Tucker1973 PDF

Downloaded 09/26/15 to 129.78.139.28. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.
org/
MONOGRAPH SERIES
Paul C. Wuenschel, Editor
NUMBER 2
PITFALLS IN SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
By Paul M. Tucker, •ssoProduction

Research
Co.(Retired)
Howard J. Yorston, •ssoProduction
Research
Co.
Edited by John C. Hollister
SOCIETY OF EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICISTS
ISBN 0-931830-11-7
Downloaded 09/26/15 to 129.78.139.28. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 73-84680

Society of Exploration Geophysicists
P.O. Box 702740
Tulsa, Oklahoma 74170-2740
¸1973 by The Society of Exploration Geophysicists.All rights reserved.

Published 1973.
Reprinted 1974, 1976, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1985.
Printed in the United States of America.
CONTENTS
Foreword .............................................................. iv
Preface ................................................................ v
Introduction ........................................................... 1
Summary Table ......................................................... 2
Velocity Pitfalls ......................................................... •
Example 1 • Basinward Thinning ..................................... 8
Example 2 • Fault Shadow (Normal) ................................. 10
Example 3 -- Fault Shadow (Reversed) ............................... 12
Example 4- Vertical Fault .......................................... 14
Example 5 -- Shale Flowage ........................................ 16
Example 6 -- Salt Flowage .......................................... 18
Example 7, 8 • Reefs .............................................. 20
Example 9 -- Channels ............................................. 23
Example 10 -- Near-Surface Velocity Anomaly ......................... 25
Geometry Pitfalls ..................................................... 28
Example 11 -- Anticlines .......................................... 28
Example 12 -- Synclines ........................................... 30
Example 13 -- Intrusion ............................................. 33
Examples 14, 15 -- Sideswipe ....................................... 35
Examples 16, 17 -- Diffractions ...................................... 37
Data Gathering and Processing Pitfalls ................................... 40
Example 18 -- Input Pulse .......................................... 40
Examples 19, 20 -- Normal Multiples .................................. 42
Example 21 --Inverted Multiples ..................................... 47
Example 22- Multiple or Dip? ...................................... 48
Example 23 -- Structure or Velocity? .................................. 48
Summary ............................................................. 50
FOREWORD
Those fortunate enough to hear the unique and delightful verbal presentation of
"Pitfalls in Seismic Interpretation" will be gratified by this printed version of the same
classic paper. Messrs. Tucker and Yorston are to be congratulated for having an extra-
ordinary idea and for sharing it in detail with their fellow explorationists.Clearly their
wisdom is born of experience, not all of which was pleasant. This work will be
appreciated not only by the old-timers in the profession but by the newcomers as they
gradually realize the earth's crust is not a well-ordered system and that the seismic
events resulting therefrom are even lesswell ordered.
John C. Hollister
ProfessorEmeritus, Colorado School of Mines
Honorary Member and Former President
Society of Exploration Geophysicists
PREFACE
Many pitfalls in seismic interpretation are concealed within seemingly straight-

forward reflections. Some of these pitfalls are dug by nature and some are of our own
doing. Many can be avoided. Pitfalls may be classified into three groups: thoserelated
to velocity, those related to the geometry of the reflectors, and those related to the
recording,processing,and playback of the seismicdata.
Regional velocity changesseldom give trouble, but within small, deep, intermon-
tane basins, or along continental margins, a false indication of basinward thinning
is sometimesobserved.Of greater concern is the abrupt change in velocity due to an
equally abrupt structural change: the fault which creates false reversals, the reef with
its underlying "high," the surface or seafloor irregularity with its coincidental sub-
surface reversal. The depth section can be used to avoid these pitfalls, providing it is
not in itself a pitfall.
The geometry or shape of the reflecting surface is equally tricky. It can turn
synclines into anticlines, reverse the throw of faults, superimposeone structure on
another by sideswipe,and create a diffraction-anticline.
Our latest and perhaps most seriouspitfall is computer-derived.The recording and
playback can distort both the structure and stratigraphy. Here real structures can be
suppressed,false bedding created, faults smeared, and all of the geology lost. Only
through constant rapport between the geologist, the interpreter, and the processingen-
gineer will theserecording and playback errors be avoided.
We will first demonstrate the geologic phenomena that led to these errors, then
use geologic models and their seismic expressionsto explain their origin, and finally
provide simple validity testsfor spotting the pitfalls.
P.M.T.
H.J.Y.
Ecclesiastes
10:8
He that diggeth a pit shall fall into it.
INTRODUCTION
Since current data processingand presentation yield seismic sectionsthat resemble

geologiccross-sections, geologistsand geophysicistsnot experiencedin seismicinterpre-
tation are often greatly tempted to read geology more or lessdirectly from the seismic
section. Where the geology is simple, this will not present a problem. However, in
areas of complex structure, rapid changes in lithology or velocity, or irregular surface
or near-surface conditions, serious errors may result from the literal interpretation of
seismic sections.
Interpretation pitfalls fit into one of the following three categories:
1. Pitfalls associated with velocity occur because seismic data are presented in
traveltime rather than depth,
2. Pitfalls associated with geometry occur because reflections from a three-

dimensional space are plotted in a two-dimensional section, and
3. Pitfalls associated with recording and processing occur because all recorded
eventsare not of geologicorigin, and improper processingcan maskgeology.
We will discuss pitfalls associatedwith 23 features frequently seen on seismic

sections.It is important that the reader note the order of presentation.First we will
show a seismic profile and give a seemingly good geologic explanation of the features
shown on the section. Then we will use a geologic model and its seismic expression
to show that what seems to be straightforward geology is, in fact, a pitfall. Finally,
we will present validity checks for spotting the pitfall so that correct interpretations
can be made along with correction methodswhere applicable.
The following table summarizesthis entire presentation.

SUMMARY
PITFALLS IN SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
Pitfall: "Any concealed danger or trap for an unsuspectingperson" (Webster).
CATEGORY EXAMPLE-MODEL OBSERVED PHENOMENON
I. VELOCITY
A. Interval Changes
1. Gradational Downdip thinning of reflection intervals.
2. Abrupt
a. Faults 1. Inclined fault: beneath fault, lows for
normal faults, highs for reverse faults.
2. Vertical fault: reflection intervals thinner
on downside (also true for normal faults).
b. Superimposed Structure
1) Flowage 5 1. Low beneath high.
2. High beneath high.

(Note high beneath low on Example 12)
2) Character Change 7 Supratenuous folding with loss of

continuity in lower section over high.
Mounding with reflection character

change and supratenous folding
B. Surface-Subsurface Coincidence Structure is usually local and abrupt but

may be spread out over many profiles.
9 1. A syncline beneath a sea channel.
10 2. Equal reversal for all horizons.
* Many pitfalls are velocity induced and can be recognized by velocity analysis and eliminated
by the depth section. The valid depth section requires a very precise and detailed
knowledge of velocity.
(1)Refractionfirst kicksare usefulin testinga varietyof seismicanomaliesand
should be considered for all seismic sections.
EXPLANATION VALIDITY CHECK
Geologic: Compaction, starved basin, basin 1. Thinning decreases with unit mean
inversion. burial depth.
Nongeol: Increased velocity with an increase in 2. Assumed constant thickness
overburden. produces reasonable velocity function.
*3. Depth section eliminates thinning.
Geologic: Drag folds. The anomaly coincides with the fault

Nongeol: Juxtaposition of differing velocity rock. shadow.
Geologic: Strike-slip fault. '1. Same as No. 2 and No. 3 above.
Nongeol: Increased velocity with depth, higher 2. Interval difference and throw
velocity on down side. decrease with depth.
Geologic: Two deformations, gravity gliding, fault

butress.
Nongeol: High-pressure shale, lower velocity. 1. A ratio exists between thickness
increase, and low coincidence of high
to low.
2. "Flowage is slowage".
Geologic: Initial deformation triggered
subsequent flowage.
Nongeol: High and lowvelocityjuxtaposition. * 1. Depth conversion or depth section.
2. Ratio of bulge to high.
Geologic: Sand bar with compaction on

preexisting high.
Nongeol: Velocity contrast juxtaposition. The anomaly coincides with the reefal
outline.
A surface or near-surface effect has 1. Equal displacement of all horizons.

contaminated the entire section. '2. Depth section may correct effect of
velocity from anomalous zone.
Geologic: Recent syncline localized floor currents.

Nongeol: Insufficient velocity correction. 1. Coincidence of low to channel.
Synclinal character depends on 2. No "bow tie" (see Example 12).
velocity function. '3. Relief of low varies and expands with
depth, check velocities.
Geologic: Young anticline.
Nongeol: Varying thickness of permafrost *Plot refraction first kicks to outline
creates a velocity anomaly. anomaly,and(•) check coincidence
with reversal.
Pitfalls in Seismic Interpretation Summary (continued)

.......
II. GEOMETRY
A. Steep Dip (over 10ø)

1. Anticlines 11 Simple shallow reversal, but becoming
more complex at depth.
2. Synclines 12 High beneath low. Synclinal reversals at

shallow depth become accentuated with
depth, then changing into "bow-tie"
anticlinal dips (multiple branched
reflections).
3. Intrusions 13 Reflection termination is abrupt.

Diffractions may appear in the blank area,
and anticlinal dips border intrusion
at depth.
B. Disconformable
Superimposed Dip Sets 14 Straight-forward interpretation on the
left abruptly becomes unclear and
unorthodox on the right.
15 Two sets of superimposed dips.
C. Faults 16 Monoclinal dips or terraces blend at depth

into anticlinal reversals.
and 17 Undulating erosional basement,
supratenuous folding and angular
D. Diffraction-like Events unconformity.
III. RECORDING AND PROCESSING
A. Input Pulse 18 Recent deposition over multicycle

paleo-unconformities.
Geologic: Seemingly a simple anticline.

Nongeol: The seismic expression is always less Hand migration is a first step (and if it's
arcuate than the actual. Crustal faults really a tough one, a hope for a transfer).
may appear as horsts and grabens;
normal flank faults may appear vertical
or reversed. Folds may appear as
diffractions.
Geologic: Complex history of anticline-

unconformity-syncline.
Nongeol: If the center of a curvature is above Migration of the flanks will reshape the
ground, the syncline is recorded syncline into a more logical appearance.
normally.As the depth and/or (Note difference with velocity-derived
steepness increases, the center of "syncline", Example 9.)
curvature is below the ground and
"bow-tie" crossover occurs.
Geologic: Intrusion outlined by reflection

terminations.
Nongeol: The sharp, upturned beds are recorded 1. The true edge of intrusive is inside
away from the intrusive as the reflection termination. The rim
multibranched reflections; they may syncline becomes an anticline at
appear diffraction-like. The inner depth. A few hand migrations may
diffractions may be the true give you a rough outline and suggest
terminations. a more complete approach.
2. The inner diffractions may be the real
edge, and the inside legs may have
the intrusive velocity.
Geologic: Complex growth history.

Nongeol: Sideswipe: two or more adjacent 1. Sufficient background on geology.
structures recorded simultaneously. 2. Interpret dip lines first before tackling
the more confusing strike lines.
3. Anticipate complexities, "sideswipe"
can be recorded from any direction.
Geologic: Supratenuous folding over deep-seated

uplifts.
Nongeol: A horst or steep anticline whose width 1. A true anticline is sigmoidal, not
is about 1/4 the depth will display a hyperbolic.
continuous reflection-diffraction, 2. Test with a velocity determination
much as a point source. using a diffraction formula.
3. Test with a diffraction overlay.
4. Migration is suggested.
Geologic: Even-bedded marine sequence.

Nongeol: Multicycle bubble-pulse energy train; 1. Look for water bottom reflection or
precludes any hope of mapping any direct pulse. It will tell you what kind
lesser interval without distortion. of signal you are putting in the
ground.
2. Beware if majority of events are three
or more cycles.
Pitfalls in Seismic Interpretation Summary (continued)
B. Multiples 19 A simple shallow anticline or reef, with a

1. Conformable dip sets no-reflection shadow zone, sedimentary
wedges, and an unconformity.
20 A prograding set of layered sediments

overlying an unconformity beneath which
is a second layered section.
2. Nonconformable dip sets
21 Simple anticline.
C. Playback 22-23 Smeared cycles, sharpness and amplitude

changes across highs and into the lows,
multiples, ringing, dead zones below strong
reflections conflicting dip sets, and
distorted structures.
Geologic: Complex growth history

Nongeol: The surface-air or water interface 1. A simple finger span or dividers will
generates multiples. Energy trapped in show the double-path multiple
near-surface or water layer causes quite readily.
reverberation. Both may be subdued 2. The wedges may be interbed
by processing. Muting may suppress multiples.
multiples. 3. Have nonmuted section available.
Geologic: Young anticline.

Nongeol: Multiple from base of low-velocity Coincidence of structure with refraction
layer. first kick anomaly. Structure is mirror
image of surface anomaly.
Geologic: See selected geologic explanations 1. Check stacking velocities, automatic

above. volume controls, and other
Nongeol: Improper selection of processing processing control parameters.
control parameters and/or inadequate
processing. Constant
communication
mustbe
maintained betweenGeologist,
Interpreter,and ProcessEngineerso
astoproduce
thedesired
geologic
section.
VELOCITY PITFALLS
Example I --- Basinward Thinning
Observed phenomenon
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Example 1 -A
Example I-A is a regional line into an intermontanebasin but could also be a

marine line along a continental margin. Thinning into the basin from left to right
is readily seen.Three seeminglygood geologicinterpretationscan be read directly
from this section.The thinning could be a result of greater compactionin the deeper
part of the basin. It could be a starvedbasin, in which the depositioninto the basin
has been restricted. Or, it could be an inverted basin--the thick section on the left
being originally the center of the basin, with later inversion,or upward push, the
centerof depositioncould have shiftedto the upper right over what had been the
flank of the basin.Which of thesethree explanationsseemsthe most logical?
Model study
\
ß
•-,•, •,,\, 1.0 $E15•1C

SECTION
INTERVAL
VELOCITY
Model 1. Basinward thinning.

All three are logical. However, it is a pitfall to assume that all thinning on the
seismic section represents thinning in the subsurface.The first explanation, com-
paction, is involved but is not the full answer. The interval velocity of a given
rock body increaseswith increasingdepth according to a function similar to that
shown in Model 1. This normal increase in interval velocity with depth is associated
with the progressivedeepening of stratigraphic units into a basin. With the higher
velocities, seismic traveltimes decrease and intervals on the seismic time section
therefore decrease. The velocities and intervals shown on Model I will be seismically
expressedas shown on the accompanyingseismicsection. The time intervals on this
section decreaseby 60 msec for the upper unit and 40 msec for the lower unit.
However, there is no change in the actual thickness.
Validity check
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BASIN "THIN"
Example 1-B
There are three ways of obtaining a correct interpretationof Example 1-A. One
is to use systematicinterval changesas a meansof identifying apparentthinning that
is in fact a velocity effect. The interpreted section, Example l-B, showsfour equally
spacedupdip intervals, each of about 300 msec. These intervals thin progressively
downdip: 60 msec for the upper interval, 50 msec for the second, 30 msec for the
third, and 20 msec for the fourth. The progressivedowndip decreasein these intervals
indicates that interval velocities are becoming progressivelyhigher with depth, thus
explainingthe basin "thins."
A second means of identifying these interval changes as velocity effects is to
assign a reasonable velocity for the first interval updip and determine its thickness.
Assume the same thickness for the interval downdip and determine its interval
velocity The interval velocity should show a reasonable increase, which in this
example is about 2000 ft/sec. Each successiveinterval should show an increase in
velocity basinward,but the differential will lessenwith depth.
A third recourse is to convert the section to depth. However, a depth section
requires a very precise and detailed knowledge of velocity: otherwise it does not
correct all velocity anomalies.It may well becomea pitfall itself.
Example 2--- Fault Shadow (Normal)
Observed phenomenon
5000 ft-
...
. .
..
Example 2-A
Example 2-A showsvarious interruptedreflectionsthat suggestan inclined fault.

A very definite rollover into the fault of about 20 msec,or 100 ft, is apparentin a
lower horizon H. This reversal could be, and quite commonly is, a drag fold into a
normalfault. Normally, it wouldbe considei'ed
a goodoil trap.
10
Model study
o
6000'/5
6300'/5
.4
8500'/5
__.
10,000'/S 8900'/S
GEOLOGIC
M 10,500'/S 1.0 SEISMICSECTIO .........
Model 2. Fault shadow structure.
Unfortunately, traps of this type are more likely to catch interpreters than hydro-
carbons, for the rollover could be due to velocity rather than structure. Model 2
shows the velocity character of this type of anomaly. Within any horizontal layer
containing the fault, the rocks on the downthrown side are younger and have lower
interval velocities than those in juxtaposition on the upthrown side. As a result raypaths
thus meet ever lower velocities toward the downthrown block, and reflections within
the fault shadow bend downward into the fault.
Validity check
1500 m
I
5000 ft •
Fault Shadow
Example 2-B
11
This coincidenceof a fault and its shadowwith a reversal is the validity check for
spotting such velocity anomalies as those seen in Example 2-B. Coincidence alone does
not necessarilycondemn a structure, but when the coincidence does occur, it should be
checkedout to be sure it is not velocity-derived.
Example 3---Fault Shadow (Reversed)
Observed phenomenon I 1500M

500OFTI
5000 FT
Example 3-A
Example 3-A has a very nice reversal in the lower horizon. Above this rollover the
younger beds indicate a somewhat similar structure but with minor differences. The
reversal is slightly larger and is offset from the lower structural crest. This would
indicate an unconformity and differing periodsof movement,or differential folding.
Model study
8400'/$EC
8800'/SEC
o. / 9200'/SEC
= 7lOO.OOC 9500'/SEC
.8
1.0
1.2
SEISMIC SECTION
Model 3. Reverse fault shadow.
12
The fault-shadow effect is more common in reverse faults than normal faults
becausereverse faults tend to have a larger displacement. The velocity pattern is shown
in Model 3. Reflections beneath the fault in the downthrown block are upswept into
the fault plane. This apparent flexure plus the apparent offset in the crest of the
structure with depth gives the appearance on the seismic section of an asymmetric fold
rather than a reverse fault.
I 1500M
J
5000FT
! !
Fault Shadow
Example 3-B
The apparent upbending of the beds underneath the trace of the thrust fault,
Example 3-B, coincides with slivers of high-velocity material on the overthrust. The
flexure beneath the fault is the red flag of caution.
13
Example 4--Vertical Fault
1500 rn
Observed phenomenon 5000 ft
. •. •'•, .. • ,•. --,•.?•.: _• •K• :,;,.•- -..

..•,:•., •..,,. ••• •
'• '••• '• • -

,
VERTICAL FAULT
Example 4-A
In Example 4-A, the reflectionsare interrupted by what appearsto be a nearly

vertical fault. Careful measurement shows that intervals on the downthrown side are
thinner than their counterpartson the upthrown side and that the fault throw decreases
with depth. This suggestsup-and-downvertical movements,a yo-yoingof the bedsto
causethe varying thicknesses.Or possiblythere was lateral movementalong a wrench
fault that brought into a vertical plane beds from different basin positionsand of
different thicknesses.
Model study
o x .2
• t
x t3 .4
u.• 6800'/S
o
85oo'/s
x
xx
Z
0 .6
• .8
=' GEOLOGIC
c:: MODEL 6 8 \ • 1.0
INTI::RVAL
VI:LOCIT¾
1.2 SEISMIC
SECTION
Model 4. Thinning across fault.
14
Model 4 shows the velocity configuration of beds across a high-angle fault. The
beds have been displaced 1500 ft and the interval velocity significantly increased.
The seismic time section expressesthis velocity change as thinner intervals on the
downthrown side and a decreasein throw with depth. This type of anomaly is generally
confined to the shallow beds and to sediments undergoing active compaction. This
velocity phenomenon will be true with either vertical or horizontal movement along
the fault plane. However, with horizontal movement, naturally occurring beds of vary-
ing thicknessmay be brought into juxtaposition,presentingboth a real thicknessvariation
and a velocity-derivedthinning.
Validity check
1500 m
5000 ft
VERTICAL FAULT
Example 4-B
A validity check on Example 4-B for the authenticity of thickness changes across
the vertical trace fault is tough to find. A velocity anomaly can be expected where
the state of compaction and size of fault displacement produces a significant change
in interval velocity. A second consideration is the structural style of the area. Are
wrench faults common? If so, then natural thickness changes must also be considered
with the velocity effect.
15
Example 5 -- Shale Flowage
Observed phenomenon
Example 5-A
Example 5-A showsa near-surfaceanticline that is interrupted by either folding or

faulting of the upper bed. The lower horizon has less reversal, with another fault
indicated but opposite in throw from the upper horizon. These two faults in opposite
directions suggest two periods of movement: first, a period in which the lower fault
developed, then a period in which the lower fault acted as a butress for later com-
pressional movements that created the anticline above the fault and a fault trap below.
Model study
o (2
•- tGEOLOGIC
u.,
MODEL
11
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
SEISMIC SECTION
Model 5. Shale flowage.
16
If we consider the velocity character of a structure of this type, we may find that
the fault trap is a trap of another sort • a pitfall. A bulge like that shown in Model
5 is probably the result of plastic deformation, i.e., either salt or shale flowage. If
it is shale flowage, the thicker mass of shale with lower velocity toward the center
will create a velocity anomaly or downbowing beneath it. The change in thickness
and velocity at the right edge of the bulge producesthe apparent faulting in the deep
reflection on Model 5. What test can be made to determine whether the structure on
the deep reflector is real or a velocity anomaly?
Validity check
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Example 5-B
Our best validity test in this particular example was the drill, which found that
the lower horizon had neither the reversal nor the fault. The bulge was a high-pressure
shale flowage, which causeda slower velocity. In fact, we could say of all shale bulges
that "flowage is slowage." To check validity without drilling, we can use the ratio
between the increase in interval and the downbending. Assume the lower horizon
continuessmoothlyfrom the right into the regional dip on the left (Example 5-B). Plot
the interval increasesabove this line against the departures below the line. If there is
a velocity anomaly, theseplots will approximatea straightline.
17
Example 6---Salt Flowage
Observed
phenomenon
•;œT.•-:-,
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Example 6-A
Example6-A is anothertype of flowage,in which salt is involved.The flowage

wasprobablyinducedor triggeredby the prominentpresalthigh. This couldbe a very
attractive deep prospect.
Model study
7
• • 9ooo,/s
GEOLOGIC MODEL
1.8
0 2.0
' 2.2
2.4
SEISMIC SECTION
Model 6. Salt flowage.
18
Attractive? Yes. Prospect? Perhaps. Let's examine the character of Model 6 for
the pitfall, which is the differential between velocities. The traveltime through the salt
dome is less than that through the adjacent rocks. Consequently, reflections from
beneath the dome appear upbowed. On the left side of Model 6 is a salt anticline
in which, again, the traveltime through the salt is lessthan that through the surrounding
rocks. And again there is an upbowing of the base of the salt but on a smaller scale
than with the dome. On the right side of Model 6 is a residual salt mass, where the
traveltime through the salt is greater than that through the adjacent zone. Here we find
a downbow in the reflections from beneath the salt.
Validity check
SALT FLOWAGE
Example 6-B
Validity checks?Coincidence,of course,plays its useful warning role. The syncline

on the right matches exactly its overlying anticline, the basement high matches the
intrusion,and the basementhigh on the left mimics the overlying salt anticline.
A more sophisticated interpretation approach is to construct a depth section. This
may be done by computer. However, quite commonly the interpreter does it graphically
using sedimentvelocitiesfrom adjacentwell control and 15,000 ft/sec for the velocity
of salt. Generally this procedure removes most, if not all, of the presalt anomaly.
However, only where excellent velocity control is available can one be assured that
the depth section is correct.
The steeply dipping basal reflector beneath the salt dome in Example 6-A can serve
a useful purpose. The seismic waves travel more slowly on the left side than on the
right side. This difference suggestsan irregular shape for the salt body. Thus, a rough
outline of the salt may be gained by merely observingthe shapeof the velocity anomaly.
lg
Examples 7 and 8---Reefs
Observed phenomenon
t 1500m
5000 ft
........ ß
--'--'
.... '. •• • a• ' - ..- ..... ' .. ....
:................ -.'";;.;...-
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Reflection Deterioration
Example 7-A
Example 7-A is a classic supratenuousfold with gentle reversals in the shallower

beds and increasing relief with depth. Reflection deterioration is seen in the deeper
central basement uplift area. The structure appears to be basement involved and thus
may have influenced the overlying beds through restricted deposition or differential
compaction. A seemingly good geologic interpretation, then, is a supratenuousfold.
But the changein character and continuity of the lower interval is not explained.
Model study
1.2
o.
' •1
GEOLOGIC
MODELr
]o
1.8 SEISMIC SECTION
Model 7. Reefs.
2O
To settle for a simple basement uplift could be a pitfall. That subtle change in
character and continuity of the reflections is a clue to the reef shown in Model 7.
Seismic sections frequently show velocity anomalies beneath reefs. The character of
such anomalies varies with the velocity composition of the on-reef and off-reef
materials. If the reef is faster, a velocity high will result (Example 7); if slower, a
velocity low (Example 8).
Validity check
J 1500m
5000 ft
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:'¾'T?.
SERENDIPITY REEFS
Example 7-B
Although we cannot demonstrate that the subreef structures of Examples 7 and 8

are wholly due to velocity, we do have a validity check. That check is the coincidence
of the deep structural anomaly with the reflection character changes. A horizontal
line drawn across the basal reflection will deviate from that reflection more or less
coincidentallywith thesecharacterchanges.
In Example 7 the reef occupiesa deterioration zone, and its higher velocity causes
the basal upbowing. But this circumstantial evidencedoes not make the reef a unique
solution; igneoustuffs have also been encounteredin the same framework. If you drill
for a reef and find igneoustuffs, that is tuff luck. But if you drill an anticline and find
a reef- that is serendipity,as demonstratedin Example 7-B. Serendipityis the guardian
angel of interpreters.
In Example 8, the reef occupiesthe apparent lens where the character changesoccur.
Its lower velocity causesthe basal downbending. This might suggesta sand bar or a
river channel. However, by recognizingthat the low is apparent and that the feature is
a normal developmenton a flat base, the reef interpretation is suggested.
21
,,,....... . - ........ . ,,. . .,., , ..?,,,,..• .. , ..?,

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After Occidental
CHARACTER Petroleum Corporation
CHANGE
Example 8-A
III1• _,•ooo
ft.-
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After Occidental
Example8-B PetroleumCorporation
22
Example 9 --- Channels
Observed phenomenon
•
..
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I 1500
m 5000 ft
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Example 9-A
23
Example 9-A shows a very marked indentation of some 1100 ft in the seafloor, and
beneath it a very well-developed syncline. A close examination of the various horizons
of the syncline will show interval variations from top to bottom. It might logically be
reasonedthat this was a growing syncline extending up to the surface and thus localizing
the initial erosion that created this canyon.
Model study
• 23 5600'/S
6300'/S , % •;..
'•' 4 EOLOGIC
MODEL
3t
0
• .2
GEOLOGIC:
MODE1
•--
z
o .4
u
• 567 8 5 6 7
ß INTERVAL
8
VELOCITY
KILOFEET/SECOND
L•J .
•.. 1.o
1.2 /
Model 9-A. Model 9-B.
There may be two pitfalls here. One, of course, is the apparent syncline beneath
the channel. Most readerswill recognizethis as a velocity anomaly.
The second pitfall could stem from misinterpreting the seismic thickening of layers
beneath the channel as synclinal growth. The apparent thickening is an expression of
the lower velocity due to lesser compaction beneath the channel. In preparing depth
sectionsor estimating thicknesses,the procedure outlined in Model 9-B is recommended
for estimating velocities. The same interval velocity-depth function may be used within
and away from the channel provided the curve is adjusted to the water bottom. This
technique is suggestedsince velocities measuredbeneath surface topography of this type
are frequently unreliable.
A similar pitfall can be created by solution channels or cavities, with collapse of
the directly overlying beds. The infill will usually be of slower velocity than the
adjacent beds and should be treated the same way as the sea floor channel.
24
Validity check
WATER-BOTTOM ANOMALIES
Example 9-B
Three quick checks can be made to test the authenticity of this type of syncline.
One is the standard (by now) fact of coincidence. While the syncline could be real,
again the coincidence strains credulity. A second check is the change in shapes of
these synclineswith depth. A close examination of the seismic section in Example 9-B
will show a narrow, shallow synclinebecoming broader with depth and varying in relief
to some maximum value. These changes are both due to the velocity effect shown on
Model 9-B. The third check will be discussedlater under the category of "Geometry."
Example 10--Near-Surface Velocity Anomaly
Observed phenomenon --'.:• ' .' , :' •-..';•.• • • , ,, -q * .'••..... ß ...... .'-, ,•2. s ,•.... '• . -
•..•:•--':.•-":•- ' ' ' •" • "'• •:• ;'.'• - '•' 4•. ' :•.•".;½'•-:
ß.•.. . •{, • .• :.:-•, . . ....... • ......
'-- '."•, •.• * ".•%•2•,'" • " •' '*:' ". '•:*•:•----"

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Example 10-A •.::<:•...;..•...
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25
Example 10-A showsa very young anticline.We know it is youngbecausethe
amount of reversal is the same on each horizon and thus was folded later than the
youngesthorizon.This alwaysraisesthe question,"Would a younganticlinelike this

be prospective?"
Model study
WATER
o 9300'/S 11000'/S
• 1
_z 2
GEOLOGIC MODEL
z .2
O
• .4
z .6
.8
•_ 1.0
SEISMIC SECTION
Model 10. Near-surface effects.
Beforewe considerthe prospectiveness of this anticline,we shouldfirst question

its very existence.
A structurein whichall bedshavethe samerelief will not produce
a seismic section in which all reflections have the same relief. If the structure is not
real, we immediatelysuspecta lateral velocity variation within the near-surface.Model
10 representsa lateral velocityvariationdue to permafrost.The near-surface velocity
variesfrom 9300 ft/secin the water-covered
areato 11,000ft/secwithin thepermafrost.
The seismicexpression of the modelshowsthe apparentstructureresultingfrom the
reducedtraveltime through the permafrost.Similar apparentstructurescan result from
any localized,near-surfacevelocityanomaly.
26
Validity check
1500
rn!
rn
5000 ft
[1500
•t
I•ooof
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......:. "--'. :.'.'"'"-::,-.:----"'-.:"""..-
•;½
::..•..:.....
-?•:..::½ •..,..•...•.•
:...-,•_•
:-•...:.::..:;•
•.::.:. .•.•..•:
:..•.•
:?::.-::. ;• -• ....... •//.••
:.:.....-:........:;,...,,
..,. .½•%•--'
:.......•.,:,:,.....•;,•
-.,......... ....;,....;...•
:.•..,...
••....½..
NEAR-SURFACE NEAR-SURFACE
VELOCITY ANOMALY VELOCITY ANOMALY
Example 10-B Exam pl e 10-C
Testing the validity of structural anomalies of this type is relatively simple. The
best test is to plot the refraction first kicks, which will often show a coincidence
between near-surface velocity anomalies and subsurface structure. But with CDP
shooting, these refraction first kicks are often smeared to the point where they cannot
be seen at all, which is a pity because they can be so very valuable. In such cases,
perhapsa singlefold
write-outshowingthe refractionkickswould be helpful.In
Example 10-B, a line drawn through the high-velocitybreak encounteredin each of the
refraction first kicks, takes a shape similar to the indicated subsurface.This is highly
suspicious.When a correction is derived from the first kick data and applied to the
anomaly of Example 10-B, the structureis eliminated completely,as shown in Example
10-C, and nothing but regional dip remains.
SUMMARY OF VELOCITY PITFALLS VALIDITY CHECK
The validity check for the categoryof velocity pitfalls could be summedup with
that one word used over and over again • "coincidence."A coincidenceof surface,
near-surface, and subsurfaceis a red flag to heed. A detailed velocity analysis may
be required.
27
GEOMETRY PITFALLS
Our second category is geometry, the shape and steepnessof the structures. We
refer to anything over ten degreesas being in a steep-dipcategory.
Example 11 --- Anticlines
Observed
phenomenon I 1500rn
I
5000 ft
--0
.
Example 11 -A
In Example 1l-A, a gentle anticline is readily seen near the surface. Little inter-
ruption or complexity is suggestedin the near-surface;basically, the anticline is a very
simple rollover. But the deeper section quickly becomes a confused jumble of
reflections.
Model study
o b' a' c' ! c" e'
/
/
Model 11-A. Simple anticline. Model 11-B. Complex anticline.
28
The Models 11-A and 11-B illustrate the seismic deception associatedwith com-
plexly folded structures. To simplify the models, we consider straight raypaths con-
structed along perpendiculars to the beds from a common source-detector position on
the surface. Note that reflections from dipping beds emanate from depth points which
are updip from the surface detectors. Note further that the seismic section portrays
these depth points directly beneath the surface detector location. The seismic section
shows depth point A (Model 1 l-A) downdip from its position on the geologic model at
a time which is equal to the slant path time 0-A rotated to a vertical orientation.
In a similar fashion, all points along the structure are displaced. The break in dip
near the crest of the structure is a depth point common to many surface detector
positions. Consequently,these depth points are repeated on the seismic section. The net
result of the distortion is to present a seismic structure which is spread out, smoothed,
and to some extent, simplified as compared with the corresponding geologic structure.
Geologists should take special note of one feature of Model 11-A. Raypaths travel
perpendicular to the beds but are presentedon the seismicsection in vertical orientation,
as indicated by the arrows. Consequently, intervals on a seismic time section should
be measured vertically and not along perpendiculars as is done on a geologic cross-
section. However, if the section has been migrated, intervals should be measured along
perpendiculars.
Model 11-B showsthe increasingcomplexityof the seismicstructureas the geologic

structure becomes more complex. The combination of steep dips and faulting can
completelydistortthe apparentsubsurfacegeometry.Note how the intersectionsof the
fault and the beds at a and b (Model 1l-B) are shifted; if we locate these points on the
seismic section, the normal fault appears as a reverse fault. Fortunately, we cannot
ordinarily recognizethesedepth points and would use the apexesof the diffractionsfor
locating the fault. Incidentally, the diffraction apex is a migrated (two-dimensional)
position of the fault. Don't fall into the trap of remigrating at some later stage in
the interpretation.
Faults at the crest of structures can present a special pitfall. Conceptually, they
should be representedby a single diffraction at each bed-fault interface. However,
spreadingof the depth points as illustratedby point c may lead to the interpretation
of multiple faults.
To illustrate further the geometric distortion of seismic structures, note (Model

1I-B) how a vertical well bore would have to be deviated to portray it on the seismic
section. This also illustrates the problem of tying seismic and well data in steep-
dip areas.
29
Validity
check I 1500m
i
5000 ft
ANTICLINE • Example 11 -B
Migration is the solution to the complexities discussedabove. Some simple, easy

method of hand-migrating (such as the diffraction overlay) should first be used to see
how complex the structure really is and to see if a more definitive type of migration
is needed.
Example 12 • Synclines
Observed
phenomenon [ 15oo
m
5000 ft
After Geocom
Example 12-A
30
Example 12-A shows a simple, shallow syncline resting unconformably on top of
a good rollover, or anticline. This positioning would require, of course, two periods
of movement--the folding of the anticline and erosion-and then another period of
deformation in which a syncline happened to be centered over what had previously
been an anticlinal position.
Model study
GENTLE SYNCLINE
MODER
,
GEOLOGIC MODEL GEOLOGIC MODEL
'•'•.'[•,,•t•:"
•
SEISMIC SECTION FROM MODEL SEISMIC SECTION FROM MODEL

•o•el 12-A Model 12-B
SHARPSYNCLINE RECENT SYNCLINE
GEOLOGIC MODEL 6tG[

'EOLOGI'
E
L •'- GEOLOGIC MODEL
SEISMIC SECTION FROM MODEL SEISMIC SECTION FROM MODEL

Model 12-C Model 12-D
31
But can we trust an anticline centered under a syncline?To answer this question,
let us examine the seismic expressionof a syncline as pictured in Models 12-A, B, C,

and D. The portrayal of a syncline on a seismic section depends upon its arcuateness,
which is expressedby the location of the center of curvature with respect to the earth's
surface. A very gentle syncline having a center of curvature above the earth's surface
appearson the seismic section as a relatively simple syncline, as shown in Model 12-A.
As the arcuateness increases, Models 12-B and 12-C, the center of curvature moves
below the earth's surface. At any surface position near the syncline, multiple depth
points are detected and plotted one above the other as shown in the seismic models.
The so-called bow-tie with apparent anticline centered below it is illustrated in Models
12-B and 12-C.
Examples 12-A, B, and C are combined in 12-D, in which the downbending on all
beds is equal. The increase in depth shifts the center of curvature from above surface
for the shallow syncline to below the surface for the deeper synclines.This effectively
increases the arcuateness as the seismograph sees it. The seismic section will show a
relatively gentle, shallow syncline--becoming progressively sharper with depth,
then bow-tieing and finally inverting to form an apparent anticline. To answer the
original question, then, anticlines beneath synclinescannot be trusted.
Validitycheck •5oo rn
5000 ft
":2,• •.•-• ..•.:4A. •-5

,•.- -•:;-• •7• •8• .:•,.
• " •i:•
--1.0
':• -- 2 0
• ß
•" •="•'•'•' •*• :.•-- 5000
ft
• .-.......
....... ;••; ,- a;• •.....
..... .,............. ,•
..•.: .
•:• •4.0
.• •.•. • •>•.•.•
•t•.•,• • •. • •,--......:..•
................... •.•.•.•.•,•,• ....... . ...................... .............. ..•...•....[• .....
After Geocom
MIGRATED SECTION
Example 12-B
The check for validity of our suspectedanticline is migration. The migrated

section, Example 12-B, completely eliminates any vestige of the anticlinal dip. The syn-
cline now occupiesthe entire section.
You will recall now that for Example 9, the velocity low beneath the sea-
floor canyon, we gave two quick checks for identification of false synclines due to
32
velocitypitfalls and promiseda third, which is due to the geometrypitfall discussed
above.Referringback to Example9, we seeno reflectioncrossover or bow-tieing.If the

synclinehad beenreal and not a velocityphenomenon, it wouldhavehad a reflection
crossoveron the deeperhorizonsascan be seenon Example 12-A.
Example 13 -- Intrusion
Observed phenomenon
[.......
'•'•••
Example 13-A
Example13-A is an intrusion,clearlyoutlinedby the reflectionterminations.It

wouldbe a simplematter to locateprospectivewildcatsagainstthis intrusive.
Model study
GEOLOGIC MODEL SEISMIC SECTION

AND
SEISMIC SECTION
Model 13. Salt dome with seismic expression.
33
Before making the location, though, note Model 13, which shows that the salt-dome
edge is not at the termination of the reflections. The dashed lines are diffractions and
the dotted lines are multiple-branched reflections. Note that the reflections terminate
well out from the edge of the dome, and that the only direct seismic indicators of
the dome edge are the apexes of diffractions. Normally, the diffraction leg within the
dome will not be seen.
Validity check
INTRUSION
Example 13-B
Migration is required to locate the actual boundary of the intrusive. The outer
boundary shown on Example 13-B' is drawn from the reflection terminations. The inner
boundary is interpreted as the true outline of the intrusive. This interpretation is based
on the migrationof the adjacentdipsand on a few scattered
diffractions.
We are
assuming, of course, that these diffractions mark the termination of the intruded beds.
Note the scale of the section; on the upper right flank there is a difference of over a
mile between the reflection's termination and the interpreted edge of the intrusive. This
difference is important when mapping the upturned edge of an intrusive for a well
location. It is important to remember that the edge of the intrusive is not where the
reflections terminate. The edge is somewhere inside.
Incidentally, on the lower left flank of the intrusive (Example 13-B) are some
rollovers similar to those of Example 12-A. We now know that this is not an anticline,
but a crossovercausedby a deep rim syncline.
34
Examples 14 and 15---Sideswipe
Observed phenomenon 1500

rn
5000ftl I
....
•..• •'.•
...............
:.....-...• •..:•;-%.?..•......•..f:;.:
•..•
...•::
-:.:•-..
_?•.%;:•.:-.?:
..?:.?-.f.::•.;
:....• •-.::
.;•
'•
5000 ft
2.0
3.0
Example 14
Example 14 is more of an enigma than a pitfall. The section showsgently dipping

shallow reflections overlying folded structure. On the left a well-developed syncline
extends upward to the unconformity. In the center, the companion anticline is well
developed at depth but fades into regional dip well below the unconformity. How can
a synclineextend higher in the sectionthan its companion antidine?
Model study
[ •EEP DEPTH
POINTS
• (• •-.•...(a,.•.•-''-,,,,•..P•
) • POINTS
STRUCTURAL CONTOURS OF GEOLOGIC MODEL
SEISMIC SECTION OF GEOLOGIC MODEL

Model 14. Sideswipe.
35
An explanationof the anomaly is shownon Model 14. Displacementof the depth

points to the side of the line of profile is called "sideswipe."As the line of profile
passesthe structure,the reflectiondepth points climb the flank of the structure.As in
the normal migrationproblem,the deeperthe horizon,the greaterthe amountof shifting
of the depth point from beneath the surface position. Consequently,on the deeper
horizons (indicated by short dashes),the depth points climb almost to the crest of the
structure and the seismic reflection exhibits large reversal. On the shallow horizon
(long dashes), the depth points are well down the flank of the structure, and the
reflection exhibits subduedrelief and is maskedby reflectionsfrom the synclinedirectly
beneath the line of the profile. Sideswipethen accountsfor the unusualseismicstructure
in which the anticline dies out upward, but its companionsynclinepersists.
SIDESWIPE
Example 15
Example 15 is another example of sideswipein which an off-line salt dome

contributed diffraction-like events.
Validity check
The validity check for sideswipeis sufficient crosslines to outline the structure.
In tightly folded areassideswipeis very likely, but so are front-swipeand back-swipe.
In other words,energywill be recordedfrom a complete360 degreecircle around the
shotpoint. If these tight folds are close enough together, reflected energy could be
coming from one, two, or even three anticlinesat the sametime, presentinga dilemma
that could not be solved without some prior knowledge of the grain or trends of
the folds.
Knowledgeof the trend direction is important in laying out the seismiclines and
in working the data. The dip lineswould be worked first to get an idea of the complexity
of these anticlines and then the horizons would be tied with the strike lines.
36
Examples 16 and 17---Diffractions
Observed phenomenon
;?..-
............
-.-...:.-..-.......
?:.:"•.•'-•'-•'
•...•...,:-•:•::•:-:.:?'•-.•
'-'•-'•:•:•:'•{-'•:
:...;.
'..-.•'. .:.:::
•;•--:....::---;•/•.•.::.-.•.•-•..•
';.• -.---'"..:
v'-'•.
.:•:.....-/:.
-•--•-•--••:•••••:.•;
::.'----'-.
?-'{':
:-'-.'
.:.'
•.......•-..?
.''•-•-?'T-'•-"--
-•--::
::•:•.
•••••-•.•:
'..'-'-.::"-.
• .-.-"-'
.-•.' :'••:-•
."?..'-:.
{•:•.'•................................. "-:'•
;T:•'.•.'"-:-.--.--'.::':.-"-"
'•L'_"•' '• '•:•;•;::"'-":•::'
..::"-:.-"::-':'.:.'":::':"::'
:''-•'- •:: •'•"•'. -'-- '...... '--:-'-':
:'-:'.....:.::"'.
.......'-" ---:/:-'•
--•:'"';;•;;•g-;-•::'::•
.•-;
..•2;-
•,/.:¾•::.•:..•;:;-..-:::•.:-..:
•.•.......•
.........
.:..
:..•:
;..•.•..:..
•...•..?..•.
•:.•:.-.-:•:•
•............................
.•-•:.•::
...........
...:
.,•::
.:.•.
;.:.;:
:.•...
7.•...•-:-:...••,
;;:.;
.::.....
_• •.•.• --......•.•..•,.•
,......
.
.;•...•.,:•........•
=•..:•....•
...•.....
::.;:..,
.-:..
:.......
..................................... . .
. ß .................. . ....,.•/....•:....•.
:.•
..........
•...
.......-:'•.:•.::•.:•; '•, • .:.'•?•..,. • ..g
....... ::....:.-'•?
•.-:.-:';g:•.•
:':-: ..........
•-..:-:..:::..........::•:....:........:.•..:
.:..•
........
:.....:•:---•:•:..
'.•.•e•'..-•..;•.•;::•."•:•:::-:.-•>'•.:.•:.•-:::-'•:•.'•..
-;-;•;..-::;;.-.-..:/-;•-.g..:•-..-.--'•'.;•:....:•
:...:-;.:;•
.-..............•....:•...;:-
.......:.;::-:::;;:.:.•-.-------...::.
..•.•......•.•
• ....
.•.-•.....
::':•:..,::?::•.::;•;;;.;.•;•;::;;:.::":'•::•.:•::'•"-:;•d
'•::-
..•" '•:•-'.:::--:•
"'":"•"•
' '•'•-•.:.:•;?•?¾:;;;;;::•::-:•:•D,,-::;•..¾•;:•
:./:::"-•"--•.::;::;:'
.•:•.•;::;;-;..:•.::•:::•:•.:...•-::•-:..-.•:.:•.;:.•:•..•:•:'-•
..........
ß....•.•:,•.•
'-•'•/•-•"•-'•'•"'••
.•.••::.•::.:.•.:.:;{::::..:./:•;•.•.
::,::;::..-..•...•.:.:.•.:-•./;•.•:-•......;•..•;:.:::;
...........................
• ..••
•?.;:?.•.........
•.•• • ......•.••••••••••:••:.;.•.•..-.•.•-.-•:.-:.•:-.:•:.::•:.•::•.•.:-•
?:-'::•':':.:'..:•;.:....:.:..-'•::.•-•:'.•
.•••••.•::. .••.::.•
"•'
;:•....:..:......;•:..::....;•;;....
.......
• .:.'..:.
;•':'.;-'".--. ...............
•.•-•.•::•:.•:•:..•:--.::.•
';.:;"."..'""."'
'.'::
.......
:." ...
...............
•.-•••••.••
.....-;;.-:-...;.'..---..•.;•:•:;..
• '•••••'••••••"• n.--.•••..•••
'--•'"':"•:';'•:':•:'"•'•'"•":•'•::"•"::':::':•'•'•:•'"•'•':•:
'"'"•::
:'•'•:'":
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..............................
'•:'"•':'•::•'•""•:'":'•.......
•............
'""'"'•'"'"::":'"'"'"
......
'•" .... •' • 2.0
.•....:
•.....?:•:.•..:.:•:.:...
:.•---•:...•
..•:•::.•...•:•....:.
:::...:.....
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• .....
ß................
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.....:.•,.•.•.•..•.•.....--•:-..
...................
... •. ................
:..
.........
.................... .:.•..•
-.••.••••...•••
••• •.•.•.,•
.•.:•..:.•..:.:•:.:•:..•.:::::•...•:•.•.
•:.•...:.y.•:....•:-........
:.:;•.•...•
......
-..•• ..•••
••. . .• .••.•• .......................-.::::.:.....:;:.•.•:-•.
...........
•.•.•-•?.•
.•.•:..••'-.•. ..............
?:?•.:?"-••.:•.•
ß
:..'.•.•y?•:'
.....•••..••.••.•••
'"•:'"..''/•' •::•:•: -""--
::•".:-:'d'::.
d•'.':
-:'"'.-•
-•..'"-'-:•:.--'•-*---'--•.•
:':'"::"
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---..'
..............
••.••••••..•.••.:•
•..'••••:•:•:'•.•:•.:.:::•..::...•...-•.•:•:...•:.•.•.:-:--..•:
::."."........... -".....................
.'"::'..
.•::.:...
::?-/----•-.-..•---••••
'; ...'•":..""•:..'•.
.......
:-•:....
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...... ' ........
'
"'•"•":..-{.•-•':•:.•;•:.
•'•:':'--•-•::.::•.•.':•.•:•;•?-'•:::.'•.."•:•
.............
'...:--:..•:•'•..'•.:'...'-d.-.
..........
"'--'"'.•'.'"'.
............
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........
'..:
............
•'.".
.......
.'.•
.......
'.....•:':::.":
'•• •"••'
'•'•••
•.•...•.-::..::.:•...•:•.:.-.'::•..•.:•..:•....•:.'•
:•.•::..:
.•...•..•:.::•::..•-.•:•.:..::•..•}.:.•:.- :•:*:•:...'......•.'::•-•:':-'•:
:•.•.:.•..:•:
.........•...?:
.-.::•.•::..::.:.•:
.•
•:'•'"'•
...."•.'......:.•"•:..•::•.:-•:•'.•::•.'•'•::F
'"• ':•.
"..•.*::.-:.
::.-::•
'L•':'.•-:-•
•--
•::'•':'-:.•.'.d-•':•::-'•... '--..... ? '"-"•'.:•..:::•.•..,,...•.•
.......•:.,..•.•.•..:..
'•-' ..• ...........
...'•......
:'2""-'-.-"•'
:':--•':
....
Example 16-A
Example 16-A is a seriesof terracesinterruptedby faults. On the left at about 1.8

seca nice rollover is presentsuggestingan intrusion,with wedgeoutsagainstit. There
is possiblya deeper intrusion on the lower left.
Model study
GEOLOGIC MODEL SEISMIC SECTION FROM MODEL
Model 16. Diffractions.
The rollovers are probably diffractions associated with the faulting. Diffractions
develop, as shown in Model 16, from curved or angular surfaces having dimensions
on the order of a wavelength (150-300 fi). An example is the intersection of a bed with
a fault. The diffraction source reflects energy from a series of shotpoints along the
line of profile. Although the actual rays follow slant paths (except at the apex), the
reflections are presented vertically beneath the shotpoints and the typical hyperbolic
37
diffraction pattern is generated. Point source diffractions from a shallow source are
generally distinctly hyperbolic and highly arcuate and readily recognizable as

diffractions. However, a diffraction from considerable depth or from a fault which
strikes at an acute angle with the line of profile tends to lose its hyperbolic character
and assumethe air of a respectable-lookinganticline. How can we distinguish anticlines
from diffractions?
Validity check
•o
•2. o
FAULTS AND DIFFRACTIONS

Example 16-B
In Example 16-B, the CDP processinghas so smearedthe true faults that they take
on the appearanceof a continuousbed or a monocline. Although a single-foldplayback
would best define the fault itself, a diffraction overlay is often sufficient to show where
the fault really occurs. Notice particularly the "deep uplift" on the lower left; it is
nothingbut a fault with diffractions.
The diffraction overlay is a usefuldevice for identifying diffractions.The overlay
is a seriesof patternsshowingthe predictedconfigurationof diffractionsthroughoutthe
depth of the section.Accurate velocity information is required to preparethe overlay.
Also required is the approximate angle of intersection between the fault and line
of profile.
A second test for differentiating between diffractions and anticlines is their
curvature. A diffraction is hyperbolic in that its maximum curvature is at the top and
it straightens out with depth. An anticline, with its corresponding syncline, is a
continuous convex-concave curve.
Diffractions originating from faults or surfacesat lessthan about 75 degreesto the
line of profile are difficult to recognize.They may fit a diffraction overlay rotated from
38
the vertical, the amount of skew being a rough measureof the angle of the line to the
diffraction source. Where the structural trend is known, diffraction overlays should be
made to satisfythe angle betweenthe line of profile and the structuralgrain.
Observed phenomenon
'i.•i'.11•' • -- 5000
ft
1.5.... . .•'•" - •' ' " •!"
, '....•..: "." '..-, , ' 'w•.,•

. '.- '...•, ,•'-.' .,,'•'• ...... ß
'. ' ß
•.o-'•-•: • z.;,*" '" • ' .',;:':•'"•'.,."'".:•..,:.•
.' • .. a "•"'"';','"
.....•.' ;'."i!;•..,,,.,
.. J, ... '.. s. .. ' ,,,,• ,,.
'riM,=
s,=c'rlO. Af 'er Prakla-Seismos
DIFFRACTIONS and Amoco Europe
Example 17-A
Example 17-A shows an undulating erosional basement surface of knolls and hills,
overlain by supratenuousdepositional folds terminated by an angular unconformity.
The pinchout of beds against the basement surface could serve as a trap for oil, or as
a sourceof oil for entrapment on the old eroded surface.
Model study
See Model 16.
Validity check
o m, I , m I"i . , I,'"l Itlt[
i , ßI.JJl
ummmmm,
I 1500
m
!!•111!11iltl•111!!111111•lfl•,
'•l•lL•,•b
•':•,E•!
•,• 't•'•'• , •'1'•F•• EE=•b•,aE•l•El•'•:i•,
•I 5000ft
.5.....
'.... •""-••'• .....
•:,.',m,,,•
.....
, ......................
,.,.. ,, ...:,
- ......
],].-•
- "•,•_.•'
...................... ..2;_.--•
......
.,, . ,,,,•,;,•,,.•,,',;,., •_.,,.', ...•: ,.•,,....,, •••= y;••,,' .......
.......... ,, ' •.• .... . • •..,. ,, •• ........ ,C'c•
•,, ..... ,,,,• ..••hrs,,,_,'.••,,,,;

..... •;*•,,,,t•* . ;",",7:'"';';,,,,•
.... ..';, '•,••.• ....
', p ' "t I•;i d I ' ' --.- • ,- .' r " ' i l" "1
• ' • "ti "' "•'
......
2.0-' '
MIGRATED TIME SECTION
. '",
, ',.•e .,;½"
r•''•.•', ',
•, ' ,Id"
After Prakla-Seismos
Example
17-B andAmoco
Europe
39
The recognitionof the diffractions is essential.The migrated time section,Example
17-B, eliminated the suggestionof "knolls and hills." Rather, it now appearsas a series
of sharp, steep-sidederoded fault blocks. The oil potential may still be presentbut the
structural framework is quite different.
SUMMARY OF GEOMETRY PITFALLS VALIDITY CHECKS
The validity checks for the category of geometry pitfalls may be summed up in
two words: Geology and Migration. One must know what to expect-in structural
complexity and line orientation, and he must migrate for truer perspective.
DATA GATHERING AND PROCESSING PITFALLS
Our third categoryof pitfalls is data gatheringfindprocessing.Processing

is perhaps
the most dangerous,becauseit is the newestand least understood.In the analog world
of yesterday,shooting,processing,and interpretationoften took place in one office in
the field. Now, in the digital computer era, processingis generally separatedfrom
interpretation, and communications between interpreter, field operator, and data
processor may not be adequate to maintain an optimum level of recording and
processing.However, even high-quality recordingsmay contain pitfalls becauseof the
presenceof nongeologicreflection-like events.
Example 18---Input Pulse
Observed phenomenon
I 1500m
[
5000 ft
,.•w,,•-•:.,
..,.••.. '•.."
'.:'.-,,..i
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......
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•.77-•
71
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Example 1 8-A.
4O
Example 18-A appearsto be a very simple case of recent, many-layeredbedding,
beneath which are a couple of paleo unconformitiesmold unconformable, eroded

surfaces.There are some scattered, confusing dips, but basically the unconformities
can be very accurately mapped.
Model study
GEOLOGIC MODEL SEISMIC SECTION
Model 18. Elongated pulse.
"Accurately" may be a deceptive word to use here. Geologic Model 18 showsa

simple condition,a flat-lying angular unconformity. But the seismicexpressionof this
simple two-line model is complicated,since the seismicwavelet, the basic measuring
device of the seismograph,is generallynot a single cycle, but a train of as many as
six cycles,as in Example 18-A. Each reflectinghorizon generatesmulticycles,and the
tailing cyclesof the upper horizon may maskthe correctpositionof featuressuchas the
unconformityin Model 18. Seismicreflectionsare distortedwhenthe intervalbetween
reflectors is lessthan the wavelength of the input signal.
Validitv
check I 15oo
rn 5000 ft
•:•:-..:•:•:
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.•.2•..,""'"••••'•••••-•:• • ft
INPUT PULSE
Example 1 8-B
41
The crux of the validity check is to recognize the input signal. With deep marine
shooting, this signal may be seen in the first arrivals and water-bottom reflection and
verified in deeper, wide-spacedreflectors. With land and shallow-water marine shooting,
the only clue will be in the wide-spaced reflectors. These will be seen as isolated
reflections of a similar character. In Example 18-B, the circled areas are distorted m
have no meaning whatever. If detailed mapping is required, extreme care must be
maintained in the character of signal put into the ground.
Examples, 19 and 20-•Normal Multiples
Observed phenomenon
1500
m•_•
5000 ft
.,•-,-•/ , -- 1.5
.
ß
.'..... . ..:.•......,
....................
ß.ß....... ½..:,
...........
:.....
;/•:i.-..:..,..
.....-. ß.........:......,
......•..ß .. ......... .................' -- 5000 ft
Example 19-A
Example 19-A has a central no-reflection zone reminiscent of the previously

describedreef. At the left there is also a nice wedge of sedimentsthat getsprogressively
thicker with depth. This upper section is terminated by a very marked unconformity.
Model study
3: • p_.__
c• 2[GEOLOGIC
MODEL
2J-GEOLOGIC
MODEL
Model 19-A. Simple multiple. Model 19-B. Ringing multiple.
42
In sectionsof this type, one should suspectmultiples. In discussingmultiples, we
will consideronly the simpler types- thosegeneratedat the surface,at the base of a
low-velocity layer or a channel, or by standingwaves within a near-surfaceor water
layer.The simplemultiplegeneratedat the surfaceis shownin Model 19-A. Each bounce
between surface and reflector is recorded, and the multiples appear on the seismic
sectionat a time spacingequal to the two-way traveltime betweenthe primary reflector
and the surface reflector. If the primary reflector is dipping and the surface reflector
is flat, the seismicdips will be approximatelydouble those of the primary for the first-
order multiple.
The standing-wavemultiple is demonstrated in Model 19-B. It develops when
energybecomestrappedbetweentwo reflectorsand reverberates.If the two reflectors
are flat, primariesand multipleswill exhibit the samedip. The standing-wavemultiple
is common on marine surveys,where the energyis trapped and reverberatesin the water
layer. If the layer is thin, the multiplesappear closetogetherand impart a ringing,
or singing, character to the section. This type multiple is also called an interbed
multiple.
Validity check
-- 5000 ft
MULTIPLES
Example 19-B
Many of the simplermultiplesmay be attenuatedby filtering,which explainswhy

this exampleis shownunder "Data Processing."But how do we recognizemultiples?
The simple multiple is easy to recognize.It appearsat a time twice that of the
primary (if from the surface)and mimicsthe primary in character.Seethe water bottom
multiple in Example 19-B. The sequences of wedgesnoted on the left of Example 19-B
may be in part due to a specialcaseof the interbedmultiple. Some,if not all, of the
wedgingmay be real, but a singlewedgenear the surfacecould in itself createa series
of wedges.
Deconvolution may help with the ringing; selectivedip filtering may remove some
of the simple multiples; but no truly reliable method of eliminating multiples is
available. While calculating multiple paths may be very helpful, a pessimist can
"multiple" himself completelyout of a prospect.A healthy skepticismis a virtue.
43
Observed phenomenon
ß ,.; Shotpoint.,. :; 1500 rn ...
':• 370 ' I I•

I
-- 5000 ft ß
ß
•!'..:...'
..
:.
i!;•
I."
•:?_.
_.i....-t_.•
•::::
.• ........
MULTIPLES
Example 20-A
Example 20-A is a deep marine sectionwith the water bottom at 4.0 sec (10,000
ft). The baseof the gentlydippingreflectionsis about 4.8 sec at what appearsto be
a basementsurface.However,it apparentlyisn't basementsincethere are prominent
reflectionsbelowit which arenot readilyidentifiedasmultiples.
44
Model study
2ND WATER BOTTOM (12 SEC, - 10 2 SEC. = 1 8 SEC

MULTIPLE - SHOT
WATER BOTTOM WATER BOTTOM SHOT 2

SHOT 1
3RD WATER BOTTOM

MULTIPLE - SHOT
1ST WATER BOTTOM 1ST WATER BOTTOM

MULTIPLE - SHOT I MULTIPLE SHOT 2
SHOT REPEAT TIME 10.2 SECONDS
(THE 10,2 SECOND RECORD TIME OF SHOT 1

- 2ND WATER BOTTOM EQUALS 0 SECOND RECORD TIME OF SHOT 2)
MULTIPLE - SHOT
EVENTS ARRIVING AFTER 10.2 SECONDS FROM

SHOT 1 WILL APPEAR AT ARRIVAL TIME MINUS
10.2 SECONDS ON SHOT RECORD
3RD WATER BOTTOM•

MULTIPLE - SHOT
Model 20. Multiple patterns in continuously recorded marine seismic data.
The reflection at 5.7 sec, SP 370, is a simple, first-order multiple which has
traveled between basement and the water bottom. The second-order multiple of this
family appearsat 6.6 sec, and the third-order at 7.5 sec.
The cyclic energy between6.5 sec and 7.5 sec arisesfrom a different multiple
family. This energy has traveled from basementto the surface(primary arrival time,
4.9 sec) and then became trapped in the water layer, similar to Model 19-B. These
ringing multiples have arrival times of 8.9, 12.9, 16.9 sec. However, these arrival times
are distortedbecauseof the recording mode usedfor thesedata.
The data were recordedcontinuouslyusing a sourcewhich pulsedevery 10.2 sec.
Any energyarriving later than 10.2 secappearson the next "shotpoint"at a time equal
to the arrival time minus 10.2 sec. This is illustrated in Model 20. The second basement
cyclic multiple, noted above, at 12.9 secwill appear at 2.7 sec (12.9- 10.2) and the third-
order basementcyclic multiple at 6.7 sec(16.9- 10.2).
45
Validity check
Shotpoint '• 1500 m

•.,::.:,•.•.• ' " . •,•
370 • .-•'•'•.. [ I .::•.•:
•"••••'••••••••.. :. '•,•:-..:.::;•:'-,,.ß •
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......
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, ,.• • • •.• .,• .,:•.•, , • •' :::::
......
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::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
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........
===================================
:::::::::::::::::::::::::-.?-:::•:'<'•::::;.'•:•
-- 10,000 ft
::,:'"'.'..:_:•'::.•7 =============================================================
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
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:.:•:.:::<.:.:
:::•-".-.•:..,..::.:-'....:;¾'--.•:.j;::.:•'::-.•.-'-:..'•::.:•'.'•:':..•.....-..
•.-..:...•:..:.='•.•,•...,....•
.... • •, ': .:::- ...--•,.-•.: .... ,........... .,..•.:::•,•.....
:'. •. ,.:::;--•
• .'.-.-...w
..:.:-...•
--,--:•-:.;.".•...:"-..•:-.'..•-- '":': .:'....... ::..' .:-.•..: ..... <'-- -:-.•:...
• ;.•: ...-...
•,..::-• ..-...,..•/":•..:...........:.
:•-:'.•..:--:•,•::-..• - .... ß .... .•::...;j::.•-
..•:--.......:...':.•."':
===============================
.•:•':,..••,-•.:., •-:'•'•:-: ::..-:.:.... :•.--..<':-.:.-..;•:.:.
:..
•:-••:•::.::..--...":
?.<:::.::::'-./,•::-::.-.•.:•?•:•.:.....,:.•.•:•.::..:.--•
.....
. .........
........:.............. • ........:-•:•::?..•:...' ......
........•.........
. . .........
.:........ . .:-..:.•
:.....,•.
:..:•<•:-'•:.:..::.:•:.'::•:•-•::..:•::
... . .:.:...:.... •. . ,.,: :•.,.:.:::::.::.....:...•
•.,.•.•..••=••..•••-•••••:.........•:::..,•.:..
...... •,, ,.::.:....."•::•:•.,<•
..........
'.•. ....
.:.•-:...•: ,:•::-• ......
....•.•-•::<.: ,.•j•.:..•.:..•:<'•:?::•':;'..•
-:..:'/•.•: ..:...::.
:..::::?:.•.:.:-
....?.-:
.•::•
:: :::.' ••••••-•••::'"-•:•:::'.•.::.:...:
.-..:::.:.;,•;
:.::•:•:::
:.:•
....
:"••:•:< :•:•-%::':..::'".•:
:.:'•-.• '••3:':....::-: '•:,':•.•
.':"•:• ;"•:. ":
,.:::•,::..• ::::...:.;.....
....
. •>•. ,, .•,-••••••••
,•..•••.••'•••-
.•.... • .• .... ... ... ....... •,•.. :• ........ .. •+ .,...•:.:
••'••••••••••••••-..
, .•••
............ ,.........
•.. •...•.::::.,.:,....<:•'.....:..
......•-. ,•:.'
.:•.••.•••.:•-....•..:.•:-.:'•.•.:'•...::...?:
................ .•.• .......
:•.:.--•,...'.....•...-•..-::.:::
......:::..... : ,,,-•:::
...•.•.... •.•....•.,,•.<•.....•.• <:
:-•
...-::..:,•.
•:..::,•".:
..........
:..:..,,..•:• "•/:•.+'•:.-:•.
:,•::•<..:•
:•::.:--<::?:':.•.:.•...:'.:.
-•:.:...:
::...•:.•;:
.. -•::.-':::•
.',•..:: ....•:.'•....:;;
:.-:..:•.-..:<:..•.,
..-.,..,•
:•. ::-;'•'•:•;:..--.•:.:...?-•.:•:,•.•-;<.,.:•:•••• .;.:.•:..
?•,..•....:..:.......
:::..:.:,,:::.:
ß;:•..:..:.... •:.,.<•::.•:
•-=.-?:,-:.•::•.:.....:..:::<..:.
.•.•<,.:....: :,•,-'-:-........:..
•,..:... ;•:......--,
.....
:.':-.•:•,•- ,-.•,>•.••••••••.::.:::....,,.:
•,,•,,-•.• •-?-:..:...;',.
:• .- .:.
......
•..?..:::::....:..:
. ..•::• :-•:.• • :..'• •:'• .. • • .•::.•
.........
:.• ... ::•::.::...:
.•=..:
:-i :...:•?:.,...: •.::-•:•,•. :•..• . •. .: ... •. ß.•,, --.';:.•.•::
Example 20-B
Example 20-A is a doctored section. The processor has logically removed the
multiple energy typically found within the water layer (above 4.0 sec). Although this
presents a pleasing looking section, it makes it impossible for the interpreter to trace
multiple paths as illustrated in the model.
Example 20-B is the undoctored version of 20-A. Needless to say, it will be quite
confusing to the person trying to read geology directly from the section but it does
contain the data necessaryto make an intelligent interpretation.
46
Example 21 -- Inverted Multiples
Observed phenomenon
1500
rn
5000 ft
--o
--.5
--1.0
. • 5000 ft
...
Example 21-A
Example 21-A exhibits a very shallow anticline. As in Example 10-A, it is shallow,

so it obviouslymust be a young anticline representingrecentfolding. But in the explana-
tion of Example 10-A, we learned our shallow anticline was really a near-surface
velocity correction problem. Is that what we have here?
Model study
0 •,
O i I•1
-, •1•1
v iii I • p (Prirnory)
ijt!
Ca GEOLOGIC MODEL SEISMIC •

SECTION M(Multipl
Model 21. Multiple from base low-velocity layer.
Yes and no. Yes, it is caused by a low-velocity layer, but it is not a correction
problem. Again, multiples are our pitfall. In Example 21-A, the prominent reflections
at 0.5 sec and others parallel to it are multiples. Unlike the multiples of Models
19-A and 19-B, the multiple of Model 21 is an accentuatedmirror image of its primary.
It is also a mirror image of the baseof the low-velocitylayer from which it originates.
47
Validity check
............
=
..........
'-::-.....':'
............
='=::':-'• • • ' ' ' •.... ...... •=
1500
rn
5000 ft
• 0
'"'-•-"•-•
.............
•"•":"-•;:!=""•
{.....•.....
• ... • :•-•"'?•
....
"•'
.-• "4 • ':• :-'•:-'
. •--• • -.,. •.. • :: • • • .-•; .. -.... • '
. ..••:• ......
.•.- •• ..• ..•; • --..:,. ,. '• •'•*••,•'.,5 .• ....
-.....;
--'•:•..,. ,, .'• .,-,;;.;•
::-•
.•*
.--•?
• •-:.• ::"•,:;.;.:•.
-• ..?.
., ....• -'• • :.• -. • - •:- . . ......• • .--.. • *•.::.:'•. •'• .....
....... ;-.•:• :•..• ...... •..• *.:._

:•.•.:••
...... /-••*":.'....- .• ..
' -••--:.--• ,. --z . .:.:*
• .......
•.:•:m..
••c .. -;:-• .. :.... -- - ...
• • • •..• • **.• .• •• -• •-...•. •. •.. -,- .., • ..
......'•
'• .... .-•.;...._..•
.--."•' ......
.............
.:.•- '•: : ....
'-"::-.-• _.• .....
*"•'*: .•.•::-.w•
"•*:.•"- ":":"•:'.• •:.....
............ • '.-'•"'<:-:•'•*"-•%c--•
.-•... • .. .•;:-:-•
........
.'--•'-•
.-•-•
. '•••--:-:::-•
•'•'"'"'•• '"::.--•:-.a"-'•'•'•-•:;
;•'•"•'••:-*:::.,•::c::*:•:•
..... . - ; .... . ..- • -•.: *•* ....:. .. ' .... .-.::..
.... ......• •"-'• .•.. • •.•:•-...:•...-•'
- _• - • .... .... • -:-:-.•'
• •.. • .-.-...:...•'.• '• .•:•..-:•...•- •.-'•:-• -:-..•.,:...•--,..'•
....
-..:-..•.•:
:•.•;.'.;:;::.:..:-:-'•"--,--•,.;••:•
...';..:.:....•
-•-:--:::.
.......
.--....
:.,::.::..
:•.(.•.._...;•
....}.•;..c.•.•.-'•:,
::..•;:::;"....:.•:.-;;;*
.....
':*-- 5000ft
"":'•,.•'"'"'"'•-•-'•'•••.'••.•":':...;..•.X:;;---*:::::::';•*-P•:-::.
:.;}::.::..-•-x...:
-.-:-•.•.•
---.•.:..:.-:-i.Z..•,•:;%:;*'•::<...,•-*:'•....::.:-•
....
";•..:.:..•--•.• .........
-'-'-'•;:•:•";c'•'"•::..,::_.:*•'..•.•_•.• **..,.::.';"':....."':..:.:::-:-:-:...•:.:........."•.•::•:•[•*;
...............
•"'-"•<
;"'"'"Z.'"':'
.. •:•' "'-;•':.• :•-•?•--• ';.:
•/•? -• ';.;'.'•'f*;-':•*:•:•":•
-•-*• :',•;'"'"'•'•:'•'••*?.•;•::::::';';;:::
':':::•...?..:.:.
.- . . '..•...---........,....-:.;-.•.-.,;:.:.•
.• -•.-.•.•---:.--• . :.•;:;:-;•, .•: ..., -,;.:..•.--•--'-•..•..•.••:•.::•...........;
. . .•., -•..-•:.*-.:•;
.....
. .•......• ..•:.•.,•...:•
..-'•:'-•5
a;•:,..-..•::::-:,:,-....•.....
"'......
.... ... ••.. •.•. :;,-•-r-•
--' ......
.•,•.:..:
. ...-•..........;•
,-:4:-...•-,..•
-•-..-',.•.:.*.•
y/--• .•
*'•-/..•'•
-•.,?:.•.••..•.-:,.../":;•
•:;...**.
.•':c•.--•---:..
-•. --.'.•-
--..•-: ..:..•
.....
....• - *•- ."c:e•* :;"•T-,-* '"'-:.•'*::'""• :----•'.•• .'.*•--"*•-•:.*•* '::.X:/'•
'::•::•;'-'-•
...:.... -....--.•••:•: -'-:'•.•:;;":...-:-•-..• ,.;:•-•:• -•-.•,.,••-•.
-••••••-•:: ;?-::•.-.,;:
...........'.'".'.'...........• .Z-.:,--•-•-•----••:•-•:• ....
.•.• ---•---•.-:•••••:.•:.:--•-•:•.•.-..-•
....
ß•.••• •.••' • ......... • •,•..•..:;'•.•.. •::,- ,-,.,.
" - '' .-.. '- .• ......... .. .. •-:.- *'•'- -•'-- :•-.•.:...:.z ' -. -
MULTIPLE REFLECTIONS
Example 21-B
The multiple style of the anomaly in Example 21-A is suggestedby the surface
topographymarked on Examples21-A and 21-B. The validity check is the coincidence
of the topography with the structural anomaly. This time, however, the low-velocity
zone becomesa reflectorproducinga multiple. The true dip is indicatedby the primary
reflector, the horizontal dashedline in Example 21-B.
Example 22--Multiples or Dip?
Example 22 shows two versions of the same seismic data. The differences in the two
sectionsstem from the choice of stackingvelocitiesby the processor.The sectionon the
left displays gently dipping reflections with a faint rollover which appears to be
sideswipe.However, a slight changein processingvelocity producedthe sectionon the
right in which the rollover is the predominantfeature and the gentle dips are likely
multiples.
Example 23--Structure or Velocity?

Example 23 is a time section and a depth section showing some ill-defined
reflections unde,r what could be a massive shale section. The depth section was
prepared using velocitiescalculated from the reflections.The structural high on the
time sectionis at A, on the depth sectionthe higher structuralposition is at B.
The quandary facing the interpreter in these two examplesis, which is correct, the
gentledip or the structureof Example22, the locationat A or B of Example23?
48
I 1500m
i 5000 ft I 1500m
I 5000 ft
•:••'•.•••• • 5000
ft>;
'•..• •.-..'
•.:"••••••'•"--'>•••..•--5000
ft
.... ...... . .=
•••
.. . .....•. .•- ;
. - '-• -. ,- . :•<•
-....... .......
¾,:...•.•. ;•'ß•-•"'•:..'
•.•..-.,••;•..'T
:'•'
•• ß
----••••••--- -.•••..••••••L• ;• --••?::•'
....
•.•• •.....,.•
..... <......,•...
:.•....• .• .-
,,......•.:-...•..•..•..?:
•. • ,•.,: '•••••••••E•,..•,•
' • .......
•:%.--,
.•........•....• .• ,•...
. •. •:.•....•.<. .
•-'••J .............................
•'•'••••••'• • •'
::•.-
'-.
..... ..' :/-'- •..-•
:•.....,........
>,•':,-.:'•..:•.-A•
h••:..;•.?••...
.... ;•"•,;• ;:...•,-.•:..?
.....
-- 3.o
:.,.....•.•,;:-...:-..-•
;• ..........
,.....
•e.
-•-....;.-:..•'.•;:....•
....
..........
•'•,• .,.
•,•..
'..-..,•.
.....,•..:...•:..•.:.....
:.....•:. •.• ;..•:•...•, ..•.•-..
•
...... .---'.•
.j- ,.. •.•..•://•
•.:'• .'.... ..•-.'.•..•
."• •.-
.... ' .....
' ,• .........
•..................
..•-•..• '• ...:•>•:...........
.......... ..-•2• .... -•..' • •40
•.. -•...
'-.:•
. .:•:•
"•,;.
'.:•
• • ---.:•T•- • -•'•:'=•" '-.•",•':;
"'..;"--
Example 22
'-10,000
-15,000
-20,000
TIME SECTION DEPTH SECTION
Example 23
49
SUMMARY OF DATA GATHERING AND PROCESSING VALIDITY CHECKS
When the data processingmaterially alters the character of the seismicsectionthis

question will always arise: which section is correct? This can only be answeredby the
data processor, the geologist, and the geophysicistworking together. This rapport must
be established and maintained in our digital world of today. Otherwise we will be
suppressingstructures and missing prospects.Communication between operations, geol-
ogy, and geophysicsis essentialto successfuldata gathering and data processing.
SUMMARY
Pitfalls in seismic interpretation fall into three categories: velocity, geometry,

and recording and processing.Velocity-derived pitfalls produce, on the seismic section,
apparentinterval changesand/or pseudostructures. Many velocity anomaliesare of the
surfaceand subsurfacecoincident type. Pitfalls associatedwith geometryresult from the
inability of the seismic section to show depth points from steeply dipping reflectors in
their correct spatial position. Sideswipe, displaced positions of faults, and diffractions
are seismic phenomena that can lead to erroneous structural interpretations. In the
category of recording and processing,we include distortion due to the input pulse and
multiples, and the masking of geologic structure or creation of false structure by
incorrect playback parameters.
Our purposein compiling this seriesof pitfalls is not to discouragethe neophyte
geophysicistfrom making interpretationsof geology from a seismic section. Rather, it
is to point out conditionsunder which the seismicsectionwill not directly portray the
subsurfacegeologyand to presentthe warning signalsof pitfalls in seismicinterpretation.
50
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PITFALLS IN SEISMIC INTERPRETATION

By Paul M. Tucker, •ssoProduction

Edited by John C. Hollister

SOCIETY OF EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICISTS

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 73-84680

¸1973 by The Society of Exploration Geophysicists.All rights reserved.

Many pitfalls in seismic interpretation are concealed within seemingly straight-

Since current data processingand presentation yield seismic sectionsthat resemble

Interpretation pitfalls fit into one of the following three categories:

2. Pitfalls associated with geometry occur because reflections from a three-

We will discuss pitfalls associatedwith 23 features frequently seen on seismic

The following table summarizesthis entire presentation.

PITFALLS IN SEISMIC INTERPRETATION

Pitfall: "Any concealed danger or trap for an unsuspectingperson" (Webster).

CATEGORY EXAMPLE-MODEL OBSERVED PHENOMENON

2. High beneath high.

2) Character Change 7 Supratenuous folding with loss of

Mounding with reflection character

B. Surface-Subsurface Coincidence Structure is usually local and abrupt but

9 1. A syncline beneath a sea channel.

10 2. Equal reversal for all horizons.

EXPLANATION VALIDITY CHECK

Geologic: Drag folds. The anomaly coincides with the fault

Geologic: Two deformations, gravity gliding, fault

Geologic: Sand bar with compaction on

A surface or near-surface effect has 1. Equal displacement of all horizons.

Geologic: Recent syncline localized floor currents.

CATEGORY EXAMPLE-MODEL OBSERVED PHENOMENON

A. Steep Dip (over 10ø)

2. Synclines 12 High beneath low. Synclinal reversals at

3. Intrusions 13 Reflection termination is abrupt.

15 Two sets of superimposed dips.

C. Faults 16 Monoclinal dips or terraces blend at depth

III. RECORDING AND PROCESSING

A. Input Pulse 18 Recent deposition over multicycle

Geologic: Seemingly a simple anticline.

Geologic: Complex history of anticline-

Geologic: Intrusion outlined by reflection

Geologic: Complex growth history.

Geologic: Supratenuous folding over deep-seated

Geologic: Even-bedded marine sequence.

CATEGORY EXAMPLE-MODEL OBSERVED PHENOMENON

B. Multiples 19 A simple shallow anticline or reef, with a

20 A prograding set of layered sediments

C. Playback 22-23 Smeared cycles, sharpness and amplitude

EXPLANATION VALIDITY CHECK

Geologic: Complex growth history

Geologic: Young anticline.

Geologic: See selected geologic explanations 1. Check stacking velocities, automatic

Example I --- Basinward Thinning

... •...:..• .• '.::•,•

Example I-A is a regional line into an intermontanebasin but could also be a

•-,•, •,,\, 1.0 $E15•1C

Model 1. Basinward thinning.

• ...... '::T' '•.•"' -•' . :" .•- - '"'":•:• ..:..:-• ....

Example 2--- Fault Shadow (Normal)

Example 2-A showsvarious interruptedreflectionsthat suggestan inclined fault.

Model 2. Fault shadow structure.

Example 3---Fault Shadow (Reversed)

Observed phenomenon I 1500M

Model 3. Reverse fault shadow.

. •. •'•, .. • ,•. --,•.?•.: _• •K• :,;,.•- -..

'-- '."•, •.• * ".•%•2•,'" • " •' ':' ". '•:•:•----"

-' ' "--:';:":-'::;•":'SS•*--