Classical Mechanics

Motion Under Central Forces

Dipan Kumar Ghosh
UM-DAE Centre for Excellence in Basic Sciences
Kalina, Mumbai 400085
September 6, 2016

1 Introduction
Central forces occupy a special place in physics because some of the most commonly met
forces in nature are of this nature. Examples are Hooke’s law force, gravitational force
etc. Such forces are derivable from a space dependent potential and depend only on the
distance between the object and the source of the force. If the source of the force is taken
to be the origin, the force is given by F~ (~r) = −∇V (~r), where V (~r) = V (| r |). Since the
∂V
potential is centrally symmetric, F~ (~r) = − r̂. Let us begin by making some qualitative
∂r
comments on the nature of force and consequence thereof:

1. If the central force does not have explicit time dependence, it is conservative in
nature and there exists an energy function which is conserved. This can be seen by
writing the force equation as

F~ = m~v̇ = −∇V (~r)

Taking a product of both sides with ~v , we have,

d
m~v̇ · ~v = −∇V · ~v = − V
dt
which gives
mv 2
 
d
+V =0
dt 2
mv 2
so that the energy E = + V = constant.
2
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 2

2. Since the force does not have any (θ, ϕ) dependence, it is isotropic in space. A
consequence of such rotational symmetry is the conservation of angular momentum
which can be trivially seen by observing that the torque about the origin, τ =
~r × F~ (~r) = 0.

3. Suppose the initial velocity of the particle is along some direction ~v . Since the force
is along the radial direction, the motion takes place always in the plane described by
~r and ~v . This is actually a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum
~ The motion must therefore take place in a plane perpendicular to L.
~r × p~ = L. ~

4. The trajectory of the particle is described by ~r(t) and θ(t). Once can eliminate t to
get the equation to the trajectory r(θ).

5. The state of motion of two particles is completely specified by six quantities

~ r, θ).
(E, L,
will see later that the orbit is described in terms of six quantities.

2 The Two Body Problem - Reduced Mass

For a two particle system, we need to specify two positions and two velocities. However,
if the only interaction between the particles is mutual, the centre of mass does not accel-
erate and its position R ~ becomes a cyclic coordinate. Define centre of mass and relative
coordinate R ~ and ~r respectively by

~ = m1~r1 + m2~r2 = 1 (m1~r1 + m2~r2 )

R (1a)
m1 + m2 M
~r = ~r2 − ~r1 (1b)

where we have used M = m1 + m2 . In terms of these coordinates we can express the

original coordinates as

~r1 = R~ − m2 ~r (2a)
M
~r2 = R~ + m1 ~r (2b)
M
The kinetic energy of the pair can be expressed as
1
T = (m1 (~ṙ1 )2 + ~~r2 )2 )
2 
1 
~ m2 ~ 2 
~ m1 ~2
= m1 Ṙ − ṙ + m2 Ṙ + ṙ
2 M M
1 1 m1 m2 2
= (m1 + m2 )Ṙ2 + ṙ
2 2 M
1 1
= M Ṙ2 + µṙ2 (3)
2 2
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 3

where µ is defined as the “reduced mass” and is given by

1 1 1
= + (4)
µ m1 m2

[Examples of reduced mass: For planet-Sun system, the reduced mass is nearly equal
to the mass of the planet since the mass of the Sun is much greater than the planetary
mass. Likewise in the hydrogen atom, the mass of the nucleus being much greater than
the electronic mass, the reduced mass is nearly equal to the mass of electron. However,
if we consider a positronium atom, where an electron moves round a positron which has
the same mass as that of the electron the reduced mass is m/2 where m is the mass of an
electron (or positron).]
Thus the Lagrangian of the system is given by
1 1
L = M Ṙ2 + µṙ2 − V (| r |) (5)
2 2
(Note that in (3) and (5), Ṙ and ṙ stand the vector velocities and should not be confused
with the time derivatives of the distances) In Lagrangian (5), R ~ is a cyclic coordinate.
Hence the momentum of the centre of mass is conserved. The centre of mass, therefore,
moves with a constant velocity. We can move the origin to the location of the centre of
mass and consider the motion of a reduced mass about the centre of mass. This reduces
a two body problem to a one body problem.

3 Lagrangian in Spherical Polar Coordinates

We will express (5) in a spherical polar coordinates (r, θ, ϕ), taking the origin at the centre
of mass. Note that as the motion will be shown to take place in a plane (taken as the x-y
plane) which is conventionally written as the polar (r, θ) plane, we have taken ϕ as the
polar angle and θ as the angle made by the radius vector with the x-axis.
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 4

θ r
Q

x
The Lagrangian is given by
µ 2 
L= ṙ + r2 sin2 ϕθ̇2 + r2 ϕ̇2 − V (r) (6)
2
θ is cyclic. However ϕ is not cyclic and the corresponding Euler Lagrange equation is
 
d ∂L ∂L
− =0
dt ∂ ϕ̇ ∂ϕ
which gives,
d
(µr2 ϕ̇) − µr2 sin ϕ cos ϕθ̇2 = 0
dt
This gives,
µr2 ϕ̈ + 2µrṙϕ̇ − µr2 sin ϕ cos ϕθ̇2 = 0
We can choose the initial condition to be ϕ = π/2 and ϕ̇ = 0, so that ϕ̈ = 0 at t = 0.
Since ϕ̈ = 0 and ϕ̇ = 0, ϕ̇ cannot change and remains zero. Consequently, ϕ also cannot
change and remains at its initial value π/2.
The fact that the motion is confined to a plane (which we conveniently take to be the
x-y or the polar r − θ plane) is a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum,
which, in turn, is a consequence of the force being central.

d~l d
= (~r × p~)
dt dt
d~r d~p
= × p~ + ~r ×
dt dt
= ~v × m~v + ~r × F~ = 0

Since the angular momentum is conserved, the motion takes place in a plane defined by
the initial position ~r0 and the initial velocity ~v0 . Let this plane be P . By definition, P
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 5

~r0 × ~v0
is perpendicular to the vector n̂ = . However, since the angular momentum
| ~r0 × ~v0 |
~l = m~r × ~v does not change with time, neither does the plane P .
Hence the motion takes place in the x-y plane with
µ 2
L= (ṙ + r2 θ̇2 ) − V (r) (7)
2
Looking at the Lagrangian (7), we notice that since θ is cyclic, the corresponding mo-
mentum µr2 θ̇ is a constant of motion. For the case of planetary motion, this results in
Kepler’s second law as from the figure below one can see that the rate of sweeping the
area by the radius vector is given by
 
dA d 1 1
= r(rθ) = r2 θ̇
dt dt 2 2
which remains constant.

dθ
δΑ

Note that since µr2 θ̇ is constant, θ̇ cannot change sign and as a result θ is a monotonic
function of time. Let us now look at the Euler-Lagrange equation for r,
 
d ∂L ∂L
− =0
dt ∂ ṙ ∂r
which gives
∂V
µr̈ − µrθ̇2 + =0
∂r
∂V
Using = −F (r) so that we get
∂r
µr̈ = µrθ̇2 + F (r)

Using the constancy of the angular momentum and denoting it as l = µr2 θ̇, we get the
following differential equation for the radial acceleration

l2
µr̈ = + F (r) (8)
µr3
This equation can be interpreted by looking at the two terms on the right. The force F (r)
is simply the central force with which we started derived from the potential V (r), which
in case of planetary motion is the attractive gravitational potential or in case of atomic
motion, the attractive Coulomb potential. The first term l2 /µr3 can be thought to have
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 6

l2
been derived from a repulsive potential . This force is always repulsive irrespective
2µr2
whatever be the nature of the central potential. For the case of the attractive Coulomb
(or gravitational) potential, this term compensates for the attractive nature. At short
distances, this term (known as the centrifugal barrier) dominates and the net effect is
repulsive. However, the potential is soon dominated by the attractive term.
l2
2mr 2

V centrifugal

r
Effective

−k/r

Coulomb

The reason for calling it a centrifugal force term is that as l has the dimension of
mr ω, this term as the form of mrω 2 , the familiar form for the centrifugal force. The
2

radial equation (8) is a second order differential equation and it is possible, in principle,
to solve this to get complete solution. However, we can get the first integral of the
Lagrangian which gives us a first order differential equation. Define:
l2
Vef f = V (r) +
2µr2
so that
dVef f l2 ∂V
=− 3 +
dr µr ∂r
so that the radial equation (8) can be written as
 2 
d l
µr̈ = − + V (r) (9)
dr 2µr2
This is a second order differential equation and it is possible, in principle, to solve this
equation. However, we can get the first integral of the Lagrangian which gives us a first
order differential equation. (9) can be written as

l2
   
d 1 2 d
µṙ = − V (r) +
dt 2 dt 2µr2
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 7

which gives
1 2 l2
µṙ + V (r) + = E = constant (10)
2 2µr2
so that s 
l2

2
ṙ = E − V (r) − (11)
µ 2µr2
which is a first order equation. For physical solution, the quantity within the square root
sign cannot be negative. The time to go from r = r0 at t = 0 to r at t = t is given by
Z t Z r
dr
t= dt = s  (12)
l2

0 r0 2
E − V (r) −
µ 2µr2

ldt
Using the constancy of µr2 θ̇, we can write dθ = , which when used with (12) gives,
µr2
Z Z r
l ldr
θ= dt = s (13)
µr2 r0

l2

r2 2µ E − V (r) −
2µr2

Let us look at some qualitative aspects of the solution. We started with a particle
(mass µ) having three degrees of freedom. We thus had three second order differential
equations, solution of which require six constants. We have L ~ and E as four conserved
quantities, which leave us with two constants of integration r0 and θ0 .

We have
l2
Vef f = V (r) +
2µr2
k
Since E is conserved, E − Vef t ≥ 0. For an inverse square law attractive force F (r) = − 2
r
k
which is derived from V (r) = −
r
k l2
Vef f = − +
r 2µr2
The centrifugal term dominates at small distances beyond which the inverse square law
takes over. Since the centrifugal term goes to infinity as 1/r2 , the mass does not fall onto
the centre unless the attractive potential energy term goes to −∞ faster than the way
the centrifugal term goes to +∞. Note that according to (11), we must have

l2
r2 V (r) + < Er2
2µ
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 8

l2 1
Thus r → 0 only if r2 V (r) < − , i.e. if V (r) ∼ n with n > 2.
2µ r
Let us look at the effective potential, which has the shape shown in the figure. Consider
a particle having an energy E1 . The particle can approach the potential barrier from large
distances till it reaches r = rmin at which its velocity becomes zero (E1 = Vef f ). However
at this point −dV /dr is positive and hence the particle turns back and goes to infinity.
The trajectory of the particle is a hyperbola.

Hyperbolic trajectory

Veff
E1

Turning point
r

E2
An Open Orbit
E3
r r r
min min max

Consider a particle having an energy E2 . The motion is confined between two limits
rmin and rmax (shown in red). The orbit may or may not be closed. For the attractive
inverse square law, the orbit is an ellipse.
Finally for a particle having an energy E3 , the value of r remains constant so that the
particle moves in a circle.
The condition for the path to be closed is that the value of the angle θ, calculated from
r = rmin to r = rmax should be an integral multiple of m/n, where m and n are integers, so
that after n periods, the particle would go back to its initial position, having completed m
revolutions. In general, such paths are open orbits. Only two specific instances are known
which give closed orbit, the inverse square law force and the force −kr for a 3d-oscillator.

4 Kepler’s Problem:
Let
α
V (r) = −
r
The effective potential is given by

α l2
Vef f = − +
r 2µr2
Define
l2
M2 = (14)
2µ
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 9

dV
In terms of this the minimum of the effective potential is at (set = 0)
dr
2M 2
r = rmin = (15)
α
at which the value of the potential has the value
α2
Vefmin
f = − (16)
4M 2
1
Substitute u = , in terms of which
r
Vef f = −αu + M 2 u2

Using this, the expression (13) for the angle θ is given by

Z
ldr
θ= p
2
r 2µ(E − Vef f (r))
Z
M du
=− √ (17)
E + αu − M 2 u2
To integrate, complete the square in the denominator. Define
α2 α
L2 = E + ; z = M u − ; dz = M du
4M 2 2M
(17) can be written as
Z Z
M du dz −1 z
 
θ=− √ = √ = cos −C
L2 − z 2 L2 − z 2 L
We can absorb the const ant of integration into the angle θ and write the solution as
L  α 
u= cos θ +
M 2M L
Reverting to the variable r, the equation to the trajectory is given by
M
r= α (18)
L cos θ +
2M
This is the equation to a conic section of the form
p
r= (19)
1 +  cos θ
where the semi-latus rectum p and the eccentricity  are given by
2M 2
p= (20a)
α
2M L
= (20b)
α
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 10

p
2b
εa

2a
Note that the choice of the origin for the angle (θ = 0) in the equation to the conic
section taken above is
p
r= = a(1 − )
1+
which is the shortest distance from the focus to the position of the particle or the perihelion
distance.
The orbit is an ellipse for negative energy E as  < 1.
We can calculate the time period by using the fact that the rate of sweeping the area
l 2µ
is constant and is equal to . The time period is therefore given by A, where A is
2µ l
the area of the ellipse which is given by πab. Using the geometry of the ellipse, one can
express the area of the ellipse as πa3/2 p1/2 . Thus the time period is given by
2µ 3/2 1/2
T = πa p
l
1/2
2µ 3/2 2M 2

= πa
l α
s
2µ 3/2 2l2
= πa
l 2µα
r
µ 3/2
=2 πa
α
r
µ
= πα (21)
2 | E |3
Thus the square of the time period is proportional to the cube of the major axis. Further,
the time period only depends on the energy of the particle. In the last step of (21), we
have used the following expression for the semi-major axis of an ellipse:
p p 2M 2 1
a= 2
a = 2
= 2
1− 1− α

2M L
1−
α
2
2M 1
= 2
α2
 
α 4M L
1− × E+
α2 4M 2
α
=
2|E|
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 11

Thus the expression for the time period (21) can be expressed as
r
µ α3/2
T =2 π
α (2 | E |)3/2
r
µ 1
= πα (22)
2 | E |3/2
α2
Using the expression E = L2 − and the expression for the eccentricity (20b), we
4M 2
have,
4M 2
2 = E 2 + 1
α
2
α
The minimum energy E, is equal to − (as L2 ≥ 0). Thus the minimum value of the
4M 2
eccentricity  is 0, which represents a circle. For circular motion
α2 µα2
E=− = −
4M 2 2l2
If in this expression, we put l = n~, the energy is given by
µα2 µe4
E=− = −
2n2 ~2 2n2 ~2
where, we have used α = e2 .

5 Laplace-Runge-Lenz (LRL) Vector

We have already shown that for the inverse square law, the energy and the angular
momentum are constants of motion. It turns out that one can find yet another vector
which is a constant of motion. For historical reasons, this vector goes by the name of
Laplace-Runge- Lenz vector. We define LRL vector as
~ = p~ × ~l − µαr̂
A (23)
d d~p ~
We have already shown that ~l is a constant of motion. Hence (~p × ~l) = × l. We
dt dt
have,
d~p ~ α
× l = − 3 ~r × (~r × p~)
dt r
µα
= − 3 ~r × (~r × ~ṙ)
r
µα h i
= − 3 ~r(~r · ~ṙ) − ~ṙ(r2 ) (24)
r
We use the following identity
1 ~ ~  1 d 2
~r · ~ṙ = ~ṙ · ~r = ~r · ṙ + ṙ · ~r = (r ) = rṙ
2 2 dt
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 12

(Note that the last equality results in the product of two scalars r and ṙ, not the scalar
product of the corresponding vectors) Substituting this in (24), we get,

d~p ~ µα h i
× l = − 3 ~r(~r · ~ṙ) − ~ṙ(r2 )
dt r
µα h ~ 2
i
= − 3 rṙ~r − ṙ(r )
r  
d ~r d
= µα = µα (r̂)
dt r dt

Substituting this in (24), conservation of L-R-L vector follows.

~ A
The vector L, ~ and the scalar E constitute 7 constants of motion. However, a two body
system has six degrees of freedom. Since, the condition at initial time is unknown, no
more than six constants of motion can be there. We have already seen that L ~ and E are
conserved. Thus, we look for two relationships between the L-R-L vector and the former
four.
The first relation is obtained by observing that A~ is perpendicular to ~l:

~ · ~l = [~p × ~l − mαr̂] · ~l
A
1
= (~p × ~l) · ~l − mα ~r · (~r × p~)
r
=0+0=0

~ lies in the plane of motion.

Hence, A

Α µα p
Α pX L
P S R
pX L µα

p Q
p
pX L
θ µα

Α
L-R-L Vector
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 13

To get a second relationship, consider

~ · ~r = (~p × ~l − µαr̂) · ~r
Ar cos θ = A
= ~l · (~r × p~) − µαr
= l2 − mαr

Rearranging,
l2 1
r=
mα A
1+ cos θ
µα
A 2 A2 4M 2
Thus the eccentricity is given by  = . Using (20b), we get  = 2 2 = 1 + E 2 .
mα mα α
2
Substituting for M and simplifying, we get the second realtionship that we have been
looking for:
A2 = 2µEl2 + µ2 α2
Conservation of LRL vector is a consequence of a symmetry in a higher dimensional space,
the SO(4) symmetry. We are not in a position to discuss it in this lecture.

6 Determining Force Law from the Orbit Equation:

Starting with
l2 ∂V
µr̈ = 3
−
µr ∂r
1
we get, on substituting u = ,
r
du 1 du 1 du dθ
=− 2 =− 2
dt u dt u dθ dt
1 lu2 du l du
=− 2 =−
u µ dθ µ dθ
2
   
dr d l du d l du dθ
=− =−
dt2 dt µ dθ dθ µ dθ dt
 2 
ldu l 2
=− u
µ dθ2 µ
l 2 d2 u
= − 2 u2 2
µ dθ
Thus the differential equation for the orbit becomes,
l2 2 d2 u l2 3
−µ u = u − F (u)
µ2 dθ2 µ
i.e.
l 2 2 d2 u
 
3
− u + u = F (u) (25)
µ dθ2
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 14

From (25) one can infer the form of F .

Example:
an
The equation to the orbit is given by n cos nθ = 1. Determine the force law.
r
Solution:
Taking logarithm of the orbit equation, we have
n ln a − n ln r + ln cos nθ = 0
which, interms of u can be written as
n ln a + n ln u + ln cos nθ = 0
Differentiating with respect to u
du
= u tan nθ
dθ
The second derivative
d2 u du
2
= un sec2 nθ + tan nθ = un sec2 nθ + u tan2 nθ
dθ dθ
Thus
l2 u3 u2n
F =− (n + 1) 2n
µ a
2n+3
Thus the force is proportional to u i.e. the force varies as 1/r2n+3 .
Example: An object moves in a circular orbit in such a way that the centre of the
force is towards a fixed point on the circumference. Find the law of force.
Solution: From geometry, we have r = 2R cos θ
P

S θ
R

Thus the equation to the orbit is 2au cos θ = 1 (This is a special case of the previous
example with n = 1. Thus the force is inversely proportional to the fifth power of the
distance.) We have, u = (1/2R) cos θ. Differentiating,
d2 u 1
2
= (sec θ tan2 θ + sec3 θ) = u(tan2 θ + sec2 θ)
dθ 2R
. Thus the force is given by
l2 2 d2 u l2 3 2 2 l2 3 2 2 l
2
F (u) = − u = − u (sec θ + tan θ + 1) = −2 u sec θ = −8R u5
µ2 dθ2 µ2 µ2 µ2
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 15

7 Advance of the Perihelion of Mercury

As a planet orbits round the Sun, it is found that the location of its perihelion does not
remain fixed but advances a bit with every revolution. This is known as the precession
of the orbit. All planets precess to a lesser or greater degree which can be explained by
incorporating the pull due to other planets. The planet Mercury has been an exception
because of its proximity to the Sun. As seen from the earth, Mercury precesses about
574 seconds of an arc (3600seconds = 1◦ over every hundred years. Out this amount 531
seconds of an arc can be explained by gravitational pull of other planets and by the fact
that the observation is made from a non-inertial frame, viz. the Earth. (The balance 43
seconds of arc per century is explained by the General Theory of Relativity, which along
with the bending of light around the Sun and the gravitational redshift, were proposed
by Einstein as test of GTR.)

Sun Mercury
P1

P2
P3

1
To understand the advance of perihelion, we add a small repulsive 3 force to the
r
attractive inverse square law,
α β
V (r) = − + 2
r r
Note that the added term has the same nature as that of the cenbtrifugal term and as
a result, the mathematical manipulations are identical. The expression for the angle (cf.
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c K. Ghosh, IIT Bombay 16

(13)) becomes
Z
du
θ = −M p
E + αu − βu2 − M 2 u2
Z
du
= −M p
E + αu − (M 2 + β) u2
M 0 du
 Z
M
=− √
M0 E + αu − M 02 u2

where M 02 = M 2 + β. As before, define

α2 α
L2 + E + 02
; z = M 0u −
4M 2M 0
The expression for the angle, after setting the constant of integration to zero, is given by
M z
θ= cos
M0 L
Solving for u and reverting back to r, as before, we get

2M 02 /α
r=
2M 0 L
1+ cos γθ
α
M0
where γ = .
M
Thus the eccentricity and the semi-latus rectum in this case are given by
1/2
2M 0 L 4M 02 E

= = 1+
α α2

2M 0
p=
α
Clearly, as before  < 1 if E < 0. However, the argument of the cosine, instead of being
θ is now γθ. Thus when θ → θ + 2π, cos γθ does not return to its initial value. The shift
can be calculated by observing that
r
M0 M2 + β βθ
γθ = θ =θ 2
≈θ+
M M 2M 2
Thus the perihelion advances by
βθ µβθ
∆θ = 2
= 2
2M l
which is proportional to the strength of the repulsive force.