, other than the disc, unless the valve is discharging.
Full-nozzles are usually used in safety valves designed for process and high pressure applications, especially when fluid is corrosive.
A semi-nozzle design consists of a seating ring fitted into the body, the top of which forms the seat of valve, used in non-corrosive apps.
The advantage of this arrangement is that the seat can easily be replaced, without replacing the whole inlet.

The disc is held against the nozzle seat (under normal operating conditions) by the spring, which is housed in an open or closed spring
housing arrangement (or bonnet) mounted on top of the body.
The discs used in rapid opening (pop type) safety valves are surrounded by a shroud, disc holder or huddling chamber which helps to
produce the rapid opening characteristic.
The closing force on disc is provided by a spring. The amount of compression on spring is usually adjustable, using the spring adjuster,
to alter the pressure at which the disc is lifted off its seat.
Standards that govern design and use of safety valves generally define 3 dimensions that relate to the discharge capacity of safety valve,
namely the flow area (or bore), the curtain area, the discharge area (or orifice)

1. Flow area - The minimum cross-sectional area between the inlet and the seat, at its narrowest point.
The diameter of the flow area is represented by dimension ’d’

2. Curtain area - The area of the cylindrical or conical discharge opening between the seating surfaces created by the lift of the disk above the seat
The diameter of the curtain area is represented by dimension 'd1'

3. Discharge area - This is the lesser of the curtain and flow areas, which determines the flow through the valve.

Valves in which flow area and not curtain area determine the capacity are known as full lift valves.
These valves will have a greater capacity than low lift or high lift valves.
Lifting and Overpressure
When the inlet static pressure rises above the set pressure of the safety valve, the disc will begin to lift off its seat.
However as soon as spring starts to compress, the spring force will increase; this means that the pressure would have to continue to rise
before any further lift can occur and for there to be any significant flow through the valve.
The additional pressure rise required before the safety valve will discharge at its rated capacity is called the overpressure.
The allowable overpressure depends on the standards being followed and the particular application.
For compressible fluids (Gases), this is normally between 3% and 10%, and for liquids between 10% and 25%.
In order to achieve full opening from this small overpressure, the disc arrangement has to be specially designed to provide rapid opening.
It is done by placing shroud, skirt or hood around disc. The volume contained within this shroud is known as control or huddling chamber.

As lift begins and fluid enters the chamber, a larger area of the shroud is exposed to fluid pressure. Since magnitude of lifting force (F)
is proportional to the product of the pressure (P) and the area exposed to the fluid (A); (F = P x A), the opening force is increased.
This incremental increase in opening force overcompensates for the increase in spring force, causing rapid opening. At the same time,
the shroud reverses the direction of the flow which provides a reaction force, further enhancing the lift.

These combined effects allow the valve to achieve its designed lift within a relatively small percentage overpressure.
For compressible fluids, an additional factor is the rapid expansion as the fluid volume increases from a higher to a lower pressure area.
This plays a major role in ensuring that the valve opens fully within the small overpressure limit.
For liquids, this effect is more proportional and subsequently the overpressure is typically greater (25% is common).

Reseating and Blowdown

Once normal operating conditions are restored, the valve is required to close again, but since larger area of disc is still exposed to fluid,
valve will not close until pressure has dropped below original set pressure. The difference between set pressure and reseating pressure
is known as the 'blowdown', and it is usually specified as a percentage of the set pressure.
For compressible fluids(Gases) the blowdown is usually less than 10%, and for uncompressible fluids (liquids) it can be up to 20%.

The design of shroud must be such that it offers both rapid opening and relatively small blowdown,
so that as soon as potentially hazardous situation is reached, any overpressure is relieved, but excessive quantity of fluids are prevented
from being discharged. It is also necessary to ensure that system pressure is reduced sufficiently to prevent immediate reopening.

The blowdown rings found on most ASME safety valves are used to make fine adjustments to overpressure & blowdown values of valve
The lower blowdown (nozzle) ring is a common feature on many valves where tighter overpressure and blowdown requirements require
a more sophisticated designed solution. The upper blowdown ring is usually factory set, essentially takes out manufacturing tolerances
which affect the geometry of the huddling chamber.

Lower blowdown ring is also factory set to achieve appropriate code performance requirement but under certain circumstances is altered
When the lower blowdown ring is adjusted to its top position the huddling chamber volume is such that the valve will pop rapidly,
minimizing the overpressure value but correspondingly requiring a greater blowdown before the valve re-seats.
When lower blowdown ring is adjusted to its lower position there is minimal restriction in huddling chamber and a greater overpressure
will be required before the valve is fully open but the blowdown value will be reduced.
For steam boiler applications there are very specific requirements for safety valve performance, demanded by national standards and
insurance companies. Approval by an independent authority is often necessary such as British Engine, TÜV or Lloyd's Register.

Safety valves used in Europe are also subject to the standards associated with the Pressure Equipment Directive (PED). Being classified
as 'Safety accessories', safety valves are considered as 'Category 4' equipment, which require the most demanding level of assessment
within the PED regime. This can usually be met by the manufacturer having an ISO 9000 quality system and the safety valve design and
performance certified by an officially recognised approval authority referred to as a 'Notified Body'.

TYPES OF SAFETY VALVES

There are wide range of safety valves available to meet different applications and performance criteria demanded by different industries.
Furthermore, national standards define many varying types of safety valve.

The ASME I standard for boiler & ASME VIII standard for pressure vessel applications and ASME/ANSI PTC 25.3 for safety valves or relief valves
provides following definition. AMERICAN These standards set performance characteristics as well as defining the different types of safety valves:

ASME I valve - A safety relief valve conforming to the requirements of Section I of the ASME pressure vessel code for boiler applications which will
open within 3% overpressure and close within 4% blowdown.
It has two blowdown rings and identified by a National Board 'V' stamp. (STEAM GENERATION BOILERS)

ASME VIII valve - A safety relief valve conforming to requirements of Section VIII of the ASME pressure vessel code for pressure vessel applications
which will open within 10% overpressure and close within 7% blowdown. Identified by a National Board 'UV' stamp. (PRESSURE VESSELS)

Conventional Safety Relief Valve - The spring housing is vented to the discharge side, hence operational characteristics are directly affected by
changes in the backpressure to the valve.

Balanced Safety Relief Valve - A balanced valve incorporates means of minimizing the effect of backpressure on operational characteristics of valve.

Pilot operated Pressure Relief Valve - The major relieving device is combined with and is controlled by self-actuated auxiliary pressure relief device.

Power-Actuated Safety Relief Valve - A pressure relief valve in which major pressure relieving device is combined with, and controlled by a device
requiring an external source of energy.

Low Lift Safety Valve - The actual position of the disc determines the discharge area of the valve.
Full Lift Safety Valve - The discharge area is not determined by the position of the disc.
Full Bore Safety Valve - A safety valve having no protrusions in the bore, and wherein the valve lifts to an extent sufficient for the minimum area at
any section, at or below the seat, to become the controlling orifice.

The following types of safety valve are defined in DIN 3320 standard, which relates to safety valves sold in Germany and other parts of Europe:

Standard Safety Valve - A valve which following opening reaches the degree of lift necessary for the mass flowrate to be discharged within a
pressure rise of not more than 10% (overpressure). The valve is characterized by a pop type action and is sometimes known as high lift.

Full Lift (Vollhub) Safety Valve - A safety valve which after commencement of lift, opens rapidly within a 5% pressure rise up to the full lift as limited
by the design. The amount of lift up to the rapid opening (proportional range) shall not be more than 20%.

Proportional Safety Valve - A safety valve which opens more or less steadily in relation to the increase in pressure. Sudden opening within a 10% lift
range will not occur without pressure increase. Following opening within a pressure of not more than 10%, these safety valves achieve the lift
necessary for the mass flow to be discharged.

Direct Loaded Safety Valve - A safety valve in which opening force underneath valve disc is opposed by a closing force such as a spring or a weight.

Diaphragm Safety Valve - A direct loaded safety valve wherein linear moving and rotating elements and springs are protected against the effects of
the fluid by a diaphragm.

Bellows Safety Valve - A direct loaded safety valve wherein sliding and (partially or fully) rotating elements and springs are protected against the
effects of the fluids by a bellows. The bellows may be of such a design that it compensates for influences of backpressure.

Controlled Safety Valve - Consists of main valve and a control device. It also includes direct acting safety valves with supplementary loading in which,
until the set pressure is reached, an additional force increases the closing force.
EN ISO 4126 lists the following definitions of types of safety valve:
Safety Valve - A safety valve which automatically, without the assistance of any energy other than that of the fluid concerned, discharges a quantity
of the fluid so as to prevent a predetermined safe pressure being exceeded, and which is designed to re-close and prevent further flow of fluid after
normal pressure conditions of service have been restored. Note; the valve can be characterized either by pop action (rapid opening) or by opening in
proportion (not necessarily linear) to the increase in pressure over the set pressure.
Direct Loaded Safety Valve - A safety valve in which the loading due to the fluid pressure underneath the valve disc is opposed only by a direct
mechanical loading device such as a weight, lever and weight, or a spring.
Assisted Safety Valve - A safety valve which by means of a powered assistance mechanism, may additionally be lifted at a pressure lower than the
set pressure and will, even in the event of a failure of assistance mechanism, comply with all the requirements for safety valves given in standard.
Supplementary Loaded Safety Valve - A safety valve that has, until the pressure at the inlet to the safety valve reaches the set pressure, an
additional force, which increases the sealing force. Note; this additional force (supplementary load), which may be provided by means of an
extraneous power source, is reliably released when the pressure at the inlet of the safety valve reaches the set pressure.
The amount of supplementary loading is so arranged that if such supplementary loading is not released, the safety valve will attain its certified
discharge capacity at a pressure not greater than 1.1 times the maximum allowable pressure of the equipment to be protected.
Pilot operated Safety Valve - A safety valve, the operation of which is initiated and controlled by the fluid discharged from a pilot valve, which is
itself, a direct loaded safety valve subject to the requirement of the standard.

Codes and Standards

Standards relevant to safety valves vary quite considerably in format around the world, and many are sections within codes relevant to
Boilers or Pressure Containing Vessels. Some will only outline performance requirements, tolerances and essential constructional detail,
but give no guidance on dimensions, orifice sizes etc. Others will be related to installation and application. It is quite common within
many markets to use several in conjunction with each other.
Safety Valve options and accessories
Seating material
A key option is type of seating material used. Metal-to-metal seats are normally used for high temperature applications such as steam.
Alternatively, resilient seats can be fixed to seating surfaces where a tighter shut-off is required, typically for gas or liquid applications.
These elastomer inserts can be made from a number of different materials, but Viton, nitrile or EPDM, PTFE are the most common.
Soft seal inserts are not generally recommended for steam use or high temperature applications.

Levers
Lifting Levers are generally used for utility services – Air, Water, Steam
Standard safety valves are generally fitted with an easing lever, which enables the valve to be lifted manually in order to ensure that it is
operational at pressures in excess of 75% of set pressure. It is done as part of routine checks or during maintenance to prevent seizing.
The fitting of a lever is usually a requirement of national standards and many insurance companies for steam, hot water, air applications.
For example, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code states that pressure relief valves must be fitted with a lever if they are to be used
on air, water over 60°C, and steam (levers are generally used for utility services)
A standard or open lever is simplest type of lever available. It is typically used on applications where a small amount of leakage of fluids
to the atmosphere is acceptable, such as on steam and air systems. (see Figure (a))
Where it is not acceptable for the media to escape, a packed lever must be used. This uses a packed gland seal to ensure that the fluid
is contained within the cap. (see Figure (b))

For service where a lever is not required, a cap can be used to simply protect the adjustment screw. If used in conjunction with a gasket,
it can be used to prevent emissions to the atmosphere.

A test gag may be used to prevent the valve from opening at the set pressure during hydraulic testing when commissioning a system.
Once tested, the gag screw is removed and replaced with a short blanking plug before the valve is placed in service.
Open Bonnets and Closed Bonnets
Unless bellows or diaphragm sealing is used, the process fluid will enter the spring housing (or bonnet).
The amount of fluid that enters the bonnet, depends on the design of safety valve. If emission of this fluid into atmosphere is acceptable,
the spring housing may be vented to the atmosphere - an open bonnet. This is usually advantageous when the safety valve is used on
high temperature fluids or for boiler applications as otherwise, high temperatures can relax the spring, altering set pressure of the valve.
However, using an open bonnet exposes the valve spring and internals to environmental conditions, which can lead to damage and
corrosion of the spring.

When the fluid must be completely contained by the safety valve (and the discharge system), it is necessary to use a closed bonnet,
which is not vented to the atmosphere. This type of spring enclosure is almost universally used for small screwed valves and it is
becoming increasingly common on many valve ranges (particularly on steam) discharge of the fluid could be hazardous to personnel.

Bellows and Diaphragm Sealing

Safety Valves commonly those used for water applications, incorporate a flexible diaphragm or bellows to isolate the safety valve spring
and upper chamber from the process fluid.

An elastomer bellows or diaphragm is commonly used in hot water or heating applications, whereas a stainless steel one would be use
on process applications employing hazardous fluids.

SAFETY VALVES SELECTION

As there is such a wide range of safety valves, there is no difficulty in selecting a safety valve that meets specific requirements of a given application.
Once a suitable type has been selected, it is imperative that correct relieving pressure and discharge capacity are established and suitably sized valve
and set pressure is specified.

The selection of a specific type of safety valve is governed by several factors:

Cost - This is the most obvious consideration when selecting a safety valve for a non-critical application. When making cost comparisons, it is
imperative to consider the capacity of valve as well as nominal size. As mentioned in previous tutorial, there can be large variations between models
with the same inlet connection but with varying lift characteristics.
Type of disposal system - Valves with an open bonnet can be used on steam, air or non-toxic gas, if discharge to the atmosphere, other than through
the discharge system is acceptable. A lifting lever is often specified in these applications.
For gas or liquid applications, where escape to the atmosphere is not permitted, a closed bonnet must be specified. In such applications, it is also
necessary to use either a closed/gas tight cap or packed lever.

For applications with a significant superimposed backpressure (typically in process industry) a balancing bellows or piston construction is required.

• Valve construction - A semi-nozzle type construction should be used for non-toxic, non-corrosive media at moderate pressures (utilities),
whereas valves with full nozzle type construction are typically used in process industry for corrosive media or for extremely high pressures.
For corrosive fluids or high temperatures, special materials of construction may also be required.
• Operating characteristics - Performance requirements vary according to application and the safety valve must be selected accordingly.
For steam boiler applications, a small overpressure is required usually 3% or 5%. For most other applications 10% overpressure is required,
but according to API 520 for special applications such as fire protection, larger valves with overpressures of 20% are also allowed.
For liquids, overpressures of 10% or 25% are common and blowdown values tend to be up to 20%.
• Approval - For many valve applications, the end user will state the required code or standard for construction and performance of valve.
This is usually accompanied by requirement for approval by an independent authority, to guarantee conformance with required standard.
 NOZZLE ORIFICE AREAS

Size Designation Orifice Area , in2 Standard Size

D 0.110 1 X 2

E 0.196 1 X 2

F 0.307 1.5 X 3

G 0.503 1.5 X 3

H 0.785 1.5 X 3

J 1.280 2 X 3

K 1.840 3 X 4

L 2.850 3 X 4

M 3.600 4 X 6

N 4.340 4 X 6

P 6.380 4 X 6

Q 11.050 6 X 8

R 16.000 6 X 10

T 26.000 8 X 10
FLARING
 Pressure Relief System (FLARING)

A primary process system in oil and gas facilities requiring careful attention is the Pressure Relief System.
The most common components in pressure relief systems are:
• Protected Equipment
• Emergency Shut Down Valves
• Blowdown Valves (Depressurization Valves)
• Pressure Safety Valves (PSV)
• Pressure Safety Valves Inlet and Discharge Piping
• Flare Header , Flare KnockOut drum, Flare Stack / Tip
• Flare Knock Out Drum
• Flare Stack / Tip

The primary purpose of pressure relief system is to ensure that operation’s personnel and equipment are protected from overpressure
conditions that may happen during process upsets, power failures and from external fires.
In some locations and facilities, it is accepted practice to vent pressure safety valves directly to atmosphere provided the process fluid is
discharged at sufficient velocity to ensure good dispersion and that the fluids molecular weight is lighter than air.
In this topic we will discuss components of pressure relief system in which detailed engineering calculations must be completed to select
and install properly the components properly.

Pressure Safety Valves

The purpose of pressure safety valve is to protect equipment and piping from any possible overpressure scenario due to process upsets.
There are multiple industry recommended practices and standards that govern the sizing, selection, installation of pressure safety valves.
A study conducted by Berwanger, determined that only 65% of processing facilities pressure safety valves meet the existing standards.
Accurate pressure safety valve relieving requirements, scenario analysis and installation design is critical to ensure safety of equipment
and the operations staff during an upset condition. The American Institute of Chemical Engineering found that 30% of process industry
losses have been found to be partially attributed to deficient pressure relief systems.
If an upset process condition occurs with a system that has a pressure safety valve that is missing, undersized, or not properly installed,
there is a potential that equipment will not be protected and will mechanically fail. This could result in significant loss of fluid containment
and potential fatalities depending upon the fluids contained within the process.

Inlet Piping and Discharge Piping

Another area that requires close attention is the proper design of the inlet piping and discharge piping of the pressure safety valves.
For inlet piping to pressure safety valves, the recommended practice is to maintain the inlet losses at no more than 3% of set pressure.
This is because the pressure relief valve is designed to normally close at 97% of the set pressure.
A PSV with no inlet flow will sense the same pressure as that exists in the protected equipment. Once the pressure safety valve is open,
the pressure at the inlet to the relief will be the pressure at the protected equipment minus friction losses in the inlet line of safety valve.
If this friction loss exceeds 3%, the valve will close and then reopen once the flow stops. This is called chattering can destroy the valve.
Over sizing of a pressure safety valve can also result in “chattering” from essentially the same phenomenon as mentioned above.
There is a potential for safety valve or piping failure from prolonged “chatter’ due to mechanical fatigue and potentially thermal fatigue.
If inlet piping design cannot be configured to meet this requirement, then use of remote sensing pilot pressure safety valve can be used.
This is not preferred due to potential for the sensing line to plug or freeze, hence pilot operated safety valves shall be carefully selected.
Typically, relief valves are mounted directly on equipment. You will often find however, that in existing plants this is not always the case.
Some pressure safety valves may be located remotely with long lengths of inlet lines and the 3% criteria must be carefully checked.
Even with new plant designs, there are times when the piping designer must locate the pressure safety valve remotely.
It is important to always check the inlet line losses by utilizing the piping isometric drawings.

For systems with 600# ratings and above, the valve manufacturer may supply the relief valve with an inlet flange rating of 600# and an
outlet flange rating of 300#. A typical 150# flange rating on PSV discharge piping is not always acceptable for higher pressure systems.
The velocity at the outlet of pressure safety valve can not exceed sonic. Thus for high pressure systems the flow through the relief valve
may require a pressure greater than the maximum pressure rating of a 150# system to maintain sonic flow.
It is important to check the pressure required to maintain sonic velocity, based on the size of the pressure safety valve outlet.
For large system, it is recommended to use flare network software program to predict the backpressure at outlet of pressure safety valve
for various relief scenarios. During a fire scenario, several reliefs may open simultaneously and the backpressure must be known at the
outlet of each relieving pressure safety valve under these circumstances. The piping design for the inlet section and discharge section of
pressure safety valves should be reviewed to determine that the piping can meet the mechanical and thermal stresses that will develop
when the pressure safety valves relieves. Proper valve and discharge piping support design is essential.
Pressure safety valve tail pipes shall be sized based on a maximum Mach Number of 0.7
Flare Header pipe work shall be sized based on a maximum Mach Number of 0.5
Pressure safety valve tail pipes shall generally be at least one line size larger than the pressure safety valve outlet flange.
The pipe shall be well supported of the outlet flange and the maximum velocity should not exceed Mach Number 0.7
Line sizes and pipe thickness shall take into consideration acoustic fatigue effects and where necessary piping will be upgraded to the
higher pressure class and suitability supported / reinforced to prevent mechanical failures due to acoustic induced vibrations.

The Pressure safety valves and other pressure sources routed to atmosphere shall be provided with a 6mm weep hole at lowest point of
discharge piping to facilitate draining of liquid.
Flare Header Design
If pressure safety valve discharges into a flare header the superimposed and built up back pressure is critical and can impact the valves
relieving capacity if the actual back pressure is higher than the originally calculated or assumed back pressure.
The maximum allowable back pressure at which pressure safety valve functions properly depend upon the type of pressure safety valve.
A flare network software program should be used to calculate the backpressure in large relief systems. For most pressure safety valves
the maximum flow that can pass through the orifice size is much larger than the required relieving flow.
The maximum flow must be used to calculate inlet line loss and the resulting backpressure. Modulating pilot safety valves can be used,
if required to control the maximum flow that is required to be relieved.
In the design of flare system, several types of valves are available in API 520-1. Conventional, bellows, pilot valves are typically used.
The valve manufacturer must be consulted to define the maximum flow and backpressure requirements for each type of valve.
The final flare design can not be completed until the actual pressure safety valves have been selected.

Depending upon fluids being relieved & pressures involved, it is possible to have relieve events requiring stainless steel discharge piping,
Flare Header, Flare KO Drum , Flare Stack because of cryogenic relieving temperatures from the Joule-Thompson Effect through the
pressure safety valve. There are cases where carbon steel flare headers have failed due to cryogenic relieving temperatures developed
during relieving events. The failure of flare header undermines purpose of Pressure Relief System and can result in catastrophic event.

Particular attention is required in designing the relief systems for the cryogenic vessels.
The pressure safety valves most likely will be relieving cold (at -20 F or below) two phase fluids.
The pressure safety valve downstream piping will be exposed to very cold temperatures when the valves relieve.
The recommended method for sizing two phase flow valves is by utilizing the DIERS equations.
The calculation procedure is long and tedious but it is recommended to perform hand calculation before utilizing in house spreadsheets.
The couple of hours spent performing the calculation will provide valuable insight to the key parameters involed and used in equations
and will serve as a verification check of a spreadsheet.

There should be no dead legs in any piping from the discharge of the relief valve to the Flare KO Drum. Any pockets or dead legs can fill
with liquids which may result in excess back pressure during relieving events There may also be large reaction forces in the flare header
as a result of the slug of liquids forced down the header

Flare KO Drum and Flare Stack / Tip

Flare KO Drum, Flare Stack sizing is also critical for safety of plant. Oil & Gas Industry Flare are designed to destroy vapor streams only
and require an adequately sized Flare KO Drum to prevent flammable liquids from raining out of the flare tip.
In determining the sizing, it is important that a Flare Study be conducted to determine the worst case scenario for Flare KO Drum and
Stack capacity and to select the proper droplet size separation criteria that the selected flare tip can adequately destroy.

Blowdown valves (Depressurization Valves)

In the gas processing industry, it has become a standard practice to block in the treating facility with Emergency ShutDown (ESD) Valves
rather than depressurize the entire facility to the flare.
One primary reason for this philosophy is that natural gas fires are not equivalent to liquid hydrocarbon pool fires which lasts longer.
Natural gas fire protection, mitigation requires different protection methods than for those used for fighting liquid hydrocarbon pool fires,
which can be extinguished using a fire water system or a foam system.
It is standard natural gas industry practice to isolate the hydrocarbon gas sources to the facility and evacuate all personnel from facility.
Once the source of the gas is isolated, the feed to fire is terminated and the fire is quickly extinguished from lack of fuel.

In case where a facility must be depressurized in an upset condition, careful attention must be given to design of depressurization valves,
their timing and flare capacity. There exists potential to overwhelm the Flare Tip if Tip was not designed for high depressurization rates.
In addition, consideration for required depressurization time, resulting Flare Header temperatures, and depressurization control schemes
must be given close attention. These systems can be highly complex due to the transient nature of the process and generally requires
careful design procedures to ensure a safe Depressurization System.
BALL VALVES
Floating Ball Valve utilizes natural line pressure to press and seal the ball against the downstream seat. The line pressure is exposed to
a greater surface area - the entire upstream face of the ball, which is an area equal to the actual pipe size.
Floating Ball Valve is a valve with its ball floating (not fixed by a trunnion) inside the valve body; it drifts toward to the downstream side
and tightly pushes against the seat under the medium pressure to ensure sealing reliability. The floating ball valve has simple structure,
good sealing performance but the seat material is required to withstand the workload since the sealing pressure is bared by the seat ring.
Due to unavailability of high performance seat material, floating ball valve is used in middle pressure applications.
Floating Ball Valve relies on a differential pressure to shift the ball a few microns into the downstream seat. This takes the ball off of the
upstream seat and allows upstream pressure to fill the ball cavity.
Floating Ball Valve – The ball floats in the space available for it and differential pressure will push the ball into the downstream seat.
This leaves the body cavity pressurized on a shut valve. Floating ball valves works well when there is a definate pressure from one side
of a shut valve to the other. If the direction of the dP changes there will be a time when the ball has to float from one seat to the other and
can pass considerable fluid during that transition.

Trunnion Ball Valve uses a spring mechanism and line pressure assistance to drive the upstream seat ring against the stationary ball.
The surface area exposed to the pressure through the relatively small passageway is actually just the back of the seat.
Trunnion Ball Valve uses springs to push both seats against ball (which is held rigidly against lateral movement by trunnion bearings).
Trunnion Ball Valve: Both seats are spring-loaded to push them against the ball which is held in place by a pair of trunnion bearings.
These valves are good for any dP scenario. When valve is shut,a body bleed can be opened to evacuate trapped fluid from body cavity.

Floating Ball Valve relies on line pressure which pushes the freely floating ball into the downstream seat to seal.
(Here the Ball moves and the Seats are Stationary) It requires more Torque to open the valve.

Trunnion Ball valves relies on the ball which is held rigidly against lateral movement by upper / lower trunnion bearings and generally has
spring-loaded upstream / downstream seats (assisted by fluid line pressure) to push against the ball.
(Here Ball is stationary and spring-loaded Seats moves) It requires less torque to open the valve.

Floating Ball Valves are those in which the seating load is regulated by the fluid pressure acting on the ball.
The permissible operating pressure is limited, by the ability of downstream seat ring to withstand fluid loading at operating temperature
without permanent gross deformation.
The seat rings of the valves are provided with a cantilevered lip, which is designed so that the ball initially contacts only at the tip of lip.
As the upstream and downstream seats are pre-stressed on assembly against the ball, the lips deflect and put the seat rings into torsion.
When valve is being closed against line pressure, the lip of downstream seat deflects until finally the entire seat surface matches the ball.
By using this type of design, the seats have some spring action that promotes good sealing action even at low fluid pressures.
Furthermore, the resilient construction type keeps the seats from being crushed at high fluid loads or high fluid pressures.
The seat rings of the valve are can also be provided with peripheral slots, which are known as pressure-equalizing slots.
These slots reduce the effect of upstream pressure on the total valve torque. This is achieved by letting the upstream pressure filter by
the upstream seat ring into the valve body cavity so that the upstream seat ring becomes pressure balanced.

Trunnion Ball Valves are those in which the fluid pressure forces the spring-loaded seat ring against a trunnion-supported ball.
The floating seat ring is sealed thereby peripherally by an O-ring. Because pressure-uncompensated area of seat ring can be kept small,
the seating loads for a given pressure rating can be regulated to suit the bearing capacity of the seats.
These valves may therefore be used for high fluid pressures or high fluid loads outside the range of floating-ball type ball valves.
The valve also has a device that rotates seat rings by a small amount each time the valve is operated. The purpose of this rotating action
is to evenly distribute the seat wear. Should the seat seal fail a temporary seat seal is provided by injection of a sealant to the seatings.

Floating Ball Valve : The fluid pressure pushes a freely floating ball into the downstream seat.
Trunnion Ball Valve : The fluid pressure pushes a freely floating seat (spring-loaded) into the stationary ball (Ball is held rigidly against
lateral movement by the Trunnion bearings)

BREAKAWAY TORQUE : Torque required to pull the ball out off the seat. This is the highest torque for a quarter-turn device.

RUNNING TORQUE : This torque is the operating torque of the valve after it pulls away from the seat.

SEATING TORQUE : Torque created by forcing the ball into the seat when closing the valve.

END TORQUE : Torque required to overcome the forces on the on-off valves when the valve closes from running condition.

Maximum Actuator Torque : Value of actuator torque at maximum operating pressure

MAST : Maximum allowable shear torque of valve

There are 3 types of ball valves based on the Trim Design
Conventional Ball Valves (Full Bore, Reduced Bore)
Characterized Ball Valves (V-Notch, U-Notch)
Cage Ball Valves

There are 2 types of ball valves based on the Principle of Operation

Floating Ball Valves (Ball is floating and seats are stationary)
Trunnion Ball Valves (Ball is stationary and seats are floating)

There are 3 types of ball valves based on the Body Construction

One-Piece Ball Valve
Two-Piece Ball Valve
Three-Piece Ball Valve

Flow Capacity is 2 to 3 times higher than that of globe valves

GLOBE VALVE (flow capacity ) = 12d2
BALL VALVE – REDUCED BORE (flow capacity ) = 30d2 to 40d2
BALL VALVE – FULL BORE (flow capacity ) = 30d2 to 100d2 (starts from 30d2 and as line size increases, flow capacity increases
for 20 inch line size the flow capacity may reach 100d2)

When Conventional Ball Valves (Full Bore or Reduced Bore) is used for throttling services, there are some points which needs to be considered.
* If we use the valve size same as line size then we may end up with a over-sized valve, Because of higher flow capacity of ball valves
as compared to globe valves which means we have less sensitivity in throttling applications.
If we go by the actual flow capacity required then we may end up with a small valve mounted in large pipes, which will be a wastage of
pump energy due to pressure drop by reducers.
Conventional Ball Valves characteristics have a high-pressure recovery which results in low vena-contracta pressures.
This in turn increases the probability of cavitation and noise.

* Critical flow occurs in Ball Valves if the pressure drop across the valve rises above 15% of the initial Pressure.
Critical flow occurs if > 15%P1

* Linear movement of actuators (spring diaphragm or cylinders) has to be converted into a rotational movement by means of linkages
which introduces hysteresis and dead-play

* Torque characteristics is not linear and because of high break-torque required, the actuator is oversized for throttling applications.

SEATS
Generally Ball Valves have PTFE seats ( soft seats) which provides a seat leakage class VI. PTFE seats can be used upto 180 °C
For higher temperature generally GRAPHITE seats are used. It has more carbon content. Graphite seats can be used upto 400 °C
For still higher temperature generally METAL seats are used, which provide seat leakage class IV. Some metal seat can achieve class V

Fire Safe Design

There are two seats in ball valves
PRIMARY SEAT – PTFE or Graphite
SECONDARY SEAT – Metal seat
During normal operation the primary seat is in contact with the ball providing a seat leakage of class VI
In case there is fire the primary seat gets damaged and then the secondary seat comes in contact with ball which is basically metal seats
providing a seat leakage class IV or class V

The Conventional Ball Valve or Cage Ball Valve have flow characteistics close to Linear.
The Characterized Ball Valve (V-notch or U-notch) has nearly Equal Percentage flow characteristics
BUTTERFLY VALVES
There are 2 types of Butterfly Valves
General Purpose Butterfly Valves (Concentric Butterfly Valves / Resilient Butterfly Valves)
High-Performance Butterfly Valves (Eccentric Butterfly Valves - Single,Double,Tripple)

The valve shaft is off-set against the seat (1st off-set)

The valve shaft is off-set against the centre line of the valve/pipe (2nd off-set).
The seating edges are machined with a continuously changing slope from an angle on top of oval seat ring to an angle at opposite side
(3rd off-set angular).

Offset 1: The shaft is offset behind seat axis to allow complete sealing contact around the entire seat.
Offset 2: The shaft centerline is offset from the pipe and valve which provides interference free opening and closing of the valve.
Offset 3: The third offset in the design is the axis of the seat cone angle that is inclined from the centerline of the valve bore to provide
minimize rubbing of the seat / seal contact surfaces during operation and to preserve sealing integrity over the full life cycle of the valve.
This wide angle seat also eliminates wedging or binding of the disc.

SINGLE ECCENTRIC: The first offset is the stem set away from the disc edge
This allows for a continuous sealing surface uninterrupted by the stem.
DOUBLE ECCENTRIC: The second offset is the stem centerline offset to one side of the valve centerline
This produces a cam-like rotary motion of disc that pulls the disc edge from the seat upon opening. As disc reaches the closed position,
this cam-like offset converts the rotary motion to a linear motion that pushes the disc into seat. The disc edge does not contact the seat
throughout the full range of travel.
TRIPLE ECCENTRIC: The third offset consists of conical seal & seat edges with both cones tilted away from axis of revolution
The offset tilting of the cones facilitates rotary disengagement of the disc from the seat. This cone geometry removes the entire disc edge
from the seat immediately upon opening of disc and engages contact only at closing. All interference between disc and seal is eliminated
 I II III IV

I) Zero Offset (Concentric)

Concentric valve (zero offset). Disc rotates around the centre axis allowing for a potential 360º rotation.
Sealing is achieved by the Disc deforming the soft seal resulting in full friction through the full operating cycle.

III) Double Offset (Eccentric)

To allow displacement of seat, the shaft is offset from centre line of disc seat & body seal (offset one), and centre line of bore (offset two)
This creates a cam action during operation to lift the seat out of the seal resulting in friction during the first 10 degrees of opening and
final 10 degrees of closing.

IV) Triple Offset (Eccentric)

The third offset is the geometry design of the sealing components not the shaft position.
The sealing components are each machined into an offset conical profile resulting in a right angled cone (Figure above)
This ensures friction free stroking throughout its cycle. Contact is only made at final point of closure with 90° angle acting as mechanical stop;
resulting in no over - travel of the disc seat.

Concentric Butterfly Valves are used for utility services (soft seated or rubber lined), Generally disc is permanently in contact with seat.
Eccentric Butterfly Valves (i.e. have an offset) have a cam effect, and hence the disc does not wear on seat through all rotation of disc.
Triple Offset design eliminates all seat wear. Offset designs can be metal seated and zero leakage can be obtained (Tight-Shutoff).
Traditionally butterfly valves were only used for utility services (water etc).
This stigma is slowly being shaken off and now they are giving ball valves a run for there money in other applications.
For utility service (water) a rubber lined concentric would give good performance. A double offset valve would give superior performance,
but is more expensive. Better (performance) still (and with the additional cost implications!) is the triple offset butterfly valves.
Both (Concentric & Eccentric) are for bi-directional flow.
Due to the fact of eccentricity, of the eccentric butterfly valve it has a preferred direction, the force required to open the valve when flow is
in the non-preferred direction is slightly higher. In clean water service they are the most economical valve.
A metal seated valve will last longer and has the potential for less problems than a soft seated or rubber lined valve.
The choice is down to all your required parameters. Butterfly valves are cheaper than gate valves, and can be of wafer type.
It is generally accepted that gate valves are used for isolation (on-off) valves whereas butterfly valves are both throttling and isolation.
Soft seated valves should always be zero leakage, unless the seat is damaged.

Centric / Flat disc / rubber-lined (Concentric) butterfly valves were first developed. Originally conceived to isolate dry granular solids,
they were later found to be useful on liquid streams. They are very simple to make and they are the most inexpensive possible valves.
The rubber (Elastomer) liner performs multiple duties of stem sealing, flange gasket, and process isolation. The Elastomer limits the
temperature and pressure that valves can tolerate. Friction is high because disc never fully breaks away from the Elastomer liner.

High-Performance / Double-offset (Eccentric) butterfly valves move the sealing line of the vane away from the stem.
The sealing point a continuous line, not interrupted by the stem. The stem is then sealed by a conventional packing set instead of just
interference between the liner and shaft. Friction is much lower because the disc breaks completely away from the sealing line (seat) as
soon as the valve moves a couple of degrees. The seal can be made of higher-temperature materials, including flexible metallic designs,
and published limits of Double-offset valves can exceed 1000F. That's why they are called double-offset valves "high performance".
They can handle colder temperatures, or higher temperatures. Centric valves are limited by having an Elastomer liner that can't work if it
gets too cold, melts if it gets too hot. Double-offset valves have lower dynamic torque so they are more suitable for control applications.
BUTTERFLY VALVES
General Purpose Butterfly Valves (Concentric Designs)
High-Performance Butterfly Valves (Eccentric Designs - Single,Double,Tripple)

When concentric design butterfly valves are used for throttling applications, then we can use upto 70° of rotation,
because after 70° rotation the effective or variable orifice disappears into the fixed shaft area profile.
Generally the variable orifice area doesnot change after 70° rotation, because after that the change in area
disappears into the fixed shaft area so there is no net effective change in orifice area after 70° rotation.

SHUT-OFF
Generally there are two methods used for shut-off
A butterfly valve with elastomer or plastic liner. Sometimes the disc is also encapsulated with liner.
High Performance Butterfly Valve (HPBV) which has a cammed disc and a separate seat ring clamped into the body.

Concentric Butterfly Valve require higher torque and the shut-off method generally implies as described above in point 1
Eccentric Butterfly Valves require lesser torque and the shut-off method generally implies as described above in point 2

The Torque Characteristics also indicates that at about 70° rotation to 80° rotation, the torque for both opening and closing maximize and
above this rotation angle the torque falls quickly.
Eccentric Butterfly Valves requires lesser torque as compared to Concentric Butterfly Valve
For Eccentric butterfly valve the torque characteristics is a function of wheather the valve shaft is in upstream or downstream position.
Flow tends to close the valve with shaft upstream
Flow tends to open the valve with shaft downstream
However the dynamic torque required to open the valve is much lower with the shaft in downstream position, (Recommended Position)

COMBINED TORQUE = Unbalanced Torque (Due to fluid acting on valve) + Friction force due to valve packing
The combined torque required to open valve is larger then that required to close valve, because unbalanced torque helps in closing valve
This difference is known as torque hysterises. The torque required for opening the valves is higher for both Ball Valve and Butterfly Valve

Flow Characteristics of butterfly valve are affected by design of shaft (cocentric or eccentric) and relative size of shaft compared to valve.
In high performance butterfly valve, flow characteristic is affected by shaft position wheather shaft is in upstream or downstream position
For throttling purposes the valve is usulally limited to rotate between 0 ° to 60° rotation
Concentric or aligned butterfly valves flow characteristics are close to Quick-Opening while High Performance Butterfly Valves are Linear
CONTROL VALVES
There are valve types which have linear spindle movement and rotary spindle movement.
Linear types - Globe Valves and Gate Valves
Rotary types - Ball Valves, Butterfly Valves, Plug Valves and their variants.

The first choice to be made is between two-port and three-port valves.

Two-port valves 'throttle' (restrict) the fluid passing through them.
Three-port valves can be used to 'mix' or 'divert' the fluid passing through them.

Two-Port Valves
Globe valves
Globe valves are frequently used for control applications because of their suitability for throttling flow and the ease with which
they can be given a specific 'characteristic', relating valve opening to flow.

Two typical globe valve types are shown below. An actuator coupled to the valve spindle would provide valve movement.

Two differently shaped globe valves

The major constituent parts of globe valves are:

• The body.
• The bonnet.
• The valve seat and valve plug, or trim.
• The valve spindle (which connects to the actuator).
• The sealing arrangement between the valve stem and the bonnet.

Unbalanced Single Seat Valve or Conventional Single Seat Valve

Below figures is a diagrammatic representation of single seat two-port globe valve. In this case fluid flow is pushing against the valve plug
and tending to keep the plug off the valve seat.
The difference in pressure upstream (P1) and downstream (P2) against which the valve must close, is known as differential pressure (DP).
The maximum differential pressure against which a valve closes will depend upon the size and type of valve and the actuator operating it.

The force required from the actuator may be determined using Equation below

A = Valve seating area (m²)

DP = Differential pressure (kPa)
F = Closing force required (kN)

If a larger valve, having a larger orifice, is used to pass greater volumes of the medium, then the force that actuator must develop in order
to close the valve also increases. Where large capacities must be passed using large valves or where very high differential pressures exist,
the point will be reached where it becomes impractical to provide sufficient force to close a conventional single seat valve.
In such circumstances, the traditional solution to this problem is the double seat two-port valve.

The double seat valves has two valve plugs on common spindle, with two seats. The valve seats are smaller (since there are two of them)
and also the forces are partially balanced. This means that although the differential pressure is trying to keep the top valve plug off its seat
(as with a single seat valve) it is also trying to push down and close the lower valve plug.

Flow through a double seat, two-port valve Balanced Single Seat valve

However, potential problem exists with any double seat valve. Because of manufacturing tolerances and differing coefficients of
expansion, few double seat valves can be guaranteed to give good shut-off tightness.

Shut-off tightness
Control valve leakage is classified with respect to how much the valve will leak when fully closed.
The leakage rate across a double seat valve is Class III, (a leakage of 0.1% of full flow) which may be too much for certain applications.
Consequently, because the flow paths through the two-ports are different, the forces may not remain in balance when the valve opens.
Various international standards exist that formalise leakage rates. The following leakage rates are from the British Standard BS5793 Part 4
(IEC 60534-4). For an unbalanced standard single seat valve, the leakage rate will normally be Class IV, (0.01% of full flow), although it is
possible to obtain Class V, (1.8 x 10-5 x differential pressure (bar) x seat diameter (mm). Generally, lower the leakage rate more the cost.

Balanced Single Seat Valves

Because of leakage problem associated with double seat valves, when a tight shut-off is required a single seat valve should be specified.
The forces required to shut a single seat globe valve increases with valve size. Some valves are designed with a balancing mechanism to
reduce the closing force necessary, especially on valves operating with large differential pressures.
In a piston-balanced valve, some of the upstream fluid pressure is transmitted via internal pathways into a space above the valve plug,
which acts as pressure balancing chamber. The pressure contained in this chamber provides a downforce on the valve plug as shown,
balancing the upstream pressure and assisting the normal force exerted by the actuator, to close the valve.
Packing
There are always number of options when choosing a packing. For globe valves, these include a choice of spindle gland packing material
and gland packing configurations, which are designed to make the valve suitable for use on higher temperatures or for different fluids.
Some examples of these are seen in the simple schematic diagrams in Figure 6.1.9. It is worth noting that certain types of gland packing
produce a greater friction with the valve spindle than others. For example, traditional stuffing box type of packing will create greater friction
than the PTFE spring-loaded chevron type or bellows sealed type. Greater friction requires higher actuator force.
Spring-loaded packing re-adjusts itself as it wears. This reduces the need for regular manual maintenance.
Bellows sealed valves are the most expensive of these three types, but provide minimal friction with the best stem sealing mechanism.
Bellows sealed valves usually have another set of traditional packing at the top of the valve spindle housing. This will act as a final defence
against any chance of leaking through the spindle to atmosphere.

Fig. 6.1.9 Alternative gland packings

Guiding
Valves also have different ways of guiding the valve plug inside the body. One common guidance method, is the 'double guided' method,
where the spindle is guided at both the top and the bottom of its length.
Another type is the 'guided plug' method where the plug may be guided by a cage or a frame. Some valves can employ perforated plugs,
which combine plug guidance and noise reduction.

Guiding arrangements
CONTROL VALVES
The control valve is a final control element. The control valve manipulates the flowing fluid, to compensate for the load disturbance and
keep the regulated process variable as close as possible to the desired set point.

The most common method for influencing the behavior of a chemical processes is through the flow rate of process streams.
Usually, a variable resistance in closed conduit or pipe is manipulated to influence the flow rate and achieve the desired process behavior.
A valve with a variable opening for flow is the standard equipment used to introduce this variable resistance; the valve is selected because
it is simple, reliable, relatively low cost and available for a wide range of process applications.
In some cases the valve resistance is set by a person adjusting the opening, like a home faucet.
In many cases the valve resistance is determined by an automatic controller, with valve designed to accept and implement the signal sent
from the controller.

There are two methods for adjusting flow:

By manipulating the supply pressure (P1)
By manipulating the flow area (Hence changing flow Coefficient)

Q = Flowrate
Cv = Valve Coefficient
P1 = Upstream Pressure (Supply Pressure)
P2 = Downstream Pressure
SG = Specific Gravity of Fluid

When an incompressible fluid has a high viscosity and/or low velocity, laminar flow may exist.
The Cv above assumed turbulent flow and if flow is laminar, Cv must be multiplied by correction factor (Fr) to obtain actual flow coefficient.
If Viscosity is less than 30cp and Reynolds Number is greater than 40000 this factor may be neglected.

There are two types of valve Coefficient (Cv and Kv)

Cv is the flow coefficient in Imperial Units.

The number of US gallons per minute [gpm] of water at a temperature of15º C, that will pass through a valve with a pressure drop of 1 Psi.
The flow rate in US gallons per minute [gpm] of water at a temperature of 15º C that will pass through a valve with a pressure drop of 1 Psi.

Kv is the flow coefficient in Metric Units.

The flow rate in cubic meters per hour [m3/h] of water at temperature of 5- 40°C that will pass through valve with a pressure drop of 1 bar.

Cv = 1.16 Kv
General “RULE OF THUMB”

A thumb rule, that gives results within 10% for most Single Seated & Double Seated Globe Valves is that Flow Coefficient Cv is 12 times
the square of body size expressed in inches.

Cv = 12 (d)2
Cv = Flow Coefficient ( U.S gpm/psi )
d = Nominal Valve Diameter (Inches)

Many control valves are oversized as a result of inaccurate information and safety margins added by each individual or group that
participates in the sizing procedure.

Oversized valves are a problem for three reasons.

First, the valve operation may become unstable because it never opens very far from the fully closed position. Process gain is generally
high when the valve is throttling near its seat. The combined valve and process gains may be too high to maintain stable operation at low
lifts. Second, excessive seat wear may result from high velocity flows between the closure member and the seating surface. Third, the
design flow characteristic may not be achieved, resulting in controller tuning problems.
INHERENT FLOW CHARACTERISTIC and INSTALLED FLOW CHARACTERISTIC
Inherent Flow Characteristic : The relationship between flow rate and the closure member travel (Valve Plug) as it is moved from the
closed position to rated travel with constant pressure drop across the valve.
Installed Flow Characteristic: The relationship between flow rate and the closure member travel (Valve Plug) as it is moved from the
closed position to rated travel as the pressure drop across the valve is influenced by the varying process conditions.

The relationship between the flow rate and the valve stem position is defined as the valve characteristic.
This relationship with constant pressure drop (design value) is termed as Inherent Characteristic, and the relationship in specific process in
which pressure drop may vary with flow rate is termed as Installed Characteristic.

FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
The flow characteristic of control valve is the relationship between flow rate (in %) and valve travel as the travel is varied from 0% to100%.
Inherent flow characteristic refers to the characteristic observed with a constant pressure drop across the valve.
Installed flow characteristic means the one obtained in service where the pressure drop varies with flow and other changes in the system.

Linear Flow Characteristic

A valve with an ideal linear inherent flow characteristic produces a flow rate which is directly proportional to the amount of valve plug travel,
throughout the travel range.
For instance, at 50% of rated travel, flow rate is 50% of maximum flow and at 80% of rated travel, flow rate is 80% of maximum etc.
Change of flow rate is constant with respect to valve plug travel.
Valves with a linear characteristic are often specified for liquid level control and for flow control applications requiring constant gain.
In linear characteristic the flowrate is directly proportional to the valve lift, at a constant pressure drop.
A linear valve achieves this by having a linear relationship between the valve lift and the orifice pass area.
Flow increases linearly with valve plug travel.

Equal-Percentage Flow Characteristic

Ideally, for equal increments of valve plug travel, the change in flow rate is expressed as a constant percent of flow at the time of change.
Equal increments in valve plug travel , Increases flowrate by a certain percentage of previous flow.
Equal increments in valve plug travel produces equal percentage changes in the existing flow.
Flow increases exponentially with valve plug travel.
The relationship between valve lift and orifice size (and therefore flowrate) is not linear but logarithmic
The change in flow rate observed regarding travel will be relatively small when the valve plug is near its seat and is relatively high when the
valve plug is nearly wide open. Therefore, valve with inherent equal-percentage flow characteristic provides precise throttling control
through the lower portion of the travel range and rapidly increasing capacity as the valve plug nears the wide-open position.
Valves with equal-percentage flow characteristics are used on pressure control applications, on applications where a large percentage of
the pressure drop is normally absorbed by the system itself with only a relatively small percentage available at the control valve and on
applications where highly varying pressure drop conditions can be expected.
In most physical systems, the inlet pressure decreases as the rate of flow increases, and an equal percentage characteristic is appropriate.
Hence equal percentage is the most common valve characteristic.

Quick-Opening Flow Characteristic

A valve with a quick opening flow characteristic provides a maximum change in flow rate at low travels.
The curve is basically linear through the first 40 percent of valve plug travel, and then flattens out noticeably to indicate that there is little
increase in flow rate as travel approaches the wide-open position.
Control valves with quick-opening flow characteristics are used for on/off application where significant flow rate must be established quickly
as the valve begins to open. Consequently, they are often used in relief valve applications.
Quick-opening valves can also be selected for many of the same applications for which linear flow characteristics are recommended,
because the quick-opening characteristic is linear up to about 70 percent of maximum flow rate.
Linearity decreases sharply after flow area generated by valve plug travel equals the flow area of the port.
For a typical quick-opening valve, this occurs when valve plug travel equals one-fourth of port diameter.
1) Calculate the Required Cv at a given differential pressure (Actual Differential Pressure)

2) Calculate the (Maximum Differential Pressure) (Allowable Differential Pressure) (choked Differential Pressure) that
can exist across the control valve.

3) If Actual differential Pressure is LESS than Choked Differential Pressure

The Required Cv calculated in step 1 is OK

3.) If Actual differential Pressure is MORE than Choked Differential Pressure.

Then the Required Cv calculated in step 1 is NOT OK. Because it cannot pass the required flowrate @ actual differential
pressure, as the flow will get CHOKED at choked Differential Pressure which is before the Actual Differential Pressure.

Thus the Required Cv calculated in step 1 should be Revised.

The Revised Cv can be calculated by

Cavitation can occur :
1) If the inlet pressure (P1) is relatively close to the vapor pressure.
2) If the outlet pressure (P2) is relatively close to the vapor pressure.
3) If the actual pressure drop is large when compared to the inlet pressure.

Cavitation can occur in control valves. If the upstream pressure P1 is just above the vapor pressure Pv, then there is a possibility that the
pressure will drop below the vapor pressure as the fluid flows through the valve. If the pressure recovers to a pressure that is once again
above the vapor pressure, then cavitation will occur.

Flashing can occur in control valves. If the upstream pressure P1 is just above the vapor pressure Pv, then there is a possibility that the
pressure will drop below the vapor pressure as fluid flows through valve. If the pressure doesn’t recovers to a pressure that is once again
above the vapor pressure, then flashing will occur.

Boiling occurs when the local vapor pressure of liquid rises above its local ambient pressure and sufficient energy is present to cause the
phase change to a gas. Cavitation inception occurs when the local pressure of liquid falls sufficiently below the saturated vapor pressure,
a value given by the tensile strength of the liquid.
A fluid vaporizes when its pressure becomes too low, or its temperature too high.
Vapor Pressure/Equilibrium Vapor Pressure is pressure of vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases in closed system
All liquids and solids have a tendency to evaporate into gas form & all gases have tendency to condense back to their liquid or solid form.
The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a liquid's evaporation rate. It relates to the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid
(or a solid). A substance with a high vapor pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as volatile.The vapor pressure of any
substance increases non-linearly with temperature according to the Clausius–Clapeyron relation.

The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid (also known as the normal boiling point) is the temperature at which the vapor pressure
of a liquid or solid equals the ambient atmospheric pressure.
With any incremental increase in that temperature, the vapor pressure then becomes sufficient to overcome the atmospheric pressure and
lift the liquid to form vapor bubbles inside the bulk of the substance. Bubble formation deeper in the liquid requires a higher pressure, and
therefore higher temperature, because the fluid pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure as the depth increases.

Cavitation Index

σ = Cavitation Index, dimensionless

P1= Upstream Pressure , Psig
P2 = Downstream Pressure , Psig
Pv = Vapor Pressure adjusted for temperature and atmospheric pressure, psig = -14.2 psig for water at 60°F, sea level

The lower the value for the cavitation index, the more likely cavitation will occur.
As a rule of thumb, manufacturers suggest that when σ is less than 2.5 then cavitation may occur.

1. Incipient Cavitation

The beginning stage of cavitation where light popping

noises are heard.

2. Constant (Critical) Cavitation

It is a steady rumbling sound associated with start of

possible valve damage.

3. Choked Cavitation

The point where vaporization of fluid reaches sonic velocity

in the valve port and limits the flow through valve.
As a liquid flows through the control valve orifice, it restricts the flow and causes fluid to pick up velocity. The point where the fluid reaches
maximum velocity results in energy exchange that lowers pressure. This point of lowest pressure/highest velocity is called vena contracta.
If the vena contracta pressure (Pvc) falls below the vapor pressure of liquid, then vapor bubbles start to form in liquid.
When fluid passes the vena contracta, the fluid velocity slows thus raising liquid pressure to some point (P2) less than the inlet pressure.
If outlet pressure (P2) recovers below the vapor pressure, flashing takes place. If outlet pressure (P2) recovers above the vapor pressure,
vapor bubbles will implode and cavitation is present. Cavitation induces noise, vibration, physical damage to valve and downstream piping
Cavitation shall be generally understood as a dynamic process of formation and implosion of cavities in fluids. Cavitation generally occurs,
when high flow velocities cause local hydrostatic pressure to drop to critical value which roughly corresponds to the vapor pressure of fluid.
This causes small bubbles filled with steam and gases to form. These bubbles finally collapse when they reach the high-pressure areas as
they are carried along by the liquid flow. In the final phase of bubble implosion, high pressure peaks are generated inside the bubbles and
in their immediate surroundings. These pressure peaks leads to mechanical vibrations, noise, material erosion of surfaces in walled areas.
If cavitation is severe, the valve coefficients as well as the fluid properties change.
Cavitation describes the process of vaporisation, bubble generation and bubble implosion which occurs in a flowing liquid as a result of a
decrease and increase in pressure. Cavitation occur if the pressure declines to some point below the saturated vapor pressure of liquid.
In pipe systems, cavitation occurs as the result of increase in kinetic energy (through an area constriction) or an increase in pipe elevation.

As liquid passes through the restriction area inside the valve, flow stream is contracted. The smallest cross section area of stream is just
downstream of actual physical restriction at point called venacontracta. At this point velocity is at its maximum and pressure is at minimum.
As fluid exits the valve, away from vena contracta, velocity decrease and pressure increase, so the critical point for flashing and cavitation
is at the point where the pressure is smallest which is in vena contracta.
If pressure at vena contracta drops bellows vapor pressure of fluid, due to increased velocity at this point, bubbles will form in flow stream.
If pressure downstream of the vena contracta increase above the vapor pressure, bubbles will collapse or implode producing cavitation.
If cavitation occurs close to solid surfaces, the energy released gradually wears the material leaving the rough surface.
Cavitation can also damage downstream pipeline, if at that place the pressure rises above vapor pressure and bubbles collapse.

CAVITATION: Occurs only in liquid service. In simple terms cavitation is two-stage process of vaporization & condensation of a liquid.
Vaporization is simply the boiling of a liquid, which is also known as FLASHING. In a control valve this vaporization takes place because
the pressure of the liquid is lowered, instead of the more common occurrence where the temperature is raised.
As fluid passes through valve, there is increase in velocity (kinetic energy) that is accompanied by decrease in pressure (potential energy).
This occurs in an area called the VENA CONTRACTA. If the pressure in this area falls below that of the vapor pressure of the flowing fluid,
vaporization (boiling) occurs. Vapor bubbles then continue downstream where velocity of fluid begins to slow and pressure influid recovers.
The vapor bubbles then collapse or implode. Cavitation can cause Choked Flow condition and cause mechanical damage to valves/piping.
Cavitation, briefly, is the transformation of a portion of liquid into the vapor phase during rapid acceleration of the fluid in the valve orifice,
and the subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles downstream. The collapse of vapor bubbles can produce localized pressure up to 7000 bar
and are singly most responsible for rapid erosion of valve trim under high pressure drop conditions. It is therefore, necessary to understand
and to prevent this phenomenon, particularly when high pressure drop conditions are encountered. The cavitation in a control valve occurs
if the static pressure of the flowing liquid tends to decrease to a value less than the fluid vapor pressure.
At this point, the continuity of flow is broken by the formation of vapor bubbles. Since all the control valves exhibit some pressure recovery,
final downstream pressure is higher than orifice throat static pressure. When downstream pressure is higher than vapor pressure of fluid,
the vapor bubbles revert back to liquid. This two-stage transformation is defined as cavitation.

FLASHING
Flashing can occur in control valves. If upstream pressure is just above vapor pressure, then it is possible that the pressure will drop below
the vapor pressure as the fluid flows through valve. If the pressure doesn’t recovers to a pressure that is once again above vapor pressure,
then flashing will occur.

As liquid flow passes through the restriction, there is a necking down, or contraction of the flow stream.
The minimum cross-sectional area of flow stream occurs just downstream of actual physical restriction at a point called the vena contracta,
To maintain a steady flow of liquid through valve, velocity must be greatest at the vena contracta, where cross sectional area is the least.
The increase in velocity (or kinetic energy) is accompanied by substantial decrease in pressure (or potential energy) at the vena contracta.
Further downstream, as the fluid stream expands into a larger area, the velocity decreases and the pressure increases. But, of course,
downstream pressure never recovers completely to equal the pressure that existed upstream of the valve.
The pressure differential that exists across the valve is a measure of the amount of energy that was dissipated in the valve.
If pressure at vena-contracta drops below vapor pressure of fluid (due to increased fluid velocity ) then bubbles will form in flow stream.
Formation of bubbles will increase greatly as vena contracta pressure drops further below the vapor pressure of the liquid. At this stage,
there is no difference between flashing and cavitation, but the potential for structural damage to the valve definitely exists.
If pressure at valve outlet remains below vapor pressure of liquid, bubbles will remain in downstream system and the liquid has FLASHED.
Flashing produces serious erosion damage to valve trim parts and is characterized by a smooth, polished appearance of eroded surface.
Flashing damage is normally greatest at the point of highest velocity, which is usually at or near the seat line of valve plug and seat ring.

On the other hand, if the downstream pressure recovery is sufficient to raise the outlet pressure above the vapor pressure of the liquid,
the bubbles will collapse, or implode, producing cavitation. Collapsing of the vapor bubbles releases energy and produces a noise similar
to what one would expect if gravel were flowing through the valve. If the bubbles collapse in close proximity to solid surfaces in the valve,
the energy released will gradually tear away the material leaving a rough, cinder like surface.
Cavitation damage may extend to the adjacent downstream pipeline, if that is where pressure recovery occurs and the bubbles collapse.
High recovery valves tend to be more subject to cavitation, since downstream pressure is more likely to rise above liquid’s vapor pressure.
 CHOKED FLOW

DEFINATIONS
Choked flow is a fluid’s dynamic condition. When a flowing fluid at a given pressure and temperature passes through a restriction into a
lower pressure environment the fluid velocity increases. At initially subsonic upstream conditions, the conservation of mass principle
requires the fluid velocity to increase as it flows through smaller cross-sectional area of the restriction. At the same time the static pressure
and therefore the density decreases downstream past the restriction. Choked flow is a limiting condition which occurs when the flow rate
will not increase with a further decrease in the downstream pressure environment while upstream pressure is fixed.

CHOKED FLOW: Also known as CRITICAL FLOW.

This condition exists when at a fixed upstream pressure the flow cannot be further increased by lowering the downstream pressure.
This condition occurs in gas or liquid services. Fluids flow through valve because of difference in pressure between inlet & outlet of valve.
This pressure difference (Delta-P) or pressure drop is essential for moving the fluid. Flow is proportional to square root of pressure drop.
If the inlet pressure P1 to a valve remains constant, then the differential pressure can only be increased by lowering the outlet pressure P2.
For gases and steam, which are compressible fluids, the maximum velocity of the fluid through the valve is limited by the velocity of the
propagation of a pressure wave which travels at the speed of sound in the fluid.
If the pressure drop is sufficiently high (Delta-P), the velocity of the flow stream at the VENA CONTRACTA will reach the velocity of sound.
Further decrease in the outlet pressure will not be felt upstream because the pressure wave can only travel at sonic velocity.
Choked Flow can also occur in liquids but only if fluid is in FLASHING or CAVITATING condition. The vapor bubbles block / choke the flow
and prevent the valve from passing more flow by lowering the outlet pressure to increase the pressure drop.
A thumb rule on Gases and Steam service is that if the pressure drop across valve equals or exceeds one half the absolute inlet pressure,
then there is a good chance for a choked flow condition.

Choked Flow (Liquids)

As liquid passes through the restriction area inside valve, flow stream is contracted. To maintain a steady flow of liquid through the valve
the velocity must increase (but according to Bernoulli Equation total energy should remain constant) hence the static pressure decreases.
The increase in velocity (kinetic energy) is accompanied by a substantial decrease in pressure (pressure energy)
The smallest cross section area of flowstream is just downstream of actual physical restriction at point called vena contracta. At this point
velocity is at its maximum and pressure at minimum. As fluid exit valve, away from vena contracta, velocity decrease & pressure increases.
Now there is a point at which velocity of liquid (Flowrate) doesn’t increases even when pressure decreases.
This means that liquid has achieved its maximum velocity and even if we increase pressure drop across valve flowrate will not increase.
This means that the liquid has achieved its maximum velocity and even if we decrease the downstream pressure flowrate will not increase.
Choked Flow is when the liquid has achieved its maximum velocity and even if we increase the pressure drop across the valve or
even if we decrease the downstream pressure, flowrate will not increase.
The only way to increase Flowrate is to increase the flow area, by doing this the liquid velocity remains same but the area has increased
HENCE more liquid can pass through the increased flow area with the same velocity. Therefore the flowrate increases.
Cavitation and Flashing can also lead to Choked Flow.
During Cavitation and Flashing, the bubbles are formed in the liquid, the bubbles have a larger surface area so they require more space,
Hence the area available for the liquid decreases with the formation of bubbles.
As Cavitation and Flashing increases, formation of bubbles increases, so more bubbles are present in liquid and they require more area ,
hence the area available for the liquid decreases further. A point will come when more liquid cannot pass through the modified flow area
(Modified because, Actual Flow Area is more but due to formation of bubbles, available area through which liquid can pass has decreased)
This is Choked Flow.

Choked Flow (Gases)

As a gas flows from a region of High Pressure to a region of Low Pressure it expands (Its Density changes)
Hence gas at high pressure requires smaller area . But the same gases at low pressure requires more area because gas has expanded.
The gas at High Pressure has more Density (Requires-Less Area)
The gas at Low Pressure has less Density (Requires-More Area)

As a gas passes through the restriction area inside the valve, flow stream is contracted. To maintain a steady flow of fluid through the valve
the velocity must increase (but according to Bernoulli Equation total energy should remain constant) hence the static pressure decreases.
The increase in velocity (kinetic energy) is accompanied by a substantial decrease in pressure (potential energy)
The smallest cross section area of stream is just downstream of the actual physical restriction at a point called vena contracta. At this point
velocity is at its maximum and pressure at minimum. As gas exit valve, away from vena contracta, velocity decrease & pressure increases.

Now there is a point at which velocity of gas (Flowrate) doesn’t increase even when pressure decreases.
This means that gas has achieved its maximum velocity and even if we increase the pressure drop across valve flowrate will not increase.
For gases this maximum velocity is the Sonic Velocity (velocity of sound). The gas cannot exceed the velocity of sound.
Therefore this becomes the maximum flow rate. The maximum flow rate is also known as choked flow or Critical Flow.

Hence, when the velocity of a gas reaches Sonic Velocity, Flowrate cannot increase further by increasing the pressure drop across valve
even if we decrease downstream pressure. Because gas is at Sonic Velocity (velocity of sound) & it cannot increase beyond Sonic Velocity
This is known as Choked Flow or Critical Flow.
Although the gas velocity reaches a maximum (Sonic Velocity) and becomes choked, the mass flow rate is not choked.
The mass flow rate can still be increased if the upstream pressure is increased or by decreasing the upstream temperature because when
we increase the Upstream Pressure or decrease the upstream temperature the density increases.

Mass Flow Rate = Density X Volumetric Flow Rate

Mass Flow Rate = Density X Area X Velocity
 SOURCES OF VALVE NOISE

Mechanical Vibration

Aerodynamic Noise

Hydrodynamic Noise

Mechanical Vibration
Turbulent flow in control valve can induce vibration in valve components
Noise from mechanical vibration does not occur often in control valves, especially since the introduction of top and cage guided valves.
Mechanical noise is caused by the response of internal components within a valve to the turbulent flow through the valve.
Vortex shedding and turbulent flow impinging on components of the valve can induce vibration against the neighboring surfaces.
Noise generated by this type of vibration has tonal characteristic. If turbulence induced vibration of trim parts approaches natural frequency
of plug-stem combination, a case of resonance will exist. A resonant condition is very harmful, since it results in fatigue failure of trim parts.
Noise from mechanical vibration does not occur often in control valves, especially since the introduction of top and cage guided valves.
Should it occur, steps must be taken to eliminate that resonant condition, to reduce noise but more importantly to preclude fatigue failure.
Possible cures for this type of noise include change in trim design, reduction of guide clearances, larger stem sizes, change in plug mass,
and reversal of flow direction. These steps are intended to shift natural frequency of parts and excitation frequency away from each other.
There is presently no reliable method for predicting noise generated by mechanical vibration in control valves.

Aerodynamic Noise
Aerodynamic noise is direct result of conversion of mechanical energy of flow into acoustic energy as fluid passes through valve restriction.
The proportionality of conversion is called acoustical efficiency and is related to valve pressure ratio and design.
Sources of turbulence in gas transmission lines are: obstructions in the flow path, rapid expansion or deceleration of high velocity gas and
directional changes of the fluid stream

Hydrodynamic Noise
The major source of hydrodynamic noise (noise resulting from liquid flow) is cavitation.
Liquid flow noise, cavitation noise, and flashing noise can be generated by the flow of a liquid through a valve and piping system.
Of the three noise sources, cavitation is the most serious because noise produced in this manner can be a sign that damage is occurring
at some point in the valve or piping.
 Noise Reduction

Reduction in control valve noise is achieved by either source treatment (preventing noise generation) or by path treatment (pipe insulation,
silencers, or increasing pipe schedule).
Source treatment often becomes the preferable method. Sound once generated propagates virtually unattenuated in the downstream pipe.
The high sound level inside piping system damages pipe and mechanical component located downstream by inducing excessive vibration.

Source Treatment
Use of Small, Properly Spaced Fluid Jets
Noise is high energy vibrations due to high velocity of fluid inside control valve. Noise reduction aim at reducing the high velocity of fluid.
The size of the fluid jets affects noise generation in 3 ways.
First, by reducing size of fluid jets or breaking into smaller jets, efficiency of conversion between mechanical & acoustical power is reduced
Second, smaller eddies shift acoustic energy generated by flow to higher frequency region where transmission through pipe walls reduces
Third, the higher frequency sound, if raised above 10000 Hz, is de-emphasized by both the A-weighting filter network and the human ear.
The spacing of fluid jets affects location of the point downstream at which fluid jets mutually interfere. The mutual interaction of the fluid jets
at the proper location downstream reduces shock-eddy interaction that is largely responsible for valve noise under critical flow conditions.
This factor further reduces acoustical efficiency.

Adiabatic Flow with Friction

The principle of “Adiabatic Flow with Friction” is to reduce pressure much like the pressure loss which occurs in a long pipeline.
This effect is produced by letting fluid pass through a number of restrictions, providing a tortuous flow pattern dissipating energy through
high headloss rather than through shock waves. The flow area of the valve trim is gradually increased toward the downstream section.
This compensates for expansion of gas with pressure loss & ensures nearly constant fluid velocity
throughout complete throttling process.

In conventional orifice type valves, the internal energy is converted into velocity (kinetic energy).
This results in a sharp decrease in enthalpy.
Downstream turbulence accompanied by shock waves, reconverts this velocity into thermal energy
with permanent increase in entropy level (corresponding to the pressure change (P1-P2).
These same shock waves are the major source of undesirable throttling noise in control valves.
In Adiabatic Flow with Friction, the velocity change is minimized and enthalpy level remains
nearly constant.

Path Treatment
Silencers can be effective in reducing control valve noise provided they are installed directly downstream of the valve.
However, there are several technical problems often encountered in their use.
First, to be effective, they require low flow velocities which often make them impractical, especially for use in high capacity systems.
Second, the acoustic elements are not always compatible with the flowing medium and Third, the operating conditions may be too severe.

An increase in wall thickness of downstream piping is an effective method. However, noise once generated does not dissipate rapidly
with downstream pipe length, this method must normally be used throughout the downstream system.

Pipe insulation can be an effective means to reduce radiated noise. However, three restraints must be noted.
First, as with the pipe schedule method, insulation must be used throughout the downstream system.
Second, the material must be carefully installed to prevent any “voids” in the material which could seriously reduce its effectiveness.
Third, thermal insulation normally used on piping systems is limited in its effectiveness in reducing noise. Unfortunately, more suitable
materials often are not acceptable at high temperature, since their binders burn out, radically changing their acoustical & thermal qualities.
In application,noise reduction of acoustical insulation reaches a limit of 11-12 dBA due to acoustical “leaks” from valve bonnet & top works.
TURBINES & COMPRESSORS

GAS TURBINES
GAS TURBINES
A gas turbine has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine and a combustion chamber in-between.
The basic operation of the gas turbine can be defined in 4 easy steps.
Inlet Section : Fresh atmospheric air is sucked and should be free from any dust and dirt.
Compressor Section : Fresh atmospheric air flows through a compressor that brings it to higher pressure.
Combustion Section : Energy is then added by spraying fuel into air & igniting it so the combustion generates a high-temperature flow.
Turbine and Exhaust Section : This high-temperature high-pressure gas enters a turbine, where it expands down to exhaust pressure,
producing a shaft work output in the process. The turbine shaft work is used to drive the compressors or pumps and other devices as
an electric generator that may be coupled to the shaft.
A gas turbine essentially brings together air that it compresses in compressor module, and fuel to combustion , that are then ignited.
Resulting gases are expanded through a turbine. Turbine’s shaft continues to rotate and drive the compressor which is on same shaft..
A starter unit (Cranking Motor) is used for first rotor motion, until turbine’s rotation is up to design speed & keep entire unit running.
The energy that is not used for shaft work comes out in the exhaust gases, so these have either a high temperature or a high velocity.

The Inlet Section

The air inlet ducts must provide clean and unrestricted airflow. Clean and undisturbed inlet airflow extends the life by preventing
erosion, corrosion, and foreign object damage (FOD). Consideration of atmospheric conditions as dust, salt, industrial pollution,
foreign objects (birds, nuts and bolts), and temperature (icing conditions) must be made when designing the inlet system.

The Compressor Section

The compressor provides turbine with all the air it needs in an efficient manner. In addition, it must supply air at high static pressures.
Generally axial flow compressor are used. In an axial flow compressor, each stage incrementally boosts pressure from previous stage.
A single stage of compression includes set of rotor blade attached to rotating disk, followed by stator vane attached to stationary ring.
The flow area between compressor blades is slightly divergent. Flow area between compressor vanes is also divergent.
In general terms, the compressor rotor blades convert mechanical energy into gaseous kinectic energy.
This energy conversion increases total pressure (Pt). Most increase is in form of velocity(Pi), with small increase in static pressure (Ps).
The stator vanes slows the air by means of the divergent duct shape, converting accelerated velocity (Pi) to higher static pressure (Ps).

The Combustion Section

Once the air flows through the compressor, it enters the combustion section, also called the combustor.
The combustion section has the difficult task of controlling the burning of large amounts of fuel and air.
It must release the heat in a manner that air is expanded and accelerated to give a smooth and stable stream of uniformly-heated gas
at all starting and operating conditions. This task must be accomplished with minimum pressure loss and maximum heat release.
In addition, the combustion liners must position and control the fire to prevent flame contact with any metal parts.
Six combustion liners (cans) are positioned within an annulus created by inner and outer combustion cases. Combustion takes place in
forward end / primary zone of cans. Primary air (amounting to about one fourth total airflow) is used to support combustion process.
The remaining air, referred to as secondary or dilution air, is admitted into the liners in a controlled manner.
The secondary air controls the flame pattern, cools the liner walls, dilutes the temperature of the core gasses, and provides mass.
This cooling air is critical, as the flame temperature is above 1930 degC (3500'F), which is higher than the metals can endure.
It is important that the fuel nozzles and combustion liners control the burning and mixing of fuel and air under all conditions to avoid
excess temperatures reaching the turbine or combustion cases. The rear third of the combustion liners is the transition section.
The transition section has a very convergent duct shape, which begins accelerating the gas stream and reducing the static pressure in
preparation for entrance to the turbine section.

The Turbine and Exhaust Section

The turbine converts the gaseous energy of the air/burned fuel mixture out of the combustor into mechanical energy needed to drive
the compressor, driven accessories, and through a reduction gear, the propeller.
The turbine converts gaseous energy into mechanical energy by expanding hot, high-pressure gases to lower temperature & pressure.
Each stage of turbine consists of a row of stationary vanes followed by a row of rotating blades. This is reverse of order in compressor.
In the compressor, the energy is added to the gas by the rotor blades then converted to static pressure by the stationary stator vanes.
In the turbine, the stator vanes increase gas velocity, and then the rotor blades extract energy.
The vanes & blades are airfoils that provide for smooth flow of gases. As airstream enter turbine section from the combustion section,
it is accelerated through the first stage of stator vanes. The stator vanes (also called nozzles) form convergent ducts that convert the
gaseous heat & pressure energy into higher velocity gas flow (Pi). In addition to accelerating the gas, vanes "turn" the flow to direct it
into the rotor blades at the optimum angle. As the mass of the high velocity gas flows across the turbine blades, the gaseous energy is
converted to mechanical energy. velocity,temperature,pressure of gas are sacrificed in order to rotate turbine to generate shaftpower
The use of properly positioned airfoils allows a smooth flow and expansion of gases through the blades and vanes of the turbine.
All the air must flow across the airfoils to achieve maximum efficiency in the turbine. In order to ensure this, seals are used at base of
vanes to minimize gas flow around the vanes instead of through the intended gas path. In addition first three stages of turbine blades
have tip shrouds to minimize gas flow around the blade tips.
In an ideal gas turbine, gases undergo 3 thermodynamic processes: isentropic compression, isobaric(constant pressure) combustion &
an isentropic expansion. Together these make up the Brayton cycle.
In practical gas turbine, mechanical energy is irreversibly transformed in heat when gas is compressed (centrifugal/axial compressor),
due to internal friction & turbulence. Passage through combustion chamber, where heat is added & specific volume of gas increases,
is accompanied by slight loss in pressure. During expansion phase, stator & rotor blades of turbine, irreversible energy transformation
once again occurs.

Open Cycle or Closed Cycle

Most gas turbines operate in an open-cycle mode where, air is taken in from the atmosphere and discharged back into atmosphere,
with the hot air being cooled naturally after it exits the turbine.
In a closed cycle gas turbine facility the working fluid (air) is continuously recycled by cooling exhaust air through heat exchanger and
directing it back to the compressor inlet.
In the closed cycle system, the combustion cannot be sustained and the normal combustor is replaced with a second heat exchanger
to heat the compressed air before it enters the turbine. The heat is supplied by an external source such as a nuclear reactor, fluidized
bed of a coal combustion process, or some other heat source.

Direct Drive and Mechanical Drive

Direct Drive
With land-based industries, gas turbines can be used in either direct drive or mechanical drive application.
With power generation, the gas turbine shaft is coupled to generator shaft, either directly or via a gearbox “direct drive” application.
A gearbox is necessary in applications where the manufacturer offers the package for both 60 and 50 cycle (Hertz, Hz) applications.
The gear box will use roughly 2 percent of the power developed by the turbine in these cases. Power generation applications extend
to offshore platform use. Minimizing weight is a major consideration for this service and the gas turbines used are “aeroderivatives”
(derived from lighter gas turbines developed for aircraft use).

Mechanical Drive
For mechanical drive applications, the turbine module arrangement is different.
In these cases, the combination of compressor module, combustor module and turbine module is termed the gas generator.
Beyond the turbine end of the gas generator is a freely rotating turbine. It may be one or more stages. It is not mechanically
connected to the gas generator, but instead is mechanically coupled, sometimes via a gearbox, to the equipment it is driving.
Compressors and pumps are among the potential “driven” turbomachinery items.

Industrial gas turbines that are used solely for mechanical drive or used in collaboration with a recovery steam generator differ from
the general power generating sets in that they are often smaller and features a dual shaft design as opposed to single shaft design.
These gas turbines are connected directly or via a gearbox to either a pump or compressor assembly.
The majority of installations are used within oil and gas industries. Mechanical drive applications increase efficiency by around 2%.
Oil & Gas platform require these to drive compressors to inject gas into wells to force oil up or to compress the gas for transportation.

Advances in technology
Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced and development is actively producing smaller, powerful and efficient gas turbines.
Aiding in these advances are computer based design & development of advanced materials: Base materials with high temp strength
(e.g. single-crystal superalloys that has yield strength) or thermal barrier coatings that protect structural material from higher temp.
These advances allow higher compression ratios and turbine inlet temperatures, more efficient combustion & better cooling of parts.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has contributed to substantial improvements in the performance and efficiency of Gas Turbine
components through enhanced understanding of the complex viscous flow and heat transfer phenomena involved. For this reason,
CFD is one of the key computational tool used in Design and development of gas turbine.
simple-cycle efficiencies of early gas turbines were doubled by incorporating inter-cooling, regeneration (or recuperation), reheating.
These improvements of course, come at expense of increased initial & operation costs, and they cannot be justified unless decrease in
fuel costs offsets increase in other costs. The relatively low fuel prices, general desire in industry to minimize installation costs, and
the tremendous increase in the simple-cycle efficiency to about 40 percent left little desire for opting for these modifications.
On the emissions side, the challenge is to increase turbine inlet temperatures while at same time reducing peak flame temperature in
order to achieve lower NOx emissions and meet the latest emission regulations.
STEAM TURBINES
STEAM TURBINES
Steam turbine is device that extract thermal energy from pressurized steam & uses it to do mechanical work on rotating output shaft.
The interior of a steam turbine comprises several sets of blades or buckets. One set of stationary blades is connected to the casing &
one set of rotating blades is connected to shaft. The stationary & rotary sets intermesh with certain minmum clearances, with the size
and configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage.
A steam turbine is a rotary type of steam engine, having a rotating wheel to which is secured a series of buckets, blades or vanes, and
uniformly spaced on its periphery. Steam from nozzles or guide passages is directed continuously against a buckets, blades, or vanes,
thus causing their rotation. The expansion of steam inside the nozzles or buckets converts its heat energy into energy of motion and
gives it a high velocity which is expended on the moving wheel or buckets. The difference in the various types of steam turbines is due
to different methods of using the steam. depending upon construction & arrangement of the nozzles, steam passages and buckets.
Steam turbine is a pinwheel driven by high-pressure steam rather than by air. It consists of a rotor from which project several rows of
closely spaced buckets/blades. Between each row of moving blades there is a row of fixed blades that project inward from housing.
The fixed blades are carefully shaped to direct the flow of steam against the moving blades at an angle & a velocity that will maximize
the conversion of the steam's heat energy into the kinetic energy of rotary motion.
The advantages of steam turbines : low initial cost, low expense for maintenance, small floor space required, large overload capacity,
exhaust steam is free of oil contamination as no internal lubrication is needed & high efficiency over a wide range of load conditions.

Types
Turbine blades are of 2 types, BLADES and NOZZLES. Blades move due to impact of steam on them and their profiles do not converge.
This results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades.
A turbine composed of moving blades alternating with fixed nozzles is called impulse turbine, Curtis, Rateau, BrownCurtis turbine.
Nozzles are similar to blades, but profile converge at exit, results in pressure drop & velocity increase as steam moves through nozzle.
A turbine composed of moving nozzles alternating with fixed nozzles is called reaction turbine or Parsons turbine.
The nozzles move due to both the impact of steam on the nozzles and the reaction forces, due to high-velocity of the steam at exits.
The turbine blades are generally arranged in multiple stages in series, called compounding, which improves efficiency at low speeds.
A reaction stage is a row of fixed nozzles followed by a row of moving nozzles. Multiple reaction stages divide pressure drop between
the steam inlet and exhaust into numerous small drops, resulting in a pressure-compounded turbine.
In impulse turbines, Impulse stages may be either pressure-compounded, velocity-compounded, or pressure-velocity compounded.
A pressure-compounded impulse stage is row of fixed nozzles followed by row of moving blades with multiple stage for compounding.
This is known as Rateau turbine, after its inventor. A velocity-compounded impulse stage (invented by Curtis & called "Curtis wheel")
is a row of fixed nozzles followed by two/more rows of moving blades alternating with rows of fixed blades. This divides velocity drop
across the stage into several smaller drops. A series of velocity-compounded impulse stages is pressure-velocity compounded turbine.

Blade Design Challenges

A major challenge in turbine design is reducing creep experienced by blades. Because of high temperatures & high stresses operation,
steam turbine materials become damaged through these mechanisms. As temperatures are increased to improve turbine efficiency,
creep becomes more significant. To limit creep, thermal coatings & superalloys with solid-solution strengthening and grain boundary
strengthening are used in blade designs.
Protective coating are used to reduce thermal damage & limit oxidation. Coating are often stabilized zirconium oxide-based ceramics.
Using thermal protective coating limit temperature exposure of nickel superalloy. This reduce creep mechanism experienced in blade.
Oxidation coatings limit efficiency losses caused by buildup on outside of blade, which is important in high-temperature environment.
Nickel-based blades are alloyed with aluminum & titanium to improve strength & creep resistance. Microstructure of these alloys is
composed of different regions of composition. A uniform dispersion of gamma-prime phase-combination of nickel,aluminum,titanium
– promotes the strength and creep resistance of the blade due to the microstructure.

Steam Supply and Exhaust Conditions

These types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat, extraction and induction.
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust steam from a boiler in an partially
condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure well below atmospheric to a condenser.
Non-condensing or back pressure turbines are most widely used for process steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by
a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are commonly found at the refineries, pulp and paper plants,
and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are needed.
Reheat turbines used exclusively in electrical power plants. In reheat turbine, steam flow exits from high pressure section of turbine
& is returned to boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into intermediate pressure section of turbine
and continues its expansion. Using reheat in a cycle increases work output from the turbine and also expansion reaches conclusion
before steam condenses, there by minimizing erosion of blades in last rows. In most of cases, maximum number of reheats employed
in a cycle is 2 as the cost of super-heating the steam negates the increase in the work output from the turbine.
Extracting turbines are common in all application. In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from various stages of turbine, and
used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency.
Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional power.
Turbine Efficiency
To maximize the turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, doing work, in a number of stages. These stages are then characterized by
how the energy is extracted from them and are known as either impulse or reaction turbines. Most steam turbines uses a mixture of
the reaction and impulse designs: each stage behaves as either one or the other, but the overall turbine uses both.
Typically, higher pressure sections are reaction type and lower pressure sections are impulse type design.

CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINES

Shaft Position : Horizontal or Vertical
Method of Drive : Direct Connected or Geared
Action of the Steam : Impulse or Reaction
Exhaust Pressure : Non-Condensing, Condensing, Extraction

IMPULSE TYPE STEAM TURBINE

In the impulse type steam turbine, the expansion and consequent change in the pressure of the steam occurs entirely within nozzles
which direct the steam in jets against moving set of blades/buckets. In as much as the expansion of the steam takes place in nozzles,
the clearance between the rotating and stationary surfaces is greater than the reaction type steam turbine.
Thermal energy of steam is converted to kinetic energy in the turbine nozzle. Kinetic energy converted to the mechanical energy and
transferred through rotor, shaft and coupling to the load.

An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into a high speed jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy,
which is converted into shaft rotation by the bucket-like shaped rotor blades, as the steam jet changes direction.
A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows
through nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more usually, the condenser vacuum).
Due to this high ratio of expansion of steam, the steam leaves nozzle with very high velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades has
a large portion of maximum velocity of steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly
called the carry over velocity or leaving loss.

REACTION TYPE STEAM TURBINE

In the reaction type steam turbine, the expansion and consequent change in pressure of the steam occurs entirely in blading section
where steam is directed against moving buckets/blading by guide valves or orifices. The expansion of steam takes place through both
the stationary and moving guide vanes, and therefore the clearance space between the stationary and moving surfaces is very small,
to cut down on the pressure drop by leakage between stages, to a minimum.

In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the
reaction force produced as steam accelerates through nozzles formed by rotor. Steam is directed onto rotor by fixed vanes of stator.
It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed
relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both the stator & the rotor, with steam accelerating through stator
and decelerating through rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across stage but with decrease in both pressure & temperature,
reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.

In the reaction turbine the fixed blades and the moving blades that constitute one stage are practically identical in design & function;
each accounts for about half of the pressure drop that is converted to kinetic energy in the entire stage.
In the fixed blades the pressure is harnessed to increase velocity of the steam so that it slightly exceeds the velocity of moving blades
in the direction of rotation. In moving blades the pressure drop is again used to accelerate steam but at same time to turn it around
(with respect to the blades), so that its absolute tangential velocity is almost zero as it enters the next bank of the stationary blades.
Thrust is imparted to moving blades as steam's absolute tangential velocity is reduced from slightly above blade speed to approx zero.
An imaginary observer moving with the steam could not tell whether he was passing through the fixed blades or the moving ones.

In the impulse turbine the fixed blades are quite different in shape from the moving ones because their job is to accelerate the steam
until its velocity in direction of rotation is about twice that of moving blades. The moving blades are designed to absorb this impulse
and to transfer it to rotor in form of kinetic energy. In this arrangement most pressure drop in each stage takes place in fixed blades;
the pressure drop through the moving blades is only sufficient to maintain forward flow of steam. The amount of energy transferred
to the rotor in each stage is proportional to the change in absolute steam velocity in the direction of rotation.
It turns out that value is about twice as high for impulse blading as it is for reaction blading. This means, that an impulse turbine will
need fewer stages for the same power output than a reaction turbine; the efficiency, however, will be about the same for both types.
In turbine design one of the major secondary problems is providing seals to keep the steam from leaking through the narrow spaces
between the rotor and the stator. In impulse blading the complete expansion in each stage takes place in the fixed blades. It is thus
desirable to place the seals on as small a diameter as possible. This has led to a turbine design known as the diaphragm type.
Because pressure differential is large the diaphragm needs considerable space in axial direction. Therefore the width of fixed blade
must be made larger than it would otherwise have to be. A circumferential shroud is often placed around each ring of moving blades.
Speed regulation
The control of the turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run up slowly to prevent damage and some applications
(such as the generation of alternating current electricity) require precise speed control. Uncontrolled acceleration of the turbine rotor
can lead to an overspeed trip, which causes nozzle valves that control the flow of steam to turbine to close. If this fails then a turbine
may continue accelerating until it breaks apart, often catastrophic. Turbine requires precision manufacture & special quality material.
During normal operation in synchronization with the electricity network, power plants are governed with a 5 % droop speed control.
This means full load speed is 100% and no-load speed is 105%. This is required for stable operation of network without hunting and
drop-outs of power plants.

Operation and Maintenance

Because of the high pressures used in steam circuits and materials used, steam turbines and their casings have high thermal inertia.
When warming up steam turbine for use, the main steam stop valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow superheated steam
to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also, a turning gear is engaged
when there is no steam to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure even heating to prevent uneven expansion.
After first rotating turbine by turning gear, allowing time for rotor to assume straight plane (no bowing), the turning gear is disengaed
and steam is admitted to the turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine at a 10 – 15 RPM
(0.17–0.25 Hz) to slowly warm the turbine. The warm up procedure for large steam turbines may exceed ten hours.
During normal operation, rotor imbalance can lead to vibration, because of high rotation velocity, blade could break away from rotor
and through the casing. To reduce risk, considerable effort is spent to balance turbine. Also, turbines are run with high quality steam:
either superheated (dry) steam, or saturated steam with a high dryness fraction. This prevents rapid impingement & erosion of blades
which occurs when condensed water is blasted onto the blades (moisture carry over). Also, liquid water entering blades may damage
the thrust bearings for the turbine shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high quality steam,
condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine.
 COMPRESSORS
BASIC GAS LAWS
Before discussing Compressors and their working principles, it is helpful to know some of the basic laws, which effect the compressor.
Law of Thermodynamics:
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but can be converted from one form to another form.
Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Energy, which exists at various levels, is available for use only if it can move from a higher to a lower level.
Ideal or Perfect Gas Laws
Gases may consist of one specific gas or may be constituent of number of gases.
An ideal or perfect gas is one, which obeys below mentioned Boyle’s Law and Charle’s Law. Perfect gases do not exist in practice.
Boyle’s Law : states that at constant temperature, volume of an ideal gas decreases with increase in pressure. P1V1 = P2V2 = Const.
Charle’s Law : states that at constant pressure, volume of an ideal gas will increase as temperature increases. P1/V1 = P2/V2 = Constant
Amonton’s Law : states that at constant volume, pressure of an ideal gas will increase as temperature increases. P1/T1 = P2/T2 = Constant

Compression of gas is a thermodynamic process, and can be done in many ways; some of them are listed below.
Isobaric Process – a process wherein pressure remains constant.
Isothermal Process – a process in which there os no change in temperature.
Isentropic Process – a process in which there is no change in entropy.
Adiabatic Process – a process during which there is no external exchange of heat. PVk = Constant

Compressors are the machines required for transportation / movement of gases in a system. The purpose of compression is simply to
increase the pressure of a gas from one level to another. Depending on a host of circumstances and situations, the pressure increase
imparted to a gas will be from a fraction of a bar in laboratory equipment to literally tens of hundred of bars as in hypercompressors.
Two principal methods are used to compress gases.

Dynamic type compressor are machines in which gas is compressed

by the dynamic action of the rotating vanes or impellers imparting
velocity to flowing gas. Velocity head is converted into pressure.

The Second method is to trap a volume of gas and displace it by

positive action of piston or rotating members and are known as
positive-displacement compressors.

1. Positive displacement machines below 3000 m3/hr

2. Axial compressors above 30,000 m3/hr
3. Flow region 3000-12,000 m3/hr is usually over-lapping
between positive displacement & centrifugal compressors.
4. Flow region 30000-120000 m3/hr is usually overlapped
between centrifugal and axial compressors.
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
Machine in which velocity and pressure are imparted to air or gas in a radial direction by one or more impeller – diffuser combination.
The Centrifugal compressors imparts velocity to the gas through rotating impellers. The gas is introduced the eye of the impeller and
discharged radially at the outer circumference (impeller tip) at a higher velocity and kinetic energy.
The gas then passes through a stationary diffuser where its velocity is reduced, and its kinetic energy is converted to static pressure.
Part of the static pressure rise occurs in the impeller and part in the diffuser. Impeller diameter and width, rotational speed and the
angle of the vanes that make up the impeller are important parameters in the design of centrifugal compressors.
One or more impellers (stages) may be required to obtain desired discharge pressure. The temp. of gas increases as it is compressed.
If discharge temperature is likely to increase beyond maximum allowable temperature before desired discharge pressure is achieved,
the gas must be cooled before it can be compressed further. Heat exchangers called intercoolers, may be required to cool the gas/air.
Typically, these intercoolers are installed between compressor sections (one or more stages typically make up a compressor section).
Maximum allowable temperature is determined by following factors:
1. Design or materials
2. Avoiding excessive temperatures in the process
3. Fouling
4. Polymerization of the process
A seal system contains the process gas within the compressor as well as prevents any contamination of the gas by bearing lubricants.
These compressors can be designed to be non-lubricating if the process gas is required to be oil-free.

COMPRESSOR TRAINS
Large pressure ratios cannot be handled by one single casing alone.
Similarly it is not possible to split the compression cycle into more than two or three stages within one casing.
The major compressor manufacturers therefore build compressor trains that may consist of upto four separate casings.
These separate compressors, which need not be of same type, are interconnected by couplings, & can be powered by common driver.
When additional timing gearing are used, the compressors casings may also be run at different speeds. The train is designed so that a
minimum of dismantling is necessary for maintenance, i.e, when a vertically split casing is used, it is located at opposite end of driver.

AXIAL COMPRESSORS
Gas moves axially (parallel) along compressor shaft (parallel to machine axis) through alternating rows of rotating & stationary blades.
Each set of blades (one rotating blades row which then is followed by one stationary blades row) represents a stage of compression.
The rotating blades impart velocity to gas or air, the stationary blades slows the gas and direct it into the next row of rotating blades.
As the gas passes through each stage, its pressure and temperature are further increased until it finally exits the axial compressor at
desired pressure and associated temperature.
Axial compressors require more stages to develop same pressure rise as centrifugal compressors, but handles high flows efficiency.
Axial compressor design does not lend itself to inter-cooling and attainable discharge pressures are generally limited by temperature
and bearing span (which limits the number of blade rows). Axial compressors are mainly used for air or clean gases.
As centrifugals , they have a wide range of capacity and can handle very high flows, but generally operate at much lower pressures.
As axial compressors are turbo compressors, they have same problems concerning unstable operation at reduced flow called Surging.
Axial types are more susceptible to erosion, corrosion and solids buildup than centrifugals.

Axial flow compressors has a massive rotor with several rows of blades rotating in a casing containing rows of stationary blades also.
Gas/Air is drawn into an intake nozzle and passed in an axial direction through a series of moving and stationary rows of blades and is
fully discharged through a discharge nozzle. Axial compressors are generally driven by electric motors, steam and gas turbines.
Axial compressors are large volume compressors that are characterized by the axial direction of the flow passing through machine.
The energy from rotor is transferred to gas by blades. Axial compressor have higher capacity&comparatively low pressure application.
Axial compressors offer higher efficiency and smaller foundation requirements in weight and space and more efficient drive selection
because of its higher speed and lower power requirements.
SURGING
There are definite limitations of the ability of a centrifugal compressor. Limiting the minimum capacity of a centrifugal compressor is
the phenomenon called “SURGE” which normally occurs at about 50%-55% of the design inlet capacity at design speed.
This extremely complex phenomenon called surging is probably still one of the most difficult problems in the field of fluid dynamics.
The maximum head developed by a compressor depends only on the speed of the compressor and its impeller design.
When the head in system increases beyond the head developed, the compressor will no longer be able to deliver the gases to system.
Or we can say that, when the static pressure (Head) in compressor volute becomes lesser then the compresser outlet pressure (Head)
At this stage, gas will try to flow back into impellers whereas impellers try to blow gases out. This causes unsteady condition “surging”
By examining characteristic curves of a centrifugal compressor, it can be observed as capacity or flow through compressor decreases,
its discharge pressure increases. But beyond a point when flow further reduces, discharge pressure falls sharply giving rise to surging.
All this condition, the system back pressure exceeds that of the compressor delivery, causing a momentary back flow conditions.
At this time, however back pressure can be lowered enabling the unit to be again capable of delivering flow at which the surge began.
If obstruction to flow downstream of the compressor is unchanged then the operation flow back along the head characteristic curve
until the peak head delivery is reached again giving rise to surge.
When compressors is operated under prolonged / repeated surge conditions, the pressure force can damage the internals of machine
due to excessive vibrations. During operation under surge condition, the power requirement goes up by 10% & is converted into heat.
This causes excessive temperature build up inside the compressor and in matter of few seconds, if the conditions are severe enough,
could melt shaft labyrinth seals, which controls the internal leakage. Excessive temperature damage the balance piston labyrinth also.
This will affect the rotor balancing and also overload the thrust bearings. If the thrust bearing fails/damages, the rotor will shift axially
and the impellers will rule against the stationary parts of the casing causing severe damage.
Hence a centrifugal compressor unit can operate stable to the right of the surge limit. The greater is the load demand on compressors,
the greater the “fall of” in delivered pressure. The upper limit of capacity is determined by the phenomenon known as “stone wall”.
Stone wall occurs when the velocity of the gas approaches its sonic velocity somewhere in the compressor (sonic barrier is reached at
the eye of first impeller) Shock waves result which restrict the flow, cause the “choking” effect – rapid fall of in the discharge pressure
for a slight increase in volume through put. Stone wall is usually not a problem when compressing the air and lighter gases.
However, in compressing gases heavier than air, the problem becomes more prevalent as the molecular weight increases.

Antisurge Control
In order to protect the centrifugal machines from excessively high mechanical loading due to unstable operating conditions (surging)
which primarily stresses and damages the bearings, the compressors need to be equipped with antisurge control.
If the delivery required is below the minimum delivery volume of the compressor, the surplus is led away as a side stream via a valve.
Depending on the nature of the gas, the surplus is either discharged to the atmosphre or it is cooled and returned to the suction side.
The Anti-Surge Control System is the system that prohibits compressor to operate in unstable surge zone, by means of opening the
anti-surge control valve(s) ensuring that the compressor flowrate remains on the right-hand side of the surge limit line.
In the example shown the valve is operated by a controller that uses the volume flow rate and discharge pressure as input parameters
The blow-off or recycle limit in the compressor curve envelope is normally an approximate simulation of the surge limit.
Pneumatic, hydraulic, electro pneumatic, or electro hydraulic control systems may be employed.
Depending on the cross-sectional area of the discharge, control valves or flaps are employed as regulating units.

RECIPRO
CATING
COMPRESSOR (Piston or Diaphragm type)
Reciprocating positive displacement compressors have a piston in cylinder or diaphragm operating in shaped cavity to compress gas.
The compressors have suction & discharge valves that control gas flow. They require special process & piping design considerations
because of pulsating nature of flow. Other considerations may include foundation design, compressor valve speed, piston rod loads,
inter-cooling and safety relief valves.
A reciprocating compressor consist of crankcase, crank, piton rod,cylinder, piston, valve. The input power to reciprocating compressor
is in form of rotary motion. Earlier reciprocating compressors were single acting i.e gas/air was handled on one side of piston/cylinder.
Now double acting is commonly used due to inherent advantages and higher efficiency.
Ideally speaking one revolution of crank involves four cycles i.e. suction, compression, discharge, expansion.
Suction:
When the piston moves towards BDC (bottom dead centre), the pressure within the cylinder drops below suction pressure thereby
forcing suction valve to open and allows gas in the cylinder. This movement of piston is plotted as 4 and 1 on p-v diagram.
Compression:
The movement of the piston from BDC towards TDC (top dead center) starts increasing pressure thereby closing open inlet valve and
compressing trapped gas. This movement of the piston is plotted as 1 to 2 on the p-v diagram.
Discharge:
As the piston approaches TDC, the discharge valve opens due to higher pressure in the cylinder, than the discharge pipeline, thereby
discharging the trapped gases. This piston movement is marked as 2 to 3 on p-v diagram.
Expansion:
To avoid contact of the piston with cylinder end cover, a small gap is maintained between the two.
This results in small quantity of gas get trapped & not discharged. This trapped gas expands in short duration during piston’s reverse
movement from TDC to BDC. This expansion of gas is plotted as 3 to 4 on the p-v diagram.

Components
• Frame • Crankshaft • Cross-head • Connecting rod • Piston rod • Cylinder • Piston assembly : piston, rider & piston rings • Bearing
• Valves • Stuffing box packing
Frame
The function of the frame is to provide rigidity and hold all moving and static parts in accurate alignment during operations.
It is designed with suitable supports or ribbings to mount the compressor cylinders, crankshaft and running gears.
Main oil pump driven by crankshaft is provided at the non-drive end of the frame for the lubrication of the moving parts.
Frame houses crankcase for holding the lube oils and is normally provided with removable top covers.
A glass and valve provided in the crankcase allows inspection of oil level and draining of oil.
In big compressors level transmitter is provided in crankcase for auto monitoring of oil level.
Breather is also provided in top cover to remove oil vapours and avoid pressurization of frame or crankcase.
Crankshaft
The function of the crankshaft is to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion jointly with connecting rod.
Unlike frame, crankshaft is rotating part and (may have intermediate bearings depending on construction) and drives connecting rod.
Crankshaft has drilled hole for conveying oil from main bearing journal to connecting rod big end bearings.
Counter weight are attached to crankshaft to compensate for rotational irregularitis due to reciprocating motion of crosshead/piston.
Bearings
The function of the bearings is to support the crank and take all load, minimize friction, permitting transmission of forces.
Bearings can be single piece or in two piece, depending on the size of the crank pin.
Bearings are normally pressure lubricated & operated on principle of hydrodynamic lift. Most bearings comprise of steel shell coated
with soft material, to protect the pin during startup phase. Reciprocating compressors have bearings installed at three places, that is
main bearings, big end bearing, small end bearing.
Crosshead
The function of the crosshead is to maintain the reciprocating motion of the piston and rod in a horizontal plane.
The crosshead guides on rectilinear axis, small-end of connecting rod & bears the force the latter produces in direction perpendicular
to the axis of the motion. At other end it is connected to piston and rod assembly. Crosshead reciprocates in the crosshead guide and
is lubricated by a pressurized lubrication system. As crosshead is in continues reciprocating motion, wear is likely to take place hence,
it is provided with renewable white metal lined shoes. Crosshead is generally made of cast Grey iron or nodular iron or cast steel.
In small compressors it is made of aluminum and does not need white metal lining provided guide is of cast steel. Shoes or slippers of
cast iron or aluminum with white metal overlay are bolted at top & bottom of crosshead & can be replaced when clearance increases.
Connecting rod
The function of connecting rod is to transfer rotating motion of the crankshaft to linear motion at crosshead.
Connecting rod is subjected to combination of tension and compression load. Connecting rod connection to the crankshaft is called
‘big end’ due to its size and the part connected to crosshead is called as ‘small end’. Connecting rod is mostly drop forged steel.
Piston rod
The function of the piston rod is to transmit reciprocating motion from crosshead to piston. Piston rods are subjected to combined
bending & compressive stress. Piston rod to crosshead & piston rod to piston connection is of prime importance due to cyclic loading.
Hence torque tightening at specified torques with wrenche or hydraulic jack should be done. Piston rod can have screwed connection
or as flanged connection with crosshead. Piston rod surface is hardened as it is in contact with stuffing box packing, which is provided
to prevent gas leakage. Rod surface is induction hardened, the hardness is generally in the range of 45-60 HRC is most preferred, and
is suitable for service upto 200 bar. Material selection for piston rod depends on the gas being handles and rod loading.
Cylinder
A double acting cylinder consists of barrel, water jacket, front & rear heads. In some design rear end is integral part of cylinder barrel
and in some design it is bolted & is separable. Cylinder heads may be water cooled depending on location of suction/discharge valves,
clearance pocket valves and pressure ratio. Provision is made in the rear head for pressure packing which seals leakage of gas due to
linear motion of the piston rod. Valves are installed on the barrel and in some cases on the head. Cylinder material is governed by gas
to be handled and pressure. Other factors that influence cylinder material is bore diameter, pressure differentials, lubrications etc.
Cylinders are normally modular iron or cast steel depending on the application. High pressure cylinders are made from forging.
Big cylinders have replaceable liners (sleeve), which is replaced when bore increases or liner surface gets damaged.
Piston
The primary function of piston is to try to squeeze the trapped volume of gas thereby increasing the pressure.
Piston reciprocates within cylinder and is supported on rider rings provided in grooves. Piston may be of single piece, 2 piece, 3 piece,
it can be solid or hollow. One piece pistons are used for small bore & high pressure differential application & made of cast iron/steel.
Two piece piston are generally used for bore diameter above 250mm & aluminum is used when reciprocating weight is to be reduced.
Three-piece pistons are used in high-pressure service where cylinder bore diameter are also high. Three piece pistons can very easily
accommodate rider rings for support and piston rings for sealing on it due to length. Following parameters influence piston design:
• Cylinder bore diameter • Discharge pressure • Compressor rotating speed • Compressor stroke • Required piston weight.
Normally pistons are made up of cast iron and aluminum. Following factors influence piston material selection
• Weight • Strength for diff. pressure • Corrosion resistance • Compression/rider ring thickness • Outside diameter & wear resistance
Aluminium is used when lightweight pistons are required in order to balance reciprocating weights or to reduce inertia forces so they
do not exceed frame load limits. Cast Iron/Steel is the most common material used for piston due to its high strength and good wear
and corrosion resistance. Steels are used for high differential pressure when strength requirement is very high.
Normally cast iron pistons have rider rings to avoid contact with cylinder and rider ring is must in non-lubricated type.
In some lubricated cylinders with aluminum cylinders, rider rings are not provided.
Riders Rings
Rider rings are provided on piston for supporting the weight of the piston and piston rod assembly. Location & number of rider rings
are dictated by the design, diameter, length and weight of the piston. Rider rings are available in several styles.
Solid rider rings or bands are made in single piece and are machined with an interference fit so that, once expanded over piston end,
they will contact like a rubber band to provide a snug fit on the piston. This type does not require pressure relief grooves.
Cut type rider rings are snapped over piston with the same care as piston rings. Cut-type rings are supplied as butt cut or as angle cut,
similar to piston rings. Both type require side relief grooves to relieve the gas pressure from behind the ring.
Piston Rings.
The main function of piston rings is to prevent gas leakage from one side of piston to other side during compression and acts as a seal
between both sides of piston. Piston rings installed in piston grooves. To ensure proper operation, good contact is required between
the rings and the side of the piston grooves and with ring OD in contact with cylinder wall. During operation the primary sealing force,
is a result of gas pressure in ring bore and against the side. This serves to hold the ring against cylinder and against flat groove face.
The number of piston rings is decided considering suction and discharge pressure, gas composition, speed etc.
Generally rider ring & piston rings are made of PTFE/CFT (Carbon filled Teflon) etc. Normally rider ring width is higher than piston ring
As rider ring is for supporting the weight of the piston, hence it wears in the bottom portion, which is in contact with cylinder liner.
Hence rotating rider ring by 180 degrees, it can be further used.
Piston Rod Packing (Stuffing Box)
Packing set consist of series of sealing arranged in series in compressor stuffing box (area where piston rod projects out from cylinder)
Piston rod packing are always floating and consist of annular cups, segmented rings and a flange like gland.
1. Radial & Tangential set: This sealing ring is made in pairs. The first one is radially cut & second is tangentially cut with gap between
the two rings. Rings segments have match marks and are packing pairs are doweled.
2. Double Tangent ring set: This type consists of two tangent rings doweled together. This kind of assembly seals in both directions,
making it double acting. This type packing are used in vacuum service and low pressure service.
3. Pressure breaker type: This is the simplest form of packing ring and because it does not have any overlapping or seal type joints,
it acts to break or slow down gas passage. This ring may be installed either face towards the pressure side.
Rings should not be allowed to operate without end clearance because its life will be short.
ROTARY COMPRESSORS (Screw, Root Blower, Sliding Vane, Scroll, Claw, Liquid Ring type)
Rotary compressors generally have no suction or discharge valves and use suction and discharge ports that are alternately exposed &
covered by the rotating or sliding elements. Screw, rotary lobe, sliding vane-type, and liquid-ring compressors fall into this category.
Screw Compressor: rotation of male & female helical screws causes axial progression of successive sealed cavities in between screws.
During the spin, the volume of the cavities decreases, which compresses the gas to the end of the rotor housing.
The relatively small-diameter rotors allow high speeds and these screw compressors are also suitable for a varying-speed operations,
which give the advantage, that these machines can handle different capacities. Screw compressor are usually easier to install than e.g.
centrifugals/piston types, small in size, lower capital cost than piston/centrifugals & give good air quality if used as air compressors.
On other hand, compressors are always with acoustic insulation, otherwise they would be noisy. Pressure working range is moderate.
Usually, the energy consumption is higher than piston types. The lubricated types of screw compressors need frequent maintenance.
The non-lubricated types can operate at higher speeds than the lubricated ones. This is required to minimize the backflow losses, but
gives the additional benefit over the lubricated types of higher capacities and pressures. While the lubricated screw compressors are
cooled with air or water, the oil-free compressors are cooled with water only. Besides the oil-injected lubricated screw compressors,
water-injected types do exist, but are rarely used. In non-lubricated types, rotors have to be positioned by synchronized gear system.
Roots Blowers (Lobe Compressors) have rotors coupled by a gear system. The rotors have lobes, which moves gas from inlet to outlet
by gripping in each other during the spinning of the rotors. The pressurization is done at the outlet of the housing.
Pressure ratios of root blowers are rather small; therefore they are typically application in vacuum services and pneumatic conveying,
sometimes with multiple units in series, but occasionally for process gas. The cost price of roots blowers is low as compared to others.
Advantage is that roots blowers operate oil-free. Disadvantages are high energy consumption,noisy operation,pulsations in air supply.
Sliding Vane Compressors consist of eccentric rotor containing radial slots with vanes. The vanes move against inner wall of housing,
shoving in and out of the slot during a spin, hereby decreasing the volume enclosed between the vanes and thus pressurizing the gas.
Sliding vane compressors have to be lubricated, so the air is not oil-free. Capacities and pressure are lower than screw compressors.
Generally they are not used for process gases.
Scroll Compressors operate by compression of gas between 2 spirals. One spiral is fixed & other rotates eccentric around static spiral.
Scroll compressors are usually air-cooled. They have very small capacities and moderate pressures, but work oil-free, with low noise.
Claw Compressors have 2 rotors with claw teeth gripping in each other during spinning movement. They are used for small capacities.
Liquid Ring Compressors are typically used for corrosive gas, applications with high product temperatures and wet-vacuum services.
Gases to be handled by these types are e.g. chlorine, carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide.
The compressor has an eccentric impeller. The housing is continuously supplied with liquid that seals the chambers of the impeller.
Inlet and discharge ports are located in impeller hub. As vaned impeller rotates, centrifugal force drives sealing liquid against the walls
of the elliptical housing. By a eccentric position of the impeller changes gas volume of chambers continuously, causing the process gas
to be successively drawn into the cavities and to be expelled against discharge pressure. The liquid can be water, liquid or oil.
Oil is used in vacuum applications. The liquid functions also as cooling medium. The separator is usually employed in discharge line to
minimize carryover of entrained liquid; liquid is externally cooled unless it is used in a once-through system. High energy consumption

Piston Compressors are of oldest designed types and were initially widely used in industry. They are used in process gas applications.
In the cylindrical housing a crosshead is connected to the piston by a piston rod. This will provides a linear motion for the piston rod,
aspirating and compressing gas in cylinder. Because of typical high operating temperature, piston compressors are cooled externally;
small types are cooled with air, the large types are cooled with water.
An advantage of the small types is the low capital cost, but disadvantages are the high-energy consumption, noisy operation coupled
with vibrations and short lifetime. The larger types have a better power number (especially slow-moving models) and longer lifetime,
but the purchase price, installation cost, and maintenance cost is high. Transmissions and cooling systems can be complicated.
Piston compressors are available for wide range of operating pressure, can go up to highest discharge pressure among all compressors
because of stalwart construction of machine. Typically have low specific speeds. Most are lubricated, non-lubricated are also available
Diaphragm compressors are typically employed for dangerous/corrosive gases. A plunger pump actuates the diaphragm hydraulically.
In other models, piston moves to/fro over a membrane that is fixed to circumference of housing & fixed to piston in heart of machine.
An important advantage the diaphragm compressors possess is that they have no seals for the process gas and no leakage problems,
which makes them suitable for hazardous products.
Diaphragm compressors are mostly air-cooled; temperature is not a serious problem, as large wall area relative to gas volume permits
sufficient heat transfer to approach isothermal compression. Small models are constructed in plastic, while bigger types are metallic.
They supply oil-free air and can handle very high pressures. Their application, however is limited to very small capacities.

Selection Considerations:
SAFETY: Process considerations, Economical considerations, Site and location.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM : Centrifugal compressors lubrication, Reciprocating compressors lubrication, Rotary compressors lubrication.
SEAL SYSTEMS : Dry shaft seals , Liquid film seal (oil film seal) , Packing glands.
ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT : Drivers (electrical motor, steam turbine), Couplings, Gearboxes, Cooling Systems (inter- and after coolers,
cooling on jacketed cylinders, motor cooling) , Pulsation Suppressors or Dampeners (typical for positive displacement compressors),
Separators (process gas, seal and lube oil) ,
CABLES
One of the most beneficial ways of distinguishing the characteristics of wire or cable is to determine if insulation or jacket material used
is thermoset or thermoplastic. The two materials have different properties that influence their performance in a variety of applications.

Thermoplastic Materials
Thermoplastic materials are defined as high molecular weight polymers that are not cross-linked and are generally characterized by the
distinct melting point of the insulation material. Thermoplastic materials can be repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by cooling
within a temperature band that is a physical property of the material. This property is a function of loose molecular bonding of material.
Some thermoplastic materials have a low melting point, which is a disadvantage in that melting insulation can lead to conductor failures.
Some thermoplastic insulations are also problematic as they produce dripping, flaming fires after ignition. They are economical to use.
Common thermoplastic insulations include, polyethylene (PE); polyvinyl chloride (PVC); polyurethane; polypropylene (PPE); nylon;
chlorinated polyethylene (CPE); tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), and fluorinated polymers such as DuPont’s TFE copolymers with ethylene
(Tefzel ), DuPont’s PFA (perfluoroalkoxy branched polymers), Allied Chemical’s Halar (ethylene copolymer with chlorotrifluoroethylene),
and Dynamit Nobel’s Dyflor (polyvinylidene fluoride).

Thermoset Materials
The molecular consist of chains that are tied together with covalent bonds in a network (crosslinked).
Thermoset insulations are generally characterized as softening, but not melting, during higher-than-normal temperature exposures.
While they soften, they tend to maintain the mechanical properties of the insulator. As a result, thermoset insulations generally exhibit
better low-and-high temperature properties, thermal aging resistance, and overload resistance than thermoplastic insulations.
Thermoset materials are vulcanized by heat or other methods during their fabrication process. The materials are infusible and insoluble.
The molecular structure is tightly interlocked (in contrast to thermoplastic insulations).
Common thermosetting insulations include ethylene propylene rubber (EPR); crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE); DuPont’s Hypalon
(chlorosulphonated polyethylene); nitrile or rubber butadiene nitrite (NBR); styrene butadiene rubber (SBR); and silicone rubber.

What is a thermoplastic material?

A simple analogy to thermoplastic is chocolate bar. When a chocolate bar is melted, it has the ability to take on a new shape as it cools.
This ability to be molded again and again is characteristic of thermoplastics.
Thermoplastics are composed of chains of molecules. Each thermoplastic molecule is composed of many smaller individual molecules.
When heat is applied, the added energy will allow bonds between molecules to be separated, causing them to move around like a liquid

What is a thermoset material?

If a chocolate bar is analogous to a thermoplastic, then thermoset materials can be described as being similar to a birthday cake.
Once a cake is baked, it takes its final shape. Baking it longer does not increase or decrease the size of the cake it remains fixed.
Ultimately if enough heat is applied it will burn but not melt like chocolate bar.
This particular characteristic is why the thermoset materials are useful as durable materials that do not soften under high temperatures.
Thermoset materials are those that are formed by basic polymer structures such as polyethylene, and are then cured or vulcanized.
The curing process is what turns the plastic polymers into thermoset materials, which are known as natural or synthetic rubber material.
The curing process can be done many ways, but the results are virtually same.
The long individual polymer chains of plastic become cross-linked by smaller molecules (shown as smaller red lines).

The figure shows the different molecular structures of a thermoplastic and a thermoset.
Note: Because of the cross-linking required to make a thermoset, they are often referred to as cross-linked materials.
“XL” in front of abbreviation for a plastic such as polyethylene (PE), it means that it has been cross-linked, not that it is “extra large.”
Such thermoset materials are called crosslinked polyethylene or XLPE.

How do I choose a material for my application?

Knowing that the key difference between thermoplastic and thermoset is in the way they respond to elevated temperatures can be an
important aspect of which material to choose.
For example, thermoset materials are often chosen for circuits that may experience an overload. This is because thermoset materials
have a reduced likelihood of failure if momentarily operated at the higher temperatures that often accompany an overloaded conductor.

Summary,
Thermoplastic materials are high molecular weight polymers that are not cross-linked, while the polymer chain of thermoset materials
are crosslinked in covalent bonded networks.
When thermoset resins are heated during manufacture from ambient to 232°C, they undergo an irreversible chemical reaction, referred
to as “curing” or “polymerization,” to make the final cross-linked thermoplastic product.
While thermoplastic materials can be reshaped by heating and cooling within the proper temperature ranges for the materials,
thermoset materials cannot be reshaped once they have been crosslinked.
FLAME RETARDANT (FR)
It has got resistance to fire momentarily (by adding fillers in PVC compound) at the cost of decrease in insulation properties that is
(Volume resistivity, ageing properties) by at least 10% as compared to normal PVC.
Moreover its conductor temperature withstanding capability (during overload) remains only at 70°C same as ordinary PVC cables.

FLAME RETARDANT LOW SMOKE (FRLS)

PVC has got flame retardant properties due to its halogen content. The fire in flame retardant cables gets extinguished immediately on
removal of the fire source. In the modern power, chemical, fertilizer plants many PVC cables are bunched in cable shaft or cable trays.
In case of fire in these cables the fire becomes self-sustaining. Moreover due to the burning of PVC a dense corrosive smoke is emitted
which makes fire fighting difficult, due to poor visibility and toxic nature of smoke. HCL content of smoke, not only damages equipments
near by, but also penetrates the RCC and corrodes the steel reinforcement. Due to this there is an extensive damage to the property.

To overcome these deficiencies FRLS i.e. Flame Retardant Low Smoke PVC was developed.
This PVC compound has got better fire retardant properties and it emits lower smoke and acid fumes when it catches fire
FRLS has special flame retardant,low smoke emitting,toxic fumes suppressing properties in addition to properties required by IS694:

In case of fire, convectional PVC gives thick black smoke and toxic fumes of hydrochloric acid gas which hampers visibility / rescues.
FRLS not only emits very little smoke and toxic gases but also retards the spreading of fire into new area (resistant to fire momentarily).
It is thus ideal for concealed/conduit wiring in multistoried high rise buildings such as banks, hospitals, factories, commercial complexes
Flame Retardant cable emit less toxic smoke / not easy to fire, Hence people get more time to leave dangerous area or avoid explosion

FRLS PVC compounds are flame retardant because of better LOI (limiting Oxygen Index) & TI (temperature Index) than ordinary PVC,
but better LOI and TI does not guarantee better flame retardant properties.
LOI and TI are only quality control tests and flame retardant testing is incomplete without finished cable testing as per IEC 332-1/3.
Generally for controlling process in plants (For PCS) Flame Retardant cables are used.
So fire retardant cables pay attention to the safety of human life.

FIRE RESISTANT CABLES

* Circuit integrity test as per IEC 331/ BS 6387-CAT.C, cables are subjected to fire at 750°C for 3 Hrs. with electricity flowing through it.
Fire Resistant cables can ensure the safety of electric conduction even at the high temperature that is in case of fire.
The individual conductors are wrapped with layer of fire resisting mica/glass tape which prevent phase to phase,phase to earth contact
even after the insulation has been burnt away.
Silicon rubber insulated cables are also used as fire resistant cables or fire survival cables.
Generally for controlling safety or shutdown in plants (ESD, FGS, System) Fire Resistant cables are used.
So fire resistant cables pay attention to the safety of power supply.

GENERAL
Flame Retardant cables resist spread of fire into new area. Fire gets extinguished immediately on removal of fire source (Momentarily)
Flame Retardant cables are not rated to continue to operate in a fire, and in all probability will not maintain circuit integrity during a fire.

Fire Resistant cables maintain circuit integrity and continue to work for a specified time under defined conditions.
Fire Resistant cables continue to operate in the presence of a fire and are commonly referred to as circuit integrity cables.
Fire Resistant properties are significant for the critical circuits required for life safety or a safe and immediate plant shut down.

There is a vast difference between cables that are rated flame retardant and those that have earned the rating of fire rated/fire resistive.
Flame retardant cable resists spread of fire into new area, flame retardant cable only restricts the spread of fire by inhibiting combustion
Flame retardant cables are not rated to continue to operate in a fire, and in all probability will not maintain circuit integrity during a fire.
A flame retardant cable is NOT fire resistant cable or fire rated cable or fire survival cable.
Fire rated cables continue to operate in the presence of a fire and are commonly referred to as circuit integrity cables.
When the need to maintain circuit integrity is essential, specify fire rated / fire resistive cable for those critical circuits that need to work
in order to assure life safety or a plant shut down.

COATINGS
There are 3 materials used for coating a copper conductor.
These are tin, silver, and nickel.

Tin is the most common and is used for improved corrosion resistance and solderability.

Silver coatings are used in high temperature environments (150°C – 200°C). It is also used for high frequency applications where
silver’s high conductivity (better than copper) and “skin effect” work together to reduce attenuation at high frequencies.

Nickel coatings are used for conductors that operate at 200°C-450°C. At these temperature copper oxidizes rapidly if not nickel plated.
One drawback of nickel, however, is its poor solderability.
The conductor is the metallic component of cables through which electrical power or electrical signals are transmitted.
Conductor size is usually specified by American Wire Gauge (AWG), circular mil area, or in square millimeters.

AWG
The American Wire Gauge (AWG) (also called Brown and Sharpe or B&S) is used exclusively in U.S.A for copper and aluminum wire.
The Birmingham Wire Gauge (BWG) is used for steel armor wire.
The diameters according to the AWG are defined as follows:
The diameter of size 4/0 (sometimes written 0000) equals 0.4600 inch and that of size #36 equals 0.0050 inch; the intermediate sizes
are found by geometric progression. That is, the ratio of diameter of one size to that of the next smaller size (larger gauge number) is:

Circular Mil
Sizes larger than 4/0 are specified in terms of the total area of a cross-section of the copper in circular mils (cmil).
A circular mil is a unit of area equal to the area of a circle one mil in diameter. It is p/4 (0.7854) of a square mil (one mil 5 0.001 inch).
The area of circle in circular mils is equal to square of its diameter in mils. A solid wire 1 inch in diameter has an area of 1,000,000 cmils

Square Millimeters
Metric sizes are given in terms of square millimeters (mm2).

STRANDS TYPES
Concentric Strand
A concentric stranded conductor consists of a central wire or core surrounded by one or more layers of helically laid wires.
Each layer after the first has 6 more wires than preceding layer.
Except in compact stranding, each layer is applied in a direction opposite to that of the layer under it.
If the core is single wire and all of the outer strands have same diameter, first layer will contain 6 wires, second-12, third-18 etc.

Bunch Strand
The “bunch stranding” is applied to collection of strands twisted together in same direction without regard to geometric arrangement.

Rope Strand
A rope stranded conductor is a concentric stranded conductor each of whose component strands is itself stranded.
A rope stranded conductor is described as number of groups laid together to form a rope with number of wires in each group.

Sector Conductor
A sector conductor is a stranded conductor whose crosssection is approximately the shape of a sector of a circle.
A multiple conductor insulated cable with sector conductors has a smaller diameter than corresponding cable with round conductors.

Segmental Conductor
A segmental conductor is a round, stranded conductor composed of three or four sectors slightly insulated from one another.
This construction has the advantage of lower AC resistance (less skin effect).

Annular Conductor
An annular conductor is a round, stranded conductor whose strands are laid around a suitable core.
The core is usually made wholly or mostly of nonconducting material.
The advantage is lower AC resistance for given cross-sectional area of conducting material by eliminating greater skin effect at center.

Compact Strand
A compact stranded conductor is a round or sector conductor having all layers stranded in the same direction and rolled to a
predetermined ideal shape.
The finished conductor is smooth on the surface and contains practically no interstices or air spaces. This results in a smaller diameter.

Compressed Strand
Compressed conductors are intermediate in size between standard concentric conductors and compact conductors.
In a concentric stranded conductor, each individual wire is round and considerable space exists between wires.
In a compressed conductor, the conductor has been put through a die which “squeezes out” some of space between wires.
In a compact conductor each wire is preformed into trapezoidal shape before wires are stranded together into a finished conductor.
This results in even less space between wires. A compact conductor is therefore smallest in diameter (except for a solid conductor).
 Ampacity (DC) ohm/Km (DC) Minimum
AWG mm2
(at 60°C) (at 20°C) Number of Wires
30 0.05 7

28 0.08 7

26 0.14 7

24 0.25 7

22 0.34 56 7

21 0.38 47 7

20 0.50 7A 38 7

18 0.75 10 A 25 7

17 1 11 A 18 7

16 1.5 13 A 12 7

14 2.5 21 A 7.4 7

12 4 28 A 4.6 7

10 6 36 A 3 7

8 10 46 A 1.83 7

6 16 61 A 1.15 7

4 25 81 A 0.727 7

2 35 99 A 0.524 7

1 50 125 A 0.387 19

1/0 55 150 A 0.322 19

2/0 70 160 A 0.268 19

3/0 95 195 A 0.193 19

4/0 120 220 A 0.153 19

300MCM 150 250 A 0.124 37

350MCM 185 285 A 0.0991 37

500MCM 240 340 A 0.0754 37

600MCM 300 395 A 0.0601 61

750MCM 400 0.0471 61

1000MCM 500 0.0366 61