NatSci 2 Exam Reviewer
mantle (asthenosphere and mesosphere), core (outer: molten,
Physical Geology-Study of Earth’s materials, surface processes, and internal
processes
Historical Geology- study of history of the Earth (rocks and fossils) and the
life on Earth (fossils)
Geology- study of the Earth
Modern Geology
Nicholas Steno-father of geology and stratigraphy
Law of superposition-sedimentary layers are deposited in a time sequence
with the oldest on the bottom and the youngest on the top.
Principle of Original Horizontality-strata either perpendicular to the horizon or
inclined to the horizon were at one time parallel to the horizon
Principle of Lateral Continuity-material forming any stratum were continuous
over the surface of the Earth unless some other solid bodies stood in the
way
Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships-if a body or discontinuity cuts across
a stratum, it must have formed after that stratum (igneous intrusion is always
younger than the rock it cuts across)
Steno’s Law of Constant Angles-the angles between corresponding faces on
crystals are the same for all specimens of the same mineral
James Hutton-principle of uniformitarianism (The present is the key to the
past)
Principle of uniformitarianism-the physical, chemical, and biological laws that
operate today have also operated in the geologic past. The processes
observed presently shaping the Earth have been at work for a very long time
Georges Cuvier- suggested that earth surface features were the result of
cataclysmic events whose magnitudes were greatest in the past
(catastrophism: The Earth has been affected by sudden, short-lived, violent
events that were sometimes worldwide in scope)
Age of earth- 4.6billion years old
Four fundamental forces:
- Gravity: attraction of one body toward another
- Electromagnetic force: binds atoms into molecules
- Strong nuclear force: binds protons and neutrons together in
the nucleus
- Weak nuclear force: breaks down an atom’s nucleus, producing
radioactive decay
*galaxies began forming from leftover matter; hydrogen and helium
Origin of Solar system
*big bang theory
*Nebular Hypothesis-the whole solar system starts as a large cloud of gas
with some heavier elements called a protosolar nebula that contract under
self gravity
*clump of dust grains-physical collision-gravity-protoplanet
General Characteristics of the solar system
Planetary orbits and rotation-planet and satellite orbits are in a common
plane, nearly all planet and satellite orbital and spin motions are in the same
direction, rotation axes of nearly all planets and satellites are roughly
perpendicular to the place of the ecliptic
Chemical and physical properties-the terrestrial planets are small, have high
density, and are composed of rock and metallic elements, the jovian planets
are large, have a low density and are composed of gases and frozen
compounds
Terrestrial planets-mercury, Venus, mars, earth
Jovian planets-Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto
Earth-started as dust ball from the nebular gas and dust brought together by
gravity(accretion), which has heated(heating) and eventually segregated into
layers(differentiation) as it cooled.
Consequences of heating and differentiation
- Formation of atmosphere
- Formation of oceans
- Life started when atmosphere was modified due to the
appearance of the blue-green algae
Earth’s vital statistics
- Size: Circumference (Eratosthenes)
- Shape: oblate spheroid-flattened at the poles and bulging at the
equator
- Composition: crust(lithosphere: continental and oceanic),
inner: solid)
Crust
Composition: silicate material
Density: 2.8g/cm3
Oceanic crust: density of 3.0g/cm3
Mantle
Composition: silicate material but with the presence of more Fe and Mg
compared to the crust (82% of Earth’s volume)
Upper mantle: density of 3.3 made up of Fe, Mg silicates
Lower mantle: density of 6.0 made up of Mg, Si, Fe oxides
Core
Composition: Iron and Nickel but mostly nickel
Major Boundaries
- Mohorivicic discontinuity: boundary between the crust and
mantle
- Gutenberg discontinuity: boundary between the core and
mantle
- Outer core-inner core boundary
Lithosphere- crust and part of the upper mantle (solid, outermost shell of the
planet, brittle)
Asthenosphere- plastic layer under lithosphere (weak or soft zone in the
upper mantle)
Mesosphere- between asthenosphere and outer core
Outer core- liquid (responsible for the earth’s magnetic field)
Inner core- solid
Continental drift- Leonardo da Vinci, Francis Bacon: apparent fit of the
continents
Gondwanaland- Africa, Australia, India, South America (Eduard Suess,
Antonio Snider)
Alfred Wagner- the continents have not always been in their present
locations but have drifted and changed positions
Pangaea- supercontinent “all lands”
Evidence for continental drift
- Matching coastlines
- Matching geology
- Glacial deposits
- Fossil evidence
Rejection of continental drift
- Tidal influence of the moon: tidal friction of the magnitude
needed to displace the continents would bring the earth’s
rotation to a halt in a matter of a few years
- Ice breaker effect: no evidence to prove that oceanic crust is
weak enough to permit passage of continents without being
deformed in the process
Sea floor spreading (Harry Hammond Hess)
- Magma oozes up from the Earth’s interior along the mid
oceanic ridges (long sinuous ridges that occupy the middle of
the Atlantic Ocean andthe eastern part of the Pacific Ocean)
- New seafloor is created and spreads away from the active ridge
crest
- Eventually the seafloor sinks into deep oceanic trenches (deep
trenches along the margins of continents, particularly
surrounding the Pacific Ocean.)
Hess’s discovery explained puzzles in marine geology
- Youth of the ocean floor with respect to the continents
- Presence of island arcs
- Deep sea trenches
- Origin of mid oceanic ridges
- Guyouts-flat topped mountains (as the sea floor moved and
subsided, carrying the eroded volcanoes along with it, the
guyouts were moved into deeper and deeper water
Apparent Polar Wandering Paths- geophysicists found evidence Earth’s
magnetic poles had wandered all over the globe (poles don’t move, its
actually the continents that move)
Paleomagnetic direction- indicates location
Paleomagnetic inclination- indicates latitude - Definite chemical composition
Paleomagnetic bands- Vine and Matthews Rock forming minerals- minerals that make up most of the rocks of earth’s
- Discovered alternating bands of normal and reversed magnetic crust
polarities on either side of the mid Atlantic ridge A. silicates- most common group of rock forming minerals (quartz,
- Throughout time, the north and south pole flips in terms of hornblende, feldspar, Biolite)
magnetic orientation Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron- fundamental building block of silicates (single
- Proposed that magnetic anomalies over mid-oceanic ridges chain, double chain, sheet structures, three dimensional frameworks)
result from a combination of sea floor spreading and reversals *minerals composed of isolated tetrahedron have 1 silicon atom for every 4
of the Earth’s magnetic field oxygen atoms
Geomagnetic reversals- related the patterns of magnetic reversals with the *as more oxygen atoms are shared, the percentage of silicon in the mineral
magnetic profiles compiled from the seafloor increases
Reversals of Earth’s magnetic fields- studying piles of lava flows on the *silicate minerals are described as having a high or low silicon content based
continents, geophysicists found that over short time scales, the Earth’s on the ratio of silicon to oxygen
magnetic field undergoes polarity reversals. Major groups of silicate minerals
Tectonics- study of the movement and deformation of the lithosphere 1. olivine- single tetrahedron (no cleavage)
Plate tectonics- the branch of tectonics that deals with the processes by 2. Pyroxene group (augite) – single tetradedron (two plane
which lithospheric plates move around and interact with each other cleavage)
Lithospheric movement 3. Amphibole group (Hornblende)- double chains (2 plane
cleavage)
- Convection currents
4. Micas; biotile, muscovite- sheets (1 plane cleavage)
- Ridge push-oceanic floor pushed from the center 5. Feldspars; orthoclase, plagloclase- 3 dimensional (2 plane
- Slab push cleavage)
Plate boundaries 6. Quarts- no cleavage
1. Convergent- 2 plates moving towards each other *each mineral group has a particular silicate structure which determines the
A. Oceanic –oceanic convergent plate boundary cleavage it exhibits
B. Oceanic-continental convergent plate boundary Ferromagnesian (dark) silicate- minerals in which ions of iron and/or
C. Continental-continental convergent plate boundary magnesium join their silicate structures. It has higher specific gravity than
**Subduction- more dense oceanic crusts goes under less non-ferromagnesian (light) silicates
dense oceanic crust (older oceanic crust cools down and B. Carbonates- rock forming mineral groups
becomes more dense) *calcite and dolomite are commonly found in the sedimentary rocks
2. Divergent- plates move away from each other (happens at the limestone and dolostone
mid-oceanic ridge) new oceanic lithosphere is created by *2 other non-silicate minerals frequently found in sedimentary rocks are
upwelling mantle that melts, resulting in basaltic magmas which halite and gypsum
intrude and erupt at the oceanic ridge to create new oceanic C. Oxides, D. Sulfides. E. Halides, F. Native elements
lithosphere and crust. As new oceanic lithosphere is created, it Properties
is pushed aside in opposite directions. 1. Crystal form- external expression of minerals orderly internal
3. Transform plate boundaries- plates slide against each other arrangement of atoms
Driving forces: convection current and radioactive decay 2. Luster- appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface
*mantle plumes- long thin blobs of rock which may feed a hot spot (an area of a mineral (Bornite- sub metallic, Talc- non metallic pearly)
in the Earth's mantle 3. Color- slight impunities in the mineral quartz give it a variety of
where hot material from the Earth's colors
interior is moving upward) 4. Streak- color of a mineral in its powered form obtained by
*no subduction(continental-continental). It just forms mountain ridges rubbing a mineral across a piece of unglazed porcelain called
Paleomagnetism- studies of the Earth's magnetic field and how it varied streak plate
through time 5. Hardness- measure of resistance of a mineral to abrasion or
Magnetic inclination- lines of force intersect the surface of the Earth at scratching
various angles that depend on position on the Earth's surface. Moh’s scale of hardness
**if new oceanic crust and lithosphere is continually being created at the 1. Diamond (hardest)
oceanic ridges, the oceans should be expanding indefinitely, unless there 2. Corundum
were mechanisms to destroy the oceanic lithosphere. Benioff zones and the 3. Topaz
oceanic trenches provided the answer: Oceanic lithosphere returns to the 4. Quartz
mantle by sliding downward at the oceanic trenches (subducting). Because 5. Potassium feldspar
oceanic lithosphere is cold and brittle, it fractures as it descends back into 6. Apatite
the mantle. As it fractures it produces earthquakes that get progressively 7. Fluorite
deeper. 8. Gypsum
9. Talc (softest)
A combination of dragging the lithosphere along the top of the convection 6. Cleavage- tendency of a mineral to break along planes of weak
cell, ridge push, sliding, and slab pull all appear to be contributing factors to bonding (ex. Mica)
the cause of plate tectonics. 7. Specific gravity- number representing the ratio of the weight of
a mineral to the weight of an equal volume of water
Rock – aggregate of one or more minerals 8. Taste, feel, magnetism, relative to acid
*minerals are formed together as a mixture in which the properties of the *when minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage is
individual minerals are retained described by the no. of planes exhibited and the angles at which they meet.
*when certain minerals are found by themselves in large impure quantities, *minerals that do not exhibit cleavage when broken are said to fracture
they are considered to be a rock (fibrous, conchoidal/broken glass, irregular fractures)

Mineral Mineral Identification- metallic luster, non-metallic luster(dark), non-metallic

- Naturally occurring luster (light)
- Inorganic solid
- Orderly internal structure Rock Cycle
Igneous rock – uplift – weathering, transportation and deposition – sediment *minerals that form in the same temperature regime are found together in the
– lithification (cementation and compaction) sedimentary rock – heat and same igneous rock
pressure (metamorphism) – metamorphic rock – melting – magma – cooling 1. ultramafic composition- igneous rocks that are composed of the earliest
and solidification (crystallization) formed minerals (crystallize at very high temperature)
2. Baslatic composition- igneous rocks composed mainly of pyroxene and
Igneous rocks – originate when molten material called magma cools and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar
solidifies 3. andesitic- composed of amphibole and intermediate plagioclase feldspar
4. granitic composed- formed from the last minerals to crystallize (minerals
Weathering- process which slowly disintegrates and decompose rock quarts and potassium feldspar)
Crystallization – may occur either at Earth’s surface or beneath the surface - crystallizes at lowest temperature
Erosional agents- picks up and transports rock fragments (rain, wind,
Sediment – particles and dissolved substances *igneous rocks- named based on texture and mineral composition
Lithification- conversion to rock Rhyolite- aphanitic rock with granitic composition
- Compaction Granite- phaneritic rocks composed of quartz and potassium feldspar
- Concentration – percolating water coats the sediment with Andesite porphyry- rock with a fine-grained groundmass and andesitic
mineral matter and gradually sediments the parties together composition
Sedimentary rock- shale, sandstone, conglomerate
Metamorphic rocks-
*on occasions when sedimentary rocks are carried deep within earth, they
will be subjected to great pressure and heat.
On occasions when sedimentary rocks are compressional forces and /or
high temperations
*when rocks in a high temperature metamorphic environment are subjected
to directional forces, they are easily folded
*rocks that are transported to great depths may melt to generate magma
*magma originated in the mantle and crust as a result of partial melting of
said rock. Because the magma body is lighter than the surrounding rocks, it
works its way toward the surface occasionally producing a volcanic eruption
Pyroclastic debris- ash and cinders from volcanic eruptions
Extrusive/volcanic igneous rocks- igneous rocks that form when lava
solidifies
Intrusive/plutionic igneous rocks- most magma never reaches the surface,
rather it crystallizes as depth
*although intrusive igneous rocks form at depth, uplifting and erosion often
expose them at the surface

Igneous textures
- Rate of cooling greatly affects both the size and arrangement of
the crystals, a property called texture
- Rapid cooling produces smaller crystals and slower cooling
allow time for larger crystals to form
1. Aphanitic- igneous rocks that form at surface, or as small
masses within the upper crust posses a very fine grained
texture
2. Vesicular- many fine-grained rocks contain voids left by gas
bubbles trapped as lava solidifies
3. Phaneritic- when large masses of magma solidify at depth, they
form igneous rocks that exhibit a grained texture. Individual
minerals can be identified with unaided eyes
A. Glassy- ions are unordered, rapid cooling of silica(rich
lavas)
B. Pumice- frothy mass of fine shards of intertwined glass
formed during volcanic eruptions when silica rich lava is
ejected into the atmosphere chilling quickly
4. Polyphyritic- large crystals(pherocrysts) embedded in a matrix
of smaller(groundmasses)
-form when certain minerals begin to crystallize and grow quite
large before others begin to form
- then the magma containing these large crystals migrates to a
new environment where cooling takes place more rapidly (rock
will have porphyritic texture in which the groundmasses is fine-
grained)
-the magma may migrate to a smaller intrusive body where
cooling occurs more rapidly but still slowly enough to produce
visible crystals (groundmass will be coarse-grained)

Mineral composition of igneous rocks

Bowne’s reaction series- minerals with higher melting point (olivine)
crystallize first