Accepted Manuscript

The effect of fiber orientation on the post-cracking behavior of steel fiber reinforced
concrete under bending and uniaxial tensile tests

Antonio Mudadu, Giuseppe Tiberti, Federica Germano, Giovanni Plizzari, Alessandro

Morbi

PII: S0958-9465(17)30630-3
DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.07.012
Reference: CECO 3103

To appear in: Cement and Concrete Composites

Received Date: 17 July 2017

Revised Date: 4 June 2018
Accepted Date: 19 July 2018

Please cite this article as: A. Mudadu, G. Tiberti, F. Germano, G. Plizzari, A. Morbi, The effect of fiber
orientation on the post-cracking behavior of steel fiber reinforced concrete under bending and uniaxial
tensile tests, Cement and Concrete Composites (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.07.012.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
THE EFFECT OF FIBER ORIENTATION ON THE POST-CRACKING

BEHAVIOR OF STEEL FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE UNDER

BENDING AND UNIAXIAL TENSILE TESTS

Antonio Mudadu, Giuseppe Tiberti, Federica Germano, Giovanni Plizzari and Alessandro

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Morbi

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Biography:

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Antonio Mudadu, Ph.D. Post-doctoral fellow at the Department of Civil Engineering,

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Architecture, Land, Environment and of Mathematics, University of Brescia, Italy.
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a.mudadu@unibs.it, Tel: +39 0303711324.
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Giuseppe Tiberti, Assistant Professor of Structural Engineering at the Department of Civil

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Engineering, Architecture, Land, Environment and of Mathematics, University of Brescia,

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Italy. giuseppe.tiberti@unibs.it, Tel: +39 0303711221.

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Federica Germano, Ph.D. Post-doctoral fellow at the Department of Civil, Environmental,

Architectural Engineering and Mathematics, University of Brescia, Italy.

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federica.germano@unibs.it, Tel: +39 0303715809.

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Giovanni A. Plizzari, Professor of Structural Engineering at the Department of Civil

Engineering, Architecture, Land, Environment and of Mathematics, University of Brescia,

Italy. giovanni.plizzari@unibs.it, Tel: +39 0303711287.

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Alessandro Morbi, Team Leader Products/Applications Aggregates & Concrete, Global

Product Innovation Department, Heidelberg Cement Group, Bergamo, Italy.

a.morbi@itcgr.net, Tel: +39 0354126281.

ABSTRACT

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The present paper deals with an experimental study on the post-cracking tensile behavior of

Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC). In this regard, a broad experimental campaign

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based on Uniaxial Tensile Tests (UTTs) on notched cylinders as well as three point bending

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tests (3PBTs) on notched beams was carried out.

Based on the experimental results, the benefits offered by the addition of fiber in the post-

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cracking behavior was deeply studied: fibers increase the toughness of concrete and the
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ultimate crack width.

The uniaxial post-cracking tensile laws of SFRCs were directly obtained by UTTs and
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indirectly retrieved by 3PBTs by performing an inverse analysis procedure. In the latter case

the fracture energy was generally higher. It was proven that there is a strongly dependency of
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the SFRC post-cracking performance with the fiber distribution and orientation that was
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measured by means of image-analysis technique.

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Keywords: Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Uniaxial Tensile Tests, Fiber Orientation.
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Notation list:

Ac = area of the cut cross-section;

Af = area of the cross-section of a single fiber;

Af,eff = total effective area of steel fiber reinforcement over the cross-section;

CODm = Mean Crack Opening Displacement;

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Ec = concrete elastic modulus;

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Es = steel fiber elastic modulus;

fck = characteristic cylindrical compressive concrete strength;

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fcm = mean cylindrical compressive concrete strength;

fcm,cube = mean cubic compressive concrete strength;

fct
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= cylindrical tensile concrete strength;
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fctm = mean cylindrical tensile concrete strength;
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fLk = characteristic value of limit of proportionality;

fLm = mean value of limit of proportionality;

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fRi = flexural tensile strength of fiber reinforced concrete corresponding to

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CMOD=CMODi;

fRik = characteristic flexural tensile strength of fiber reinforced concrete

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corresponding to CMOD=CMODi;
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fRim = mean residual flexural tensile strength of fiber reinforced concrete

AC

corresponding to CMOD=CMODi;

fuf = fiber filament ultimate tensile strength;

Gf = fracture energy of concrete;

Gf,tot = fracture energy of concrete at ultimate crack opening, wc;

Gf,w = fracture energy of concrete at crack opening equal to w;

hcyl = height of cylindrical concrete sample;

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Lf = fiber length;

Lf/φf = fiber aspect ratio;

Vf = volume fraction of fibers;

wc = ultimate crack opening;

δi = displacement of an individual LVDT;

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δm = mean displacement, evaluated as the average of the displacement detected

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by the three LVDTs;

η = average orientation number of all fibers of a cross-section (orientation

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factor);

= out-of-plane angle of each fiber of a cross-section;

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θi AN
ρf,eff = effective steel fiber reinforcement ratio;

σ1 = post-cracking tensile strength at breakpoint (bi-linear post-cracking law);

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φcyl = diameter of cylindrical concrete sample;

φf = diameter of fiber;
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ψ = fibers per unit area of a cross-section.

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AC

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1. INTRODUCTION

Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is a composite material with a cementitious matrix and a

discontinuous reinforcement, the fibers. The addition of fibers does not generally affect the

concrete tensile strength and elastic modulus, whereas the concrete post-cracking behavior

improves due to the remarkable residual post-cracking strength related to the enhanced

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material toughness [1, 2, 3].

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Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) in combination or not with conventional bars [4],

has been used in several applications, including tunnel segments [5], industrial pavements [6]

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and highway or bridge decks overlays [7].

The growing use of FRC has been possible by the development of national and international

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standards concerning the design of FRC elements [8, 9], which propose specific design rules
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and constitutive laws, including the stress-crack openings (σ-w) law which characterizes the
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post-cracking resistance of FRC. The latter is fundamental in order to include the composite

performance in a design process based on non-linear analytical approaches or finite element

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models [3, 9, 10].

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The stress-crack width relationship (σ-w) is better determined directly from an Uniaxial

Tensile Test (UTT), which requires an accurate setup and a specialized equipment to avoid
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instability during the test. The difficulties in carried out UTTs are principally: the perfect
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alignment of the specimen in the load chain, the perfect manufacturing of the concrete
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specimen and the gripping of the specimens to the loading platens [11]. Because of these

issues, many researchers determine the post-cracking law through indirect methods.

Indirect tensile tests, such as three point bending tests (3PBTs) [12], four point bending tests

(4PBTs) [13], splitting tensile tests [14], wedge splitting tests [15] and double wedge splitting

tests [16] are often adopted and the σ-w relationship is eventually assessed either through an

inverse analysis procedure [17] or through simplified approaches [9, 18]. In these tests a non-
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uniform state of stress could be superimposed over the local stress [11]. For instance, a very

steep stress gradient develops in a splitting tensile test [14] since, just below the loading

platens, compressive stresses develop perpendicular to the loading axis, whereas more or less

uniform tensile stresses develop in the middle part of the section. Similarly, in bending tests

the stress-gradient in a notched or cracked section could be noticeable in presence of large

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crack openings.

Many researchers have observed that the σ-w relationship obtained through indirect methods

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generally overestimates that obtained from the uniaxial tensile tests [19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. This

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tendency was related to the different stress gradient of indirect tests with respect to UTTs

[24, 25] or it can be associated to the different fiber distribution and orientation in samples

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used in UTTs with respect to other specimens [18, 20, 22, 23].
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The aim of the present work is to shed some new lights on the relationship between the
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uniaxial and flexural post-cracking behavior with special reference to fiber distribution and

orientation in the standard test specimen. The former was investigated by means of Uniaxial
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Tensile Tests on notched cylindrical specimens, the latter by means of 3PBTs according to
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EN 14651 [12]. In fact, the fib Model Code 2010 (hereinafter MC2010) [9], which is a

reference international standard for the design of FRC structures, refers to post-cracking
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nominal residual flexural strengths as determined from EN 14651 [12] (or from other
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standards if reliable correlation factors are provided).

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It is a matter of fact that, in horizontally cast beams for use in 3PBTs [12], a typical specific

fiber orientation and distribution is probably present [ 26, 27]. The latter, herein deeply

investigated by means of image analysis technique [26, 28], is also affected by the type of

vibration, production method and pouring direction [29, 30]. To this aim, beams were also

vertically cast in order to reproduce a fiber orientation similar to the one present in cylindrical

samples used in UTTs. In any case, the orientation number [26, 27, 28, 31, 32] and fiber
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density were measured on several of the tested specimens, in order to demonstrate the strong

correlation between these parameters and the corresponding uniaxial stress-crack width

response.

By considering seven SFRCs series, 49 horizontally cast beams and 17 vertically cast beams

(3PBTs) together with 38 cylinders (UTTs) were globally investigated. It was proven that the

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fracture energy measured on beams horizontally cast (as required by EN 14651 [12]), tested

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under 3PBTs, is rather higher than that of vertically cast beams and of cylindrical specimens

tested under UTTs. This tendency was clearly explained by measuring the orientation number

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and fiber density; a simplified factor which includes both these parameters was also

introduced.

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2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

In order to investigate several steel fiber reinforced composites, three different fiber contents
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and types of hooked-end fibers were considered. One type fiber was 35 mm long (Lf), with a

diameter (φf) of 0.55 mm, leading to an aspect ratio (Lf/φf) of 64; the tensile strength (fuf) and
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Young modulus (Es) were about 1345 MPa and 210 GPa, respectively. Three different
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volume fractions (Vf) of steel fibers, equal to 0.32, 0.5 and 1.0% (corresponding to 25, 39.25
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and 78.5 kg/m3, respectively) were used.

Moreover, by referring to a fiber content of 0.5%, two further types of hooked-end steel
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fibers were adopted, both having a diameter (φf) of 0.55 mm, tensile strength of 1500 MPa
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and an elastic modulus (Es) of 210 GPa; the former is 60 mm long, leading to an aspect ratio

(Lf/φf) of 75, while the latter is 80 mm long, leading to Lf/φf of 100.

The combination of the previously mentioned parameters defines a specific series (Table 1),

identified according to the notation X-Y-Z-W, where: X represents the fcm,cube value (and it is

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preceded by the letter C, which stands for Cubic compressive concrete strength); Y the fiber

dosage (Vf); Z the fiber aspect ratio (Lf/φf); W the fiber filament ultimate tensile strength (fuf).

2.1 Materials and specimens geometry

Seven concrete batches, whose composition is shown in Table 1, were prepared. A similar

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reference concrete matrix, designed for a target concrete strength C35/45 (according to

Eurocode 2 [33]), was used. For all the batches, portland cement CEM I-42.5R [34] was

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adopted and the grain size distribution of rounded shape siliceous aggregates was in

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accordance to the Bolomey curve [35]. Noteworthy is that, in order to ensure a proper

workability of concrete with higher amount of fibers, the content of superplasticizer was

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suitably varied. With regard to concrete fresh state, results from slump test according to
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EN 12350-2 [36] were also reported (Table 1); it should be noticed that, with the exception of

series C30-1.0-64-1345, all the batches present similar slump.

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Table 1 – Mixture composition of steel fiber reinforced concretes.

Gravel
Max.
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Cement Sand (4-15mm) Super- Vf,

Water aggregate w/c Fibers Slump
Series content (0-4mm) or plasticizer fibers
size
(4-20mm)
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[kg/m3] [l/m3] [kg/m3] [kg/m3] [mm] [-] [kg/m3] [kg/m3] [%] [mm]
C30-1.0-64-1345 386 181 854 919 15 0.47 4.6 78.5 1.0% 90
C55-0.32-64-1345 390 183 909 929 20 0.47 3.1 25 0.32% 140
C55-0.5-64-1345 386 181 854 919 15 0.47 3.8 39.25 0.5% 180
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C60-0.5-64-1345 386 181 854 919 15 0.47 3.8 39.25 0.5% 180
C55-1.0-64-1345 390 183 909 929 20 0.47 3.9 78.5 1.0% 120
C65-0.5-75-1500 390 183 908 925 20 0.47 3.9 39.25 0.5% 150
C

C60-0.5-100-1500 390 183 908 925 20 0.47 3.9 39.25 0.5% 100
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Table 2 – Main mechanical properties of SFRCs and specimens tested.

Type and # of specimens tested Concrete mechanical properties
Series # Horizontally # Vertically # Small # Large fcm,cube fctm [MPa]
Ec [GPa]
Cast Beam Cast Beam Cylinder Cylinder [MPa] Small Large
31.4 3.70 30.2
C30-1.0-64-1345 6 - 3 - -
(0.02) (0.14) (0.11)
51.2 3.90 4.07 34.5
C50-0.32-64-1345 5 4 2 4
(0.03) (0.44) (0.17) (0.15)
55.2 2.71 34.6
C55-0.5-64-1345 6 - 4 - -
(0.03) (0.14) (0.07)
58.7 3.32 34.7
C60-0.5-64-1345 6 - 7 - -
(0.08) (0.21) (0.06)
C55-1.0-64-1345 5 5 2 4 56.4 5.01 4.06 36.2
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(0.02) (0.06) (0.10) (0.01)
63.0 4.44 4.58 37.1
C65-0.5-75-1500 10 4 3 4
(0.05) (0.13) (0.09) (0.08)
61.1 4.20 4.37 36.5
C60-0.5-100-1500 11 4 2 3
(0.03) (0.00) (0.05) (0.03)

In any concrete batch at least three cubes (150 mm side) were cast for measuring the mean

compressive cubic strength (fcm,cube).

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The UTTs were carried out on both small and large cylinders having different geometries:

diameter φcyl=80 mm and height hcyl=160 mm for small specimens, φcyl=150 mm and

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hcyl=300 mm for large specimens (Figure 1a). The small ones were chosen in accordance to

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previously experimental campaigns carried by the Authors [37]; the large ones were adopted

for referring to a fracture area in cylindrical samples similar to that of beams under 3PBTs.

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With regard to bending tests, at least 5 cast horizontally samples were produced according to
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the procedure suggested by EN14651 [12] (150x150x550 mm, Figure 1b); hence, the center

of the lubrificated steel mould was filled up to approximately 90% of the height of the
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specimen; afterwards the corners were filled by pouring from the ends.
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In four series, at least 4 beams were also cast vertically (Figure 1c) by filling the mould in
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three equal stages. In this latter case, the main aim was to reproduce the vertical casting

direction of cylinders and, hence, to investigate the effect of fiber orientation, as discussed in
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Section 4.1.

In Table 2, the specific numbers of specimens tested under UTTs and 3PBTs are summarized.
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The cylinders were cured for 28 days into a fog room having 95-100% relative humidity
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(RH) and ±20°C; afterwards, their surfaces were prepared very carefully through a grind and

polish process for obtaining parallel specimens ends, in order to guarantee an adequate

bonding with the platens and to avoid, as much as possible, any eccentricity.

In order to acquire the stress-crack opening relationship and to prevent the cylinders from

failing near a glued surface, a triangularly shaped notch was made in the middle section

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through a lathe to a depth of 4 mm and 8 mm (corresponding to about 5% of the specimens

diameter) for small and large specimens, respectively; this reduced the middle section area of

about 20%. A detail of the notched specimens is shown in Figure 2a and b.

The beams were cured as the cylinders and they were sawn at midspan with a peak-shaped

diamond circular saw to a depth of 25 mm (Figure 2c), according to EN 14651 [12].

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The mean compressive cubic strength (fcm,cube), the Young modulus (Ec, secant static modulus

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in compression according to UNI 6556 [38], measured on two small cylinders for each series

before the sawing process) and the mean tensile strength (fctm, obtained by performing

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uniaxial tensile tests on small and large cylinders, as described in Section 3.1), together with

the respective coefficient of variations (CVs), are listed in Table 2. One should noticed that,

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in series C30-1.0-64-1345, because of low workability (Table 1), some problems arose during
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the casting process, resulting in a lower concrete strength (for more details see [39]).
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(a) (b) (c)

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Figure 1 – Casting directions of cylinders and beams: vertical (a), horizontal, according
to EN 14651 [13] (b), and vertical (c), with evidenced the cut cross-section for image
analysis process (dimensions in mm).

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(a) (b) (c)

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Figure 2 – Test set-up and instrumentation layout for UTTs small (a), large (b) and
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3PBTs (b).
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2.2 Uniaxial Tensile Test: test set-up and loading history

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In Figure 2a and b the experimental set-up and the instrumentation employed are depicted.
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The test were carried out by using a very stiff hydraulic servo-controlled (closed-loop) testing

machine, whose axial stiffness is sufficient to ensure stable tests without any snap-back in the
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averaged displacement transducer signal.

The specimens were bound to two fixed loading platens, which cannot rotate; hence, the non-
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rotating end-platens solution was adopted as previously done by other researcher

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[37, 40, 41, 42]. The bottom platen was fixed to the bed of the testing machine by four bolts,

hence providing a very rigid constraint (Figure 2a and b); a cylindrical steel plate of the same

diameter of the specimen, helped to align the concrete cylinder, limiting possible initial

eccentricities. The top platen was screwed to a threaded bolt that transferred the tension to a

reversible load cell with a load capacity of ±250 kN and a nominal sensitivity of 2 mV/V.

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Once the load cell of the test setup has been balanced and the bolts of the upper and lower

loading plate have been prestressed, the cylinder is glued to the top loading platen by using a

commercial (two component) epoxy resin which guaranteed a strong gripping of the

specimens itself and a very fast hardening. Afterwards, the glue was applied on the second

surface and the specimen was put in contact with the bottom loading platen. After the second

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glued connection has hardened, the instrumentation was applied on the specimen [43].

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The tests were controlled by means of the mean value of the Crack Opening Displacement

(CODm), obtained from three clip-gauges (having a range of measurement of 5 mm and a

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sensitivity of 2.5 mV/V) placed astride the notch, around the cylindrical specimen at 120 deg

(Figure 2a and b). The three clip-gauges were connected in parallel to obtain an average

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signal used as the feed-back signal owing to the high sensitivity of the clip-gauges. The
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tensile tests are considered to be carried out in (CODm) control (up to 4.5 mm), since the
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base length of clip-gauges is very small (35 mm) and the contribution of the elastic

deformation to the measured displacement is negligible. Three additional Linear Variable

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Differential Transformers (LVDTs, having a range of 20 mm and a sensitivity of 80 mV/V),

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were placed radially at 120 deg astride the notch to measure the mean displacement (δm) on a

base length of 40 mm (Figure 2a and b).

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Four loading rates were employed: 3 µm/min (up to CODm=0.03 mm), 9 µm/min (up to
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CODm=0.1 mm), 30 µm/min (up to CODm=0.5 mm) and 90 µm/min (up to CODm=3.5 mm).
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Afterwards, tests continued under stroke control at a rate of 600 µm/min until descending to

1% of the maximum load (Pmax). The value of all the measuring devices were recorded at a

rate of 1 Hz.

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2.3 Three Point Bending Test: Test set-up and loading history

3PBTs were performed on notched beams according to European Standard EN 14651 [12], as

required by the fib Model Code 2010 [9] for determining post-cracking material properties.

All the specimens were tested with an INSTRON hydraulic servo-controlled (closed-loop)

testing machine with MTS control, having a capacity of 500 kN. The test set-up is shown in

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Figure 2c. The Crack Mouth Opening Displacement (CMOD) was measured by means of a

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clip gauge (having a range of measurement of 5 mm and a sensitivity of 2.5 mV/V),

positioned astride the notch (with a depth of 25 mm) at midspan. Additional Linear Variable

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Differential Transformers (LVDTs) were used to measure the Crack Tip Opening

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Displacement (CTOD) as well as the vertical Load Point Displacement (LPD). In particular,
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the mean value of the Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTODm) was determined as mean

value of those recorded by two LVDTs, horizontally positioned next to the notch tip on both
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sides of the beam. Two LVDTs, vertically supported by an aluminum bar sustained by two

steel devices placed at the mid-height of the specimen along the vertical line of the supports
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(Figure 2c), were used for measuring the mean value of the vertical Load Point Displacement
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(LPDm).

The tests were carried out by using the CMOD as a control parameter (up to 4 mm). Two
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loading rates were employed, namely 0.05 mm/min (up to CMOD=0.1 mm) and 0.2 mm/min
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(up to CMOD=4 mm); afterwards, tests continued under LPD control until descending to 1%
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of the maximum load (Pmax) or a CTODm of 8 mm. During the first two minutes, the values

of all the measuring devices were recorded at a rate of 5 Hz; afterwards, the latter was

reduced to 2 Hz.

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3. POST-CRACKING UNIAXIAL CONSTITUTIVE LAWS

In this section, uniaxial post-cracking tensile laws obtained from both UTTs and 3PBTs are

presented and discussed. Special attention is devoted to results from uniaxial tensile tests

because of the general lack in the literature of experimental data from FRC specimens based

on these tests. In this regard, the geometry and the number of the cylinders were also taken

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into account by adding two terms (J and #) to the notation X-Y-Z-W, introduced in Section 2;

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definitely, the resulting notation is X-Y-Z-W-J-#, where: J represents the dimensions of the

cylinder (S stands for small samples and L for large ones) and # is the specimen identification

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number.

3.1 Post-cracking tensile law from UTTs

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In Figure 3a, the axial stress (σ) is plotted against the average axial displacement (δm), as

detected by three LVDTs of a typical sample (the measurement of each single LVDT (δi) is
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shown as well). One can observe that, in the pre-peak region, the displacement readings of
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each LVDT are similar because the centric loading and the stiff platens led to equal
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longitudinal deformations on the specimen. At peak load, a crack occurs at the weakest spot

along the circumference of the cylinder due to the intrinsic heterogeneity of the material (as
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can be seen, the largest deformation just beyond peak is measured by LVDT number 3, δ3).

By further increasing the average crack opening, at the other sides of the cylinder the
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deformation decreases (δ1 and δ2 diminish). When δ3 exceeds 0.05 mm, the trend reverses (δ1
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and δ2 increase, while δ3 diminishes since the crack develops over the whole cracked section);

the three LVDTs readings become almost equal at an average displacement (δ) of 0.06 mm.

Consequently, the average stress-crack displacement diagram (σ vs. δm) shows a bump. This

shape, observed by researchers over the past years for plain concrete [42, 44], is due to a non-

symmetric crack propagation in the matrix and to the ability of stress-redistribution when

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fixed loading platens are used. In fact, with fixed platens, when the crack starts the specimen

surfaces are forced to remain parallel; hence, a closing bending moment develops. The crack

is prevented from further extension until, at a given moment, the other side of the specimen

starts to fracture. The bump phenomenon, which ends at about 0.06 mm, can have a rather

noticeable influence on the overall response of plain concrete samples [42, 44], whereas it is

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negligible in SFRC ones which are characterized by larger crack openings. In fact, by

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considering the entire response of sample C60-0.5-64-1345-S-9 (Figure 3b), a uniform crack

evolution through the circumference of the specimen was evidenced from 0.1 mm to 8 mm,

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resulting in a stable and well-controlled softening branch after the peak stress.

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Stress, σ [MPa]

Stress, σ [MPa]

5.0 5.0
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C60-0.5-64-1345-S-9 C60-0.5-64-1345-S-9

4.0 4.0
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3.0 3.0

2.0 2.0
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δ1

δ2
1.0 1.0
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δ1 δ3
δ2
δ3 δm
δm
0.0 0.0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Displacements,, δi [mm] Displacement, δi [mm]
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(a) (b)
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Figure 3 – Stress versus individual displacement diagrams from a typical test up to

0.1 mm (a); up to the end of the test (b).
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In Figure 4, typical stress-crack opening curves obtained from UTTs carried out on small

cylinders are plotted with the corresponding mean experimental curve.

For each sample, the crack width, w, is calculated from the mean displacement δm by

applying the follow equation:

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σ( w)
w = δm − l meas (1)
Ec
Note that is lmeas corresponds to the base length of the three LVDTs, equal to 40 mm (Figure

2a,b).

Stress,, σ [MPa] 5.0

C60-0.5-64-1345-S

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4.0

3.0

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2.0

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Experimental curves

Mean experimental curve

1.0

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0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
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Crack width, w [mm]

Figure 4 - Stress – crack width curves of each small cylinder of the series C60-0.5%-64-
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1345 and mean experimental curve.

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The experimental results of all small and large specimens tested are shown in Figure 5 and
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Figure 6, respectively. In addition, the numerical values of the tensile peak stress (fct), the

ultimate crack opening (wc, corresponding to a residual post-cracking stress equal to 1% of

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the peak stress), and the tensile fracture energy (Gf, defined as the energy required to
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propagate a tensile crack of unit area [45]) at different crack openings are listed together with
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the mean values and CVs in Table 3 and Table 4 for small and large specimens, respectively.

Fracture energy Gf was evaluated at crack openings equal to 0.1 mm, 0.5 mm, 1.5 mm,

2.5 mm and 3.5 mm in order to investigate fracture behavior from Serviceability (SLS) to

Ultimate Limit States (ULS).

All the curves show an initial load drop generally followed by a strength rise, except for

samples belongings to C30-1.0-64-1345-S and C50-0.32-64-1345-S series (Figure 5a and

16
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Figure 5b). In the former, the high fiber content was not probably exploited because of the

low workability and the low concrete strength, while in the latter the low fiber content

(0.32%) is the main reason. On the other hand, by using higher fiber volume fractions (0.5

and 1.0%, C55-0.5-64-1345-S and C55-1.0-64-1345-S, respectively) the initial noticeable

post-cracking strength increase can be appreciated, which is strongly affected by the fiber

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content, as expected (Figure 5c and Figure 5d). The aforementioned tendencies are also

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confirmed by the data collected in Table 3. In fact, when referring to a crack opening of

0.5 mm, the corresponding Gf,0.5 exhibited by series C50-0.32-64-1345-S is equal to

SC
0.54 N/mm, while the same parameter for series C55-1.0-64-1345-S was 1.24 N/mm.

Similarly, when referring to Gf,2.5, the corresponding values observed are 1.91 N/mm and

U
3.68 N/mm, respectively. Experimental results on large cylinders (C50-0.32-64-1345-L and
AN
C55-1.0-64-1345-L) show analogous tendencies as can be retrieved from Figure 6a and
M

Figure 6b and from Table 4.

The influence of the fiber length was also investigated; the latter is noticeable when
D

comparing concretes having fiber lengths ranging from 35 mm and 60 mm; for instance, by
TE

considering C60-0.5-64-1345 and C65-0.5-75-1500 series, the corresponding Gf,tot results

4.99 N/mm and 13.49 N/mm, respectively. Furthermore, the wc are also considerably
EP

different (17 and 26 mm, respectively), since the ultimate crack opening is correlated to the
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fiber length [20].

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However, when increasing the fiber length from 60 mm to 80 mm (C65-0.5-75-1500 and

C60-0.5-100-1500 series) the value of Gf for different crack openings doesn’t change

significantly for both small and large cylinders (Table 4 and Table 5, Figure 5e and Figure 5f,

Figure 6c and Figure 6d, respectively). Moreover, also the corresponding ultimate crack

width (wc) slightly increases. Therefore, it seems that fibers longer than 60 mm do not modify

significantly the post-cracking behavior.

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Stress, σ [MPa]

Stress, σ [MPa]
6.0 6.0
C30-1.0-64-1345-S C50-0.32-64-1345-S

5.0 5.0

4.0 4.0

3.0 3.0
Experimental curves
Mean experimental curve
2.0 2.0
Experimental curves
Mean experimental curve
1.0 1.0

PT
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Crack width, w [mm] Crack width, w [mm]

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(a) (b)
Stress, σ [MPa]

SC
Stress, σ [MPa]
6.0 6.0
C55-0.5-64-1345-S C55-1.0-64-1345-S

5.0 5.0

4.0 4.0

3.0

U 3.0
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2.0 2.0
Experimental curves Experimental curves

Mean experimental curve Mean experimental curve

1.0 1.0
M

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Crack width, w [mm] Crack width, w [mm]
D

(c) (d)
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Stress, σ [MPa]

Stress, σ [MPa]

6.0 6.0
C65-0.5-75-1500-S C60-0.5-100-1500-S

5.0 5.0
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4.0 4.0

3.0 3.0
Experimental curves Experimental curves
C

Mean experimental curve Mean experimental curve

2.0 2.0
AC

1.0 1.0

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Crack width, w [mm] Crack width, w [mm]

(e) (f)

Figure 5 – Stress - crack width curves for small specimens: C30-1.0-64-1345-S (a), C50-
0.32-64-1345-S (b), C55-0.5-64-1345-S (c), C55-1.0-64-1345-S (d), C65-0.5-75-1500-S (e),
C60-0.5-100-1500-S (f).

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Stress, σ [MPa]

Stress, σ [MPa]
6.0 6.0
C50-0.32-64-1345-L C55-1.0-64-1345-L

5.0 5.0

4.0 4.0

3.0 3.0
Experimental curves

PT
Mean experimental curve
2.0 2.0
Experimental curves
Mean experimental curve
1.0 1.0

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0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Crack width, w [mm] Crack width, w [mm]

SC
(a) (b)
Stress, σ [MPa]

Stress, σ [MPa]

6.0 6.0

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C65-0.5-75-1500-L C60-0.5-100-1500-L

5.0 5.0
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4.0 4.0

3.0 3.0
M

Experimental curves Experimental curves

Mean experimental curve Mean experimental curve
2.0 2.0
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1.0 1.0
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0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
Crack width, w [mm] Crack width, w [mm]

(c) (d)
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Figure 6 – Stress - crack width curves for large specimens: C50-0.32-64-1345-L (a),
C55-1.0-64-1345-L (b), C65-0.5-75-1500-L (c), C60-0.5-100-1500-L (d).
C
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Table 3 – Main results from UTTs on small specimens.
Specimen fct wc Gf,0.1 Gf,0.5 Gf,1.5 Gf,2.5 Gf,3.5 Gf,tot ψ η ρeff
2
X-Y-Z-W-G-# [MPa] [mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [fibers/cm ] [-] [-]
C30-1.0-64-1345-S-3 4.08 10.0 0.30 1.29 3.08 4.38 5.31 7.19 1.89 0.73 0.33
C30-1.0-64-1345-S-9 3.13 9.0 0.26 1.20 2.62 3.31 3.74 4.29 2.05 0.70 0.34
C30-1.0-64-1345-S-15 3.90 16.0 0.24 0.97 1.84 2.28 2.63 3.55 2.31 0.71 0.39

mean value 3.70 11.67 0.27 1.16 2.51 3.33 3.89 5.01 2.08 0.71 0.35
(0.14) (0.32) (0.11) (0.14) (0.25) (0.32) (0.35) (0.38) (0.10) (0.02) (0.09)

PT
C50-0.32-64-1345-S-1 5.11 20 0.22 0.60 1.35 1.91 2.35 4.47 0.60 0.69 0.10
C50-0.32-64-1345-S-2 2.70 15 0.13 0.48 1.30 1.91 2.43 4.44 0.56 0.75 0.10

mean value 3.90 17.50 0.18 0.54 1.33 1.91 2.39 4.45 0.58 0.72 0.10
(0.44) (0.20) (0.36) (0.16) (0.03) (0.00) (0.02) (0.00) (0.05) (0.06) (0.01)

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C55-0.5-64-1345-S-1 2.60 7.0 0.16 0.65 1.59 2.23 2.71 3.45 0.52 0.73 0.09
C55-0.5-64-1345-S-6 2.39 8.0 0.15 0.62 1.56 2.09 2.48 3.19 1.03 0.72 0.18
C55-0.5-64-1345-S-8 3.13 8.0 0.15 0.67 1.40 1.81 2.22 4.04 1.14 0.64 0.17

SC
mean value 2.71 7.67 0.15 0.64 1.52 2.04 2.47 3.56 0.90 0.70 0.15
(0.14) (0.08) (0.05) (0.04) (0.07) (0.10) (0.10) (0.12) (0.37) (0.07) (0.34)
C60-0.5-64-1345-S-2 3.58 20.0 0.24 1.08 2.27 2.86 3.28 5.43 0.78 0.78 0.14
C60-0.5-64-1345-S-4 2.88 25.0 0.21 1.01 2.26 3.13 3.85 9.22 1.31 0.70 0.22

U
C60-0.5-64-1345-S-5 1.95 6.0 0.15 0.46 0.79 0.97 1.11 1.20 0.56 0.66 0.09
C60-0.5-64-1345-S-9 4.17 14.0 0.22 0.88 1.42 1.72 1.90 2.42 1.43 0.71 0.24
AN
C60-0.5-64-1345-S-10 3.62 18.0 0.18 0.53 1.04 1.34 1.58 3.02 0.66 0.64 0.10
C60-0.5-64-1345-S-12 3.50 20.0 0.33 1.17 2.91 4.26 5.36 10.19 1.39 0.68 0.23
C60-0.5-64-1345-S-13 3.56 16.0 0.19 0.76 1.56 1.95 2.24 3.42 1.15 0.69 0.19
M

mean value 3.32 17.00 0.22 0.84 1.75 2.32 2.76 4.99 1.04 0.69 0.17
(0.21) (0.35) (0.27) (0.32) (0.43) (0.50) (0.54) (0.70) (0.35) (0.06) (0.36)
C55-1.0-64-1345-S-1 5.24 7.0 0.29 1.39 3.08 4.10 4.82 6.06 1.79 0.72 0.31
C55-1.0-64-1345-S-2 4.78 12.0 0.22 1.08 2.43 3.26 3.83 4.97 1.35 0.70 0.23
D

mean value 5.01 9.50 0.25 1.24 2.75 3.68 4.32 5.51 1.57 0.71 0.27
(0.06) (0.37) (0.19) (0.17) (0.17) (0.16) (0.16) (0.14) (0.42) (0.02) (0.43)
TE

C65-0.5-75-1500-S-1 4.17 28.0 0.18 1.08 3.76 5.99 7.70 16.54 0.82 0.75 0.31
C65-0.5-75-1500-S-2 4.03 25.0 0.13 0.62 2.05 3.45 4.53 11.95 0.38 0.70 0.13
C65-0.5-75-1500-S-3 5.13 25.0 0.19 0.91 2.63 3.85 4.95 11.98 0.48 0.69 0.17
EP

mean value 4.44 26.00 0.17 0.87 2.81 4.43 5.73 13.49 0.56 0.71 0.20
(0.13) (0.07) (0.18) (0.27) (0.31) (0.31) (0.30) (0.20) (0.41) (0.04) (0.46)
C60-0.5-100-1500-S-1 4.19 32.0 0.14 0.88 3.03 4.89 6.38 19.73 0.46 0.81 0.19
C60-0.5-100-1500-S-2 4.20 30.0 0.18 0.84 2.65 4.24 5.47 13.25 0.68 0.79 0.27
C

C60-0.5-100-1500-S-3 - - - - - - - - 0.88 0.69 0.30

mean value 4.20 31.00 0.16 0.86 2.84 4.56 5.92 16.49 0.67 0.76 0.25
AC

(0.00) (0.05) (0.19) (0.04) (0.09) (0.10) (0.11) (0.28) (0.31) (0.08) (0.24)

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Table 4 – Main results from UTTs on large specimens.
Specimen fct wc Gf,0.1 Gf,0.5 Gf,1.5 Gf,2.5 Gf,3.5 Gf,tot ψ η ρeff
2
X-Y-Z-# [MPa] [mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [fibers/cm ] [-] [-]
C50-0.32-64-1345-L-1 3.06 - - - - - - - - - -
C50-0.32-64-1345-L-2 4.09 - - - - - - - - - -
C50-0.32-64-1345-L-3 4.62 17.0 0.05 0.43 1.51 2.39 3.06 5.84 0.48 0.70 0.08
C50-0.32-64-1345-L-4 4.50 15.0 0.17 0.43 1.35 2.07 2.61 5.10 0.42 0.66 0.07

mean value 4.07 16.00 0.11 0.43 1.43 2.23 2.83 5.47 0.45 0.68 0.07

PT
(0.17) (0.09) (0.75) (0.00) (0.08) (0.10) (0.11) (0.10) (0.10) (0.04) (0.00)
C55-1.0-64-1345-L-1 4.41 18.0 0.16 0.65 1.59 2.30 2.85 4.61 1.28 0.54 0.16
C55-1.0-64-1345-L-2 4.33 13.0 0.22 1.00 2.44 3.56 4.38 6.82 1.57 0.62 0.23
C55-1.0-64-1345-L-3 3.92 13.0 0.20 0.97 2.72 4.06 5.09 8.04 1.31 0.63 0.20

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C55-1.0-64-1345-L-4 3.57 15.0 0.07 0.46 1.26 1.80 2.21 3.35 1.10 0.58 0.15

mean value 4.06 14.75 0.16 0.77 2.00 2.93 3.63 5.70 1.31 0.59 0.19
(0.10) (0.16) (0.39) (0.34) (0.34) (0.36) (0.37) (0.37) (0.15) (0.07) (0.19)

SC
C65-0.5-75-1500-L-1 4.96 23.0 0.17 0.87 2.81 4.34 5.45 9.44 0.53 0.68 0.18
C65-0.5-75-1500-L-2 4.03 21.0 0.14 0.60 1.90 2.95 3.77 7.53 0.53 0.64 0.17
C65-0.5-75-1500-L-3 4.55 23.0 0.17 0.80 2.50 3.89 4.93 9.54 0.37 0.68 0.13
C65-0.5-75-1500-L-4 4.78 22.0 0.16 0.79 2.67 4.45 5.95 10.87 0.38 0.70 0.13

U
mean value 4.58 22.25 0.16 0.76 2.47 3.91 5.03 9.35 0.45 0.67 0.15
(0.09) (0.04) (0.09) (0.15) (0.16) (0.17) (0.19) (0.15) (0.20) (0.04) (0.17)
AN
C60-0.5-100-1500-L-1 4.11 30.0 0.13 0.50 1.69 2.90 3.93 11.20 0.40 0.61 0.12
C60-0.5-100-1500-L-2 4.55 27.0 0.14 0.65 2.21 3.74 5.07 11.13 0.45 0.65 0.15
C60-0.5-100-1500-L-3 4.46 24.0 0.14 0.71 2.38 3.73 4.75 9.04 0.46 0.62 0.14
M

mean value 4.37 27.00 0.14 0.62 2.09 3.45 4.58 10.46 0.44 0.63 0.14
(0.05) (0.11) (0.06) (0.17) (0.17) (0.14) (0.13) (0.12) (0.08) (0.03) (0.10)
D

3.2 Post-cracking tensile law from 3PBTs

TE

The main results of the flexural tests are listed in Table 5 in terms of limit of proportionality
EP

(mean value, fLm) and post-cracking nominal residual strengths (mean values, fR1m, fR2m, fR3m,

fR4m corresponding to CMOD values of 0.5, 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 mm, respectively). In order to
C

provide information about the experimental scatter, for each series the minimum and
AC

maximum values of residual strengths are provided (in square brackets) together with the

coefficient of variation (in round brackets). The main fracture parameters required by

MC2010 [9], namely fR1k and fR3k, are also reported in Table 5. Noteworthy is that SFRC

classes defined by MC2010 [9], obtained in this experimental program, vary from 1b to 7a

for horizontally cast samples, while all samples (of the same material) cast vertically present

performance classes significantly lower.

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Table 5 – Main results from 3PBTs.

Cla # Beam ψ η ρeff

fLm fR1m fR2m fR3m fR4m fR1k fR3k
ss. Im. An. mean mean mean
Batch ID
[fiber
[MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [-] [-] [-] [-]
s/cm2]
6.24 9.94 8.59 7.22 6.25
C30-1.0-64-1345 [5.32-7.32] [8.21-11.98] [6.38-10.80] [5.44-9.50] [4.67-8.07] 7.74 4.74 7a - - - -
(0.12) (0.13) (0.18) (0.21) (0.23)
4.75 2.04 2.09 2.05 1.82

PT
0.57 0.72 0.10
C50-0.32-64-1345 [4.15-5.38] [1.39-2.43] [1.26-2.66] [1.22-2.70] [1.16-2.33] 1.31 1.10 1b 5
(0.31) (0.02) (0.31)
(0.12) (0.22) (0.28) (0.28) (0.25)
4.36 1.44 1.57 1.53 1.31
0.46 0.65 0.07
C50-0.32-64-1345* [4.05-4.87] [1.13-2.20] [1.04-2.42] [0.97-2.37] [0.72-2.01] 0.60 0.56 0.5c 4
(0.21) (0.05) (0.25)
(0.08) (0.36) (0.38) (0.39) (0.40)

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5.70 7.27 6.82 5.91 5.25
C55-0.50-64-1345 [5.20-6.36] [6.78-7.74] [6.50-7.24] [5.41-6.33] [4.88-5.44] 6.68 5.34 6b - - - -
(0.07) (0.05) (0.04) (0.06) (0.04)
5.65 6.61 4.49 3.50 2.88

SC
C60-0.50-64-1345 [5.25-6.37] [5.14-7.18] [3.64-5.15] [2.58-4.05] [1.99-3.35] 5.23 2.58 4a - - - -
(0.08) (0.13) (0.12) (0.16) (0.18)
5.52 7.58 7.63 6.97 6.16
2.12 0.72 0.36
C55-1.0-64-1345 [5.25-5.93] [7.04-8.17] [7.12-8.13] [6.32-7.54] [5.66-6.77] 6.77 6.22 6c 5
(0.10) (0.01) (0.09)
(0.05) (0.07) (0.06) (0.07) (0.06)

U
3.98 3.55 3.23 2.92 2.53
1.45 0.67 0.24
C55-1.0-64-1345* [3.36-4.62] [1.60-5.61] [1.33-4.85] [1.23-4.10] [1.04-3.52] 0.81 0.74 0.5c 5
(0.14) (0.04) (0.17)
(0.11) (0.47) (0.47) (0.46) (0.46)
AN
5.83 7.75 9.06 8.37 7.68
0.74 0.79 0.29
C65-0.50-75-1500 [4.82-6.49] [5.01-9.56] [5.97-10.68] [5.88-9.67] [5.59-9.18] 5.29 6.15 5d 3
(0.25) (0.03) (0.24)
(0.10) (0.19) (0.18) (0.16) (0.16)
4.42 1.73 2.02 2.08 2.0
0.35 0.64 0.11
C65-0.50-75-1500* [4.12-4.98] [1.56-2.16] [1.73-2.47] [1.51-2.60] [1.33-2.66] 1.26 1.24 1c 3
(0.07) (0.03) (0.04)
M

(0.09) (0.17) (0.17) (0.25) (0.30)

5.82 8.31 9.84 9.87 9.54
0.61 0.80 0.24
C60-0.50-100-1500 [4.83-6.16] [5.80-11.08] [7.58-11.39] [7.51-12.15] [7.0-11.91] 5.32 6.96 5e 4
(0.06) (0.02) (0.07)
(0.09) (0.22) (0.16) (0.18) (0.19)
4.30 1.99 2.49 2.65 2.58
D

0.38 0.67 0.13

C60-0.50-100-1500* [3.38-4.68] [1.39-2.78] [1.77-3.24] [1.80-3.42] [1.67-3.59] 0.98 1.51 0.5e 3
(0.51) (0.03) (0.48)
(0.14) (0.31) (0.27) (0.26) (0.30)
* Specimens vertically cast.
TE
C EP
AC

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Nominal stress, σΝ [MPa]

Nominal stress, σΝ [MPa] 10.0 10.0
C55-1.0-64-1345 (3PBT) C55-1.0-64-1345 (3PBT)

fR1m fR2m
8.0 8.0
fR3m
fR4m
6.0 6.0

4.0 4.0

PT
2.0 2.0

Experimental curves Horizontally cast (Mean exp.) Horizontally cast (Num. curve)
Mean experimental curve Vertically cast (Mean exp.) Vertically cast (Num. curve)
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

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CMOD [mm] CMOD [mm]

(a) (b)

SC
5.0
Stress, σ [MPa]

fctm
Uniaxial post-cracking law

U
4.0
Vertically cast (Inverse Analysis)
Horizontally cast (Inverse Analysis)
AN
3.0 σ1, w1

2.0

σ1, w1
M

σ2, w2
1.0
σ2, w2
wc wc
D

0.0
0.0 60.0 0.0
120.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
Microstrain [-] Crack width, w [mm]
TE

(c)

Figure 7 – Typical experimental results from 3PBT on notched beams horizontally cast
EP

according to EN14651 [12] (a) and vertically cast beams (b); post-cracking constitutive
laws obtained from Inverse Analysis (c): C55-1.0-64-1345 series.
C
AC

As an example, results of 3PBTs on samples cast according to EN 14651 [12] from a typical

series are shown in Figure 7a in terms of nominal stress σN (assuming a linear stress

distribution along the cross-section) vs. CMOD; the mean curve is also evidenced together

with the corresponding residual strengths fRim. In Figure 7b, referring to the same series, the

mean experimental curves of horizontally and vertically cast beams are presented. As

previously mentioned, it can be noticed a considerable difference in terms of post-cracking

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flexural performance, even though the samples are poured from the same batch (C55-1.0-64-

1345). Consequently, the mean values of fR1m of horizontally cast beams are about 2 times

than those of vertically cast beams; similarly, fR3m values are approximately 2.5 times higher.

Moreover, in samples horizontally cast a flexural hardening behavior [46, 47] is clearly

evident, in spite of a typical flexural softening behavior exhibited by specimens vertically

PT
cast (Figure 7b), whose results present also higher scatters, as confirmed by CVs reported in

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Table 5. The different response of beams cast horizontally (as prescribed by standards) and

vertically is mainly related to fiber orientation with respect to the stress flow. In beams cast

SC
horizontally, fibers tend to be perpendicular to cast direction so that they are aligned to the

stress flow in the beam and, therefore, are more efficient. On the contrary, in beams cast

U
vertically, the fibers are no longer mainly oriented as the stress flow and became less
AN
efficient. Similar tendencies were found by Yoo et al. [30] with regard to flowable and self-
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consolidated Ultra High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete; the Authors stated that the

higher flexural strength is mainly due to concrete placed in the center during the casting
D

process.
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The stress crack width (σ-w) laws of SFRCs were evaluated through the inverse analysis

procedure [17, 32, 48, 49]; by assuming a multi-linear post-cracking cohesive law (according
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to the fictitious crack model, FCM [45]), non-linear numerical analyses were performed for
C

determining the best-fitting law. The numerical analyses were carried out by using a discrete
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crack approach [50]; the FE mesh was made by triangular plane stress elements and interface

elements for the crack [5, 50]. The post-cracking constitutive laws were obtained by fitting

the numerical curve with the mean flexural experimental one, in order to achieve a maximum

error of about 3%. The best-fitting numerical curves for specimens C55-1.0-64-1345 are

plotted with the experimental ones in Figure 7b; the corresponding post-cracking constitutive

laws obtained for horizontally and vertically cast specimens are depicted in Figure 7c. The
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tendency clearly evidenced in terms of flexural behavior (Figure 7b), are confirmed by the

uniaxial post-cracking laws (Figure 7c).

The main parameters of the post-cracking σ-w laws, as shown in Figure 7, for all the series

investigated, are summarized in Table 6. The tensile strength (fctm) was assumed as the mean

value of the tensile peak stress of small and large cylinders; the elastic modulus Ec was

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similarly calculated. The post-cracking stresses (σi) and the corresponding crack openings

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(wi) of multi-linear laws adopted are reported as well (Table 6). The fracture energies at

different crack openings (Gf,0.1, Gf,0.5, Gf,1.5, Gf,2.5, Gf,3.5) were also calculated; the latter

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represent the area under the multi-linear curve up to the corresponding crack opening, while

the total fracture energy (Gf,tot) was evaluated at the ultimate crack opening (wc). In

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accordance with the low post-cracking nominal strengths (fRim) of samples vertically cast, the
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corresponding σ-w laws present a low fracture energy; the latter is a small fraction of that
M

exhibited by horizontally cast specimens. As an example, C55-1.0-64-1345* presents a Gf,tot

equal to about one third of that shown by C55-1.0-64-1345; this tendency is confirmed by
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also considering C50-0.32-64-1345 vs. C50-0.32-64-1345*, C65-0.5-75-1500 vs. C65-0.5-

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75-1500* and C60-0.5-100-1500 vs. C60-0.5-100-1500*.

Table 6 – Main parameters of the σ-w laws obtained from Inverse Analysis.
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Specimen fctm σ1 w1 σ2 w2 σ3 w3 wc Gf,0.1 Gf,0.5 Gf,1.5 Gf,2.5 Gf,3.5 Gf,tot

X-Y-Z-W [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm] [N/mm]
C30-1.0-64-1345 3.70 1.75 1.50 0.35 6.00 - - 12.60 0.35 1.67 4.09 5.68 6.97 9.97
C

C50-0.32-64-1345 4.01 0.75 0.02 - - - - 12.60 0.10 0.40 1.09 1.72 2.30 4.76
C50-0.32-64-1345* 4.01 1.80 0.01 0.50 0.06 11.20 0.10 0.30 0.76 1.17 1.54 2.87
AC

C55-0.5-64-1345 2.71 1.50 2.00 0.60 6.00 - - 12.60 0.25 1.27 3.38 4.93 6.21 10.39
C60-0.5-64-1345 3.32 2.50 0.03 0.70 1.40 - - 12.60 0.25 1.11 2.35 3.01 3.61 6.20
C55-1.0-64-1345 4.38 2.85 0.01 1.10 4.00 - - 12.60 0.28 1.37 3.80 5.77 7.31 12.65
C55-1.0-64-1345* 4.38 1.20 0.02 0.35 4.00 11.73 0.14 0.60 1.59 2.37 2.93 4.49
C65-0.5-75-1500 4.52 2.10 0.02 3.20 0.45 1.10 6.00 23.60 0.23 1.35 4.36 6.97 9.21 22.82
C65-0.5-75-1500* 4.52 0.50 0.02 0.70 1.00 - - 19.20 0.08 0.31 0.98 1.64 2.26 7.00
C60-0.5-100-1500 4.30 1.60 0.01 3.55 0.45 1.45 6.00 31.90 0.18 1.32 4.68 7.65 10.23 33.82
C60-0.5-100-1500* 4.30 0.50 0.02 0.90 0.80 0.40 8.00 26.90 0.25 1.11 2.35 3.01 3.61 6.20
* Specimens vertically cast.

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4. POST-CRACKING TENSILE LAWS COMPARISON

The experimental uniaxial post-cracking laws obtained by performing UTTs (see Section 3.1)

are herein compared with those indirectly determined by means of the inverse analysis

procedure (see Section 3.2). As an example, results of series C55-1.0-64-1345 are presented

since small and large cylinders as well as vertically and horizontally cast beams were

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produced. The mean uniaxial tensile laws, as obtained from direct and indirect methods, are

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compared in Figure 8. The former have been retrieved by averaging the experimental curves

obtained by UTTs, while the latter have been evaluated by developing the inverse analysis

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method on results of 3PBTs.
Stress, σ [MPa]

6.0

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C55-1.0-64-1345
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5.0
fctm

4.0
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3.0
C55-1.0-64-1345-S (Mean exp.)
C55-1.0-64-1345-L (Mean exp.)
D

2.0
C55-1.0-64-1345 (Inv. Anal.)
C55-1.0-64-1345* (Inv. Anal.)
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1.0

0.0
EP

0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0

Crack width, w [mm]

Figure 8 – Comparison of the uniaxial tensile behavior obtained from mean

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experimental curves (small and large specimens) and laws determined by performing
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the inverse analysis on beams horizontally and vertically cast: C55-1.0-64-1345.

One should observe that the constitutive laws of large and small cylinders are rather similar

except for the first 2 mm; both are vertically cast but their cross sections present different

dimensions with respect to fiber lengths and the distribution and orientation of fibers is

affected by local wall-effects [27, 32].

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It can be also noticed that the constitutive law of large cylinder and that obtained from

vertically cast beams seem rather close; besides the similar cross-section area, both samples

are cast in a similar way.

The constitutive law retrieved by horizontally cast beams clearly shows the highest fracture

energy with a noticeable difference to the other ones, as a result of a favorable orientation and

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distribution (see Section 4.1).

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Similar trends have been observed for the other series investigated. In order to better

understand this phenomenon, the fracture energy (Gf), have been used as reference parameter.

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In particular, the following ratios have been investigated:

G f ,InvAnal

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L
(2)
G f ,UTT
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S
G f ,UTT
L
(3)
G f ,UTT
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where Gf,InvAnal is the fracture energy of the uniaxial tensile law retrieved by applying the

inverse analysis procedure and Gf,UTTL is the fracture energy of the uniaxial tensile law
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obtained from UTTs on large samples. The latter was assumed as reference to the fracture
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energy also with respect to the one obtained by small specimens, Gf,UTTS.

The numerical values of the aforementioned ratios (Eqs. 2 and 3) at different crack openings
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(wi equal to 0.1, 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, 3.5 mm) are depicted in Figure 9a and Figure 9b, respectively.
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It clearly turns out that, with the exception of the series C50-0.32-64-1345, the constitutive
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laws obtained from the 3PBTs (horizontally cast) overestimate of about 1.5-2 times those

found by means of the UTTs (large samples), for all the crack openings investigated (Figure

9b). To the contrary, when comparing vertically cast beams with UTTs (large samples), the

fracture energies are closer, even though in series C65-0.5-75-1500* and C60-0.5-100-1500*,

the vertically beams present approximately half of the Gf(w) exhibited by the corresponding

cylindrical large specimens. In summary, by referring to cracked cross-sections having

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similar dimensions, the casting direction has a strong influence on SFRCs post-cracking

behavior.

The stress-crack width laws retrieved by large and small specimens are compared in Figure

9a; with exception of series C50-0.32-64-1345, the laws obtained by UTTs carried out on

small samples generally overestimate of about 30% those determined from large samples.

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This difference is probably due the smaller cross-sectional dimensions with respect to fiber

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lengths, which probably induces a favorable orientation of fibers even if they are vertically

cast, due to wall effects. Moreover, C50-0.32-64-1345 shows conflicting tendency with

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respect to the other ones probably because of rather low fiber volume content (0.32%); hence,

the effect of fiber orientation/distribution is probably less remarkable, since the number of

fibers detected on the section is small.

U
AN Gf,InvAnal /Gf,UTT [-]
Gf,UTT /Gf,UTT [-]

3.0 SMALL LARGE

3.0
LARGE
Gf comparison: UTT vs. UTT
L

Gf comparison: Inverse Analysis vs. UTT

L

C50-0.32-64-1345 C55-1.0-64-1345
M

2.5 2.5 C65-0.5-75-1500 C60-0.5-100-1500

C50-0.32-64-1345* C55-1.0-64-1345*
S

C50-0.32-64-1345 C65-0.5-75-1500* C60-0.5-100-1500*

C55-1.0-64-1345
2.0 2.0
C65-0.5-75-1500
D

C60-0.5-100-1500
1.5 1.5
TE

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5
EP

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Crack width, w [mm] Crack width, w [mm]
C

(a) (b)
AC

Figure 9 – Ratio between the fracture energy obtained from UTTs (large and small
specimens) (a). Ratio between the fracture energy obtained from inverse analysis
(Gf,InvAnal) and that obtained from uniaxial tensile tests (Gf,UTTL) on large specimen (b).

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4.1 Effects of fiber orientation

The SFRCs post-cracking laws retrieved by 3PBTs on horizontally cast notched beams

generally overestimate those obtained from UTTs carried out on samples of the same batch.

In spite of previous research works which relate this tendency to the stress gradient occurring

in bending tests [20, 21], the fiber orientation and distribution are probably the main factors

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influencing the experimental response. In fact, as previously mentioned, by simply adopting

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vertically cast beam samples, the corresponding (σ-w) relationships result similar to that

obtained from cylindrical specimens, especially in case of samples having a diameter of

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150 mm.

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In this regard, among the several methods for measuring the number of steel fibers crossing
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the cracked surface and their orientation, the image analysis technique was used in this study

[26, 28, 31, 32]. The latter allows the determination of number and orientation of fibers based
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on their size and cross-sectional shape. Both tested cylinders and beams were cut 1-2 cm

behind the fracture surface (Figure 2) and pictures of the cross-sections were taken using a
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camera with flash; fibers are easily distinguishable on the images, because they reflect light
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of the camera flash. The image is conveniently segmented so that it shows objects (the elliptic
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fiber sections) on a background and a color threshold is set in order to count and determine

the fiber orientation. A proper image processing algorithm was encoded in Matlab 7 [26] for
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capturing the shape of the cross-section of each single fiber.

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As an example, in Figure 10 typical pictures of beam and cylindrical cross-sections before

developing the image-processing are reported. Basically, a fiber in the cross-section is

generally visible with an elliptical form, whose in-plane angle φi is depicted in Figure 11a. In

the ideal case, when the fiber is perpendicular to the cross-section, it will be visible as a full

circle, or as an ellipse when it is inclined. In the latter case, the major and the minor axes of

each ellipse (ai and bi, Figure 11a) can be used to compute the fiber orientation, since they
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can be related to the fiber out-of-plane angle (θi, Figure 11b). The angle θi gives an indication

of each fiber alignment with regard to the normal to the cross-section, since it is basically the

complementary angle between fiber and expected crack plane. One should notice that a fiber

having an out-of-plane direction θi=0° (cosθi=1), presents a perpendicular alignment to the

crack-plane and, thus, a preferable alignment with regard to the stress flow and crack

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bridging ability of the fiber.

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The orientation number η, which represents the average orientation of all fibers in a cross-

section, can be determined by applying the following equation [26]:

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1 N
η= ∑ cos θ i (4)
N i =1

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where N is the number of fibers detected through image analysis on the cross-section of a
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beam.
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D
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C EP

(a) (b)
AC

Figure 10 – Visible fibers in the cross section of typical beam (a) and large cylinder (b)
before applying the threshold function (C55-1.0-64-1345).

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Figure 11 – Visible fiber in a cut cross-section as an ellipse with its major and minor
axis, ai and bi and its in-plane angle, φi (a); fiber in a 3D space with visible the in-plane
and out-of-plane angles φi and θi, respectively (b).

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AN
A total number of 36 cylinders and 32 beam were investigated by means of image-analysis;

the orientation number (η) and also the fibers per unit area (ψ) were calculated; the latter is
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affected by casting-direction, fiber length with respect to sample dimensions (wall-effects)

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and, also, concrete workability [27, 28, 31, 32]. For the series investigated, η and ψ are
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summarized in Table 3, Table 4 and Table 5 for small, large cylinders and beams,

respectively.
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In a previous research work [51], a simplified parameter, which takes into account the effects

of both ψ and η, was introduced:

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N N
∑ a f ⋅ cos θ i a f ⋅ ∑ cos θi
AC

A f ,eff
ρ f ,eff = i =1 = i =1
= = a f ⋅ψ ⋅η (5)
Ac Ac Ac

where:

af =area of the cross-section of a single fiber;

Ac = area of the cut cross-section (of concrete).

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In Equation 5, the inclination of fibers with respect to loading direction is included, as first

approximation, in the term af cosθi. Hence, Af,eff represents a sort of total effective area of

steel fiber reinforcement over the cross-section, within the approximation aforementioned.

The latter allows to introduce an effective steel fiber reinforcement ratio, ρf,eff, as listed in

Table 3, Table 4, Table 5.

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In Figure 12a and b, by considering a typical series (C55-1.0-64-1345), the fracture energies

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Gf,0.5 and Gf2.5, are plotted versus ρf,eff, respectively. It should be underlined that the fracture

energies were directly measured from every cylinder tested while, in case of horizontally and

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vertically cast beams, they were calculated by the σ-w relationship retrieved by inverse

analysis method. Linear relationship with the rather good values of R2 confirms the

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significance of parameter ρf,eff; moreover, especially in Figure 12b, it can be appreciated that
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in vertically cast beams and large cylinders, the casting method and similar cross sections
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result in smaller values of ρf,eff (i.e. lower post-cracking energy). To the contrary, small

cylinders, even though they are vertically cast, by taking advantage of small diameter as
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compared to fiber length (for wall effects), have exhibited higher ρf,eff and a better
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performance. Finally, in case of horizontally cast beams, favorable fiber density and

orientation maximize ρf,eff and the corresponding post-cracking properties. It is worth

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noticing that all samples are produced from the same batch; in this regard, the different post-
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cracking performances evidenced in Figure 12 can represent the actual behavior of a real
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SFRC structure where, for several possible reasons, different density of fibers and orientation

(ρf,eff) occur with respect to expected crack planes.

In order to further investigate the effectiveness of the proposed parameter, in Figure 13 Gf,0.5

and Gf2.5, are plotted versus ρf,eff for all the concretes reinforced with steel fiber having an

aspect ratio equal to 64; for cylinders, the fracture energies were calculated from the mean

experimental curves exhibited by small and large samples of each series, in order to better
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compare results with that obtained by inverse analysis approach. In Figure 13, the data of 38

samples are collected and represented in terms of mean values. The very good correlation

found (R2~0.8) clearly proves the strong correlation of the simplified parameter proposed

(ρf,eff) with the uniaxial post-cracking performance of SFRCs investigated.

Fracture energy, Gf [N/mm]

Fracture energy, Gf [N/mm]

2.0 8.0

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C55-1.0-64-1345 C55-1.0-64-1345
ρf,eff
Gf, 0.5 = 4.10ρ Inv. Anal.
R2 = 0.64 Horizontally cast
1.5 Cylinders 6.0
Small
ρf,eff
Gf, 2.5 = 14.83ρ

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Gf,0.5 Inv. Anal. Gf,2.5 Cylinders R2 = 0.67
Horizontally cast Large
1.0 4.0 Cylinders
Small
Cylinders
Large

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0.5 2.0 Inv. Anal.
Inv. Anal.
Vertically cast Vertically cast

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0.0 0.0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
ρf,,eff [%] ρf,,eff [%]
AN
(a) (b)
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Figure 12 – Influence of the effective steel fiber reinforcement ratio on fracture energies
for samples of series C55-1.0-64-1345: Gf,0.5 (a) and Gf,2.5 (b).
D
TE
Fracture energy, G f [N/mm]

8.0
C50-0.32-64-1345; C55-0.5-64-1345;
C60-0.5-64-1345; C55-1.0-64-1345
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6.0
ρf,eff
Gf, 2.5 = 14.96ρ
Gf,0.5 R2 = 0.79

Gf,2.5

4.0
C
AC

2.0
ρf,eff
Gf, 0.5 = 4.06ρ
R2 = 0.81

0.0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
ρf,,eff [%]

Figure 13 – Influence of the effective steel fiber reinforcement ratio on the post-cracking
behavior on fracture energy Gf: cylindrical and beam samples of steel fibers having
aspect ratio equal to 64.
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5. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The present paper concerns the post-cracking behavior of concretes reinforced with different

types and dosages of steel fibers having hooked-ends, investigated by means of bending and

uniaxial tensile tests. The effect of fiber distribution and orientation on SFRCs post-cracking

properties was also investigated by means of image analysis technique.

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Based on the results and the discussion presented, the following main concluding remarks can

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be drawn:

1) the fracture energy of constitutive tensile laws retrieved by beams horizontally cast

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(according to EN 14651 [12]) tested under 3PBTs is higher than that of vertically cast

samples and of cylindrical specimens tested under UTTs;

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2) in vertically cast beams and large cylinder (diameter of 150 mm), the same casting method
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and similar cross sections result in analogous density of fiber (ψ) and orientation factor (η),
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and, hence, in similar post-cracking properties;

3) in horizontally cast beams, a favorable fiber orientation and distribution was noticed,
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which leads to the higher post-cracking properties with respect to cylindrical samples;
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4) fracture energies Gf of uniaxial post-cracking laws, either calculated from UTTs or by

3PBTs, were found to be strongly related to both the orientation number and fibers per unit
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area; the combined effects of these two contributes could be included in a unique parameter
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as the proposed simplified effective steel fiber reinforcement ratio, ρf,eff.

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Conclusion (3) evidences that post-cracking performance of SFRC as determined from

standard beam test is significantly influenced by a favorable fiber orientation; if the latter is

not present in real structural elements, a proper orientation factor must be taken into account

(as referred by main FRC building codes).

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6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Authors are grateful to Engineers Arzuffi Silvia and Morandi Giuseppina, as well as to

the technicians, Augusto Botturi, Domenico Caravaggi, Andrea Delbarba and Luca Martinelli,

for the assistance in performing the experimental program.

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COMPLIANCE WITH ETHICAL STANDARDS:

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This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public,

commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. The authors declare that they have no conflict of

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interest.

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TABLES AND FIGURES

List of Figures:

Figure 1 – Casting directions of cylinders and beams: vertical (a), horizontal, according to EN

14651 [13] (b), and vertical (c), with evidenced the cut cross-section for image analysis

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process (dimensions in mm).

Figure 2 – Test set-up and instrumentation layout for UTTs small (a), large (b) and 3PBTs

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(b).

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Figure 3 – Stress versus individual displacement diagrams from a typical test up to 0.1 mm

(a); up to the end of the test (b).

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Figure 4 - Stress – crack width curves of each small cylinder of the series C60-0.5%-64-1345
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and mean experimental curve.

Figure 5 – Stress - crack width curves for small specimens: C30-1.0-64-1345-S (a), C50-
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0.32-64-1345-S (b), C55-0.5-64-1345-S (c), C55-1.0-64-1345-S (d), C65-0.5-75-1500-S (e),

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C60-0.5-100-1500-S (f)
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Figure 6 – Stress - crack width curves for large specimens: C50-0.32-64-1345-L (a), C55-1.0-

64-1345-L (b), C65-0.5-75-1500-L (c), C60-0.5-100-1500-L (d)

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Figure 7 – Typical experimental results from 3PBT on notched beams horizontally cast

according to EN14651 [12] (a) and vertically cast beams (b); post-cracking constitutive laws
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obtained from Inverse Analysis (c): C55-1.0-64-1345 series.

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Figure 8 – Comparison of the uniaxial tensile behavior obtained from mean experimental

curves (small and large specimens) and laws determined by performing the inverse analysis

on beams horizontally and vertically cast: C55-1.0-64-1345.

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Figure 9 – Ratio between the fracture energy obtained from UTTs (large and small

specimens) (a). Ratio between the fracture energy obtained from inverse analysis (Gf,InvAnal)

and that obtained from uniaxial tensile tests (Gf,UTTL) on large specimen (b).

Figure 10 – Visible fibers in the cross section of typical beam (a) and large cylinder (b)

before applying the threshold function (C55-1.0-64-1345).

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Figure 11 – Visible fiber in a cut cross-section as an ellipse with its major and minor axis, ai

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and bi and its in-plane angle, φi (a); fiber in a 3D space with visible the in-plane and out-of-

plane angles φi and θi, respectively (b).

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Figure 12 – Influence of the effective steel fiber reinforcement ratio on fracture energies for

samples of series C55-1.0-64-1345: Gf,0.5 (a) and Gf,2.5 (b).

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Figure 13 – Influence of the effective steel fiber reinforcement ratio on the post-cracking
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behavior
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List of Tables:
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Table 1 – Mixture composition of steel fiber reinforced concretes.

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Table 2 – Main mechanical properties of SFRCs

Table 3 – Main results from UTTs on small specimens.

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Table 4 – Main results from UTTs on large specimens.

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Table 5 – Main results from 3PBTs.

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Table 6 – Main parameters of the σ-w laws obtained from Inverse Analysis.

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