INTRODU CI'ION

Needless t o say, w e r centuries temple became a

unique i n s t i t u t i o n and was greatly patronised by not only
kings, chiefs and others wealthy persons but a l s o by CcnmWn
people. Various endowments received f rorn these quarters
made the temple very rich. The endowments were both in
cash and kind and the objects of endowments i n many l n s t -
ances differed from period t o period and region t o region.
Of such endowments, the g i f t of lamp is of.coneiderable
significance. Lamp or j v a i is believed t o signify the
god within oneself. Thus it s i g n i f i e s t h e l i f e , dynamism
and knowledge. Theref ore endowment of lamp is believed
t o bestow a long and prosperous l i f e , wisdom and ulti-
mately the l a s t purushzrtha, i.e., mcksha, upon t h e donor.
The origin oh the great significance attached t o the lamp

can perhaps be traced t o Vedic period. In t h i s context

we may note t h a t t h e Riqvsda has the hymn Agnimilepur5hi-

tam, as its very f i r s t R&c, which is in praise of Agni, t h e
F i r e God. Also we have many hynms extolling the greatness
of Ag& in the Vedic l i t e r a t u r e . Because of these tradi-
tions and sentiments endowment of lamp acquired great
significance w e r centuries as evidenced b y several inscrip
tions discovered, particularly i n South India. These ins-
criptions record the g i f t s of lamp6 made by the people af
almost a l l sections of the society. Further, f o r maintain-
ing lamps d i f f e r e n t kinds of object8 like cattle, land,
money, gold, tax-inccmes, were granted by those who h a -
t i t u t e d them. Interestingly these gif t-objects were not
canmon f o r a l l t h e periods and regions. Hence an analyti-

c a l study of the objects gifted by t h e donors of lamp

kelps us i n understanding the economic conditions of t h e

early medieval k d h r a society i n general and the economic
p r o p p r i t y of t h e temples i n particular. In t h i e context
it may aloo le noted that a f t e r the 15th century the pra-
c t i c e of g i f t i n g perpetual lamps t o the temples of t h e
xndhra country became less popular arr evidenced by a sharp
decline i n the number of epigraphical references t o t h e m .

Inscripticne also record t h e g i f t s of dIua-tarunlg,

lamp-stands i n the form of swan, or bearing t h e image of
swan on t o p and a l s o images of donors sculptured a s hold-
-
ing lamps o r c h h ~ ~ S b which
is are of a r t i s t i c value.
Themfore a c r i t i c a l and analytical study of t h e endowments
of lamps is significant i n more than one respect, But un-
fortunately s o f a r no serious attempt has been made i n t h i s
direction. The present uork'aims a t a detailed study of
the endowmnt o t lamps rnede t o the temples of Andhra
Pradesh i n a l l aspects.

The study is based chiefly on primary sources,

viz., inscriptions, particularly l i t h i c records. The
relevant i n s ~ r i p t i o n ahave been published i n t h e South
. Indian Inscriptions aeries, Volumes of Epigraphla Indica,
the Districtwise volumte of Inscriptiong of Cuddawh,
Karimnaaar and Waranad Putlished by the Government of
Andhra Pradesb, Inscrirjtions of Nellore D i s t r i c t (3 Vols) ,
Hyderahd Archaeological Series 1 3 and 19, and various
journals. Many ot t h e inscriptions noticed in t h e Annual
Reports on Indian Epigraphy published b y the Archaeolqical
survey of India have a l s o been of considerable help f o r
t h i s study.

To understand the religious tackground f o r t h e

practice d s e t t i n g up lamps i n places of worship t h e
relevant portione of t h e Vedic l i t e r a t u r e , epics and
-
pura'nas, ~ h a n n a i a s t r a sand &ama6astrag k l o n ~ i n g t o
I
t h e ~ a i k h s n a ~ a~,a z c h a r z t r a and Saiva s e c t s a r e studied.

Mallampalli Somasekhara Sarma was the e a r l i e s t t o point

out the eignificance of the endowment of lamps. In h i e
a r t i c l e 'sasanamulu - c h a r i t r a ' i n Telugu, published i n
t h e Annual issue of the Xndhra Patrika (1925) he b r i e f l y
discuseed the importance of the endowment of lamps to
temples. Next t o him S .S. Mmachandra Murthy d i s c u s e d
t h e significance of the endowment of Amps in d e t a i l i n
hie papers dealing w i t h the inscriptions found i n the
templea of k h x r < r ~ d A v a r a ,i r ~ k k m a n i t h a (~rikkmrn)
, and
(~Slallkoll~$ Kanakadurga-Mal1i&vara (~ijayawacla), (Js,
Vol. VIIt Rangavalli and 4rLidhi)and h i s work Andhra
Pradesh DGvglaya k a n a ~a<ksha ( i n Telugu). Hs a l s o
discussed the aignificance of the technical t e r n Inupe-
2&
d
!l - Velledlu found used i n connection the endow-
*
with
merit of in
lampo article
his the
of title
same in t h e
svast Gri .

To study the a r t af lamps not only a few modern works

but also Excavation Reports and personal v i s i t s t o some
museums have Men of immense help. D.G. Kelkar's monograph

lamps & fndia, inspite of its introductory nature, deser-

ves mention as it is the f i r s t Look t o be written e x c l ~ s i -
vely on lamps and also as it contains sketches of some l a m p
stands. The Sun-Learns in t h e Dark published by The Raja
'Dinkar Kelkar Museum, Pune, has excellent photographs Of
t h e rlajority of lamps preserved i n that museum and whose

sketches are given i n t h e lamps of India. I t may be noted

that many lampa included i n these two publications belong

t o the recent centuries. Further, it nay also be noted ihr.1

neither the a r t i s t i c value nor the significance o f lamp

Fs discussed i n d e t a i l for obviow reason. O.C. Gangooly 'a
a r t i c l e 'south Indian Lamps', in the Journal of Art and
Industry, vol. 111, is also noteworthy. The Art and Crafts
of Kerala, edited by S t e l l a Kramrisch e t a l , has not only
very useful information but also good photographs of some
very interesting lamps of t h a t s t a t e . R O N . Saletore die-
cussed briefly t h e a r t i s t i c aspects of some lamp-stands,
particularly Wlonging t o t h e V i j ayanagara period, i n h i r
work ' Vijayanagara Art. A l l theae works have bsen of
p a r t i c u l a r help i n discussing the a r t i s t i c value af lamps.

To trace the evolution of the a r t of lamps and

lampstands, apart f r o m t h e above mentioned work$, the
Excavation Reports pertaining t o Hohenjodaro and Harappa
and NagZrjunab?$a, dFff erent volumes of Ancient India,
Indian Archaeology - A Review and V.V. Krishna s a e t r i ' s .
The Proto and Early Historical Cultures of A.P. have
also been of great help. Further, The Raja Dinkar Icelkar
Museum a t Pune, The State Governnlent Museum, Madras, the
s t a t e Government Museum, Gauhati ( Assam 1, t h e Andhra
Pradeah S t a t e Government Museum and the Salarjung Museum,
Hyderabad and The Tirumala-Tirupati Devasthanama Museum
a t Tirumqla-Tirupati (A.P. have collections of very in-
teresting lamps. As such personal v b i t e t o t h e g e rnugeume
proved t o te highly rewarding. Particularly it helped t o
classify the lamps on the );asis of typology and assess
t h e i r a r t i s t i c value.

The present study has been organised in t o aix

I J

chapters.
 8
I n the FIRST C W T E R t h e religious background f o r
offering lampe t o gods la d t c u s s e d . AS mentioned above,

probably this practice my have t o be traced t o t h e great

value attached t o the f i r e < r i g h t from t h e Vedic period.
We understand from the Vedic l i t e r a t u r e t h a t the Fire
God blesses the worshippers w i t h the s p i r i t u a l lol~leadge,
long lue and f i n a l l y rnzksha. From the epics and purh-
,nes a l s o we learn t h a t t h e donor of a lamp w i l l be granted
same boons as mentioned above. Further, lamp is considered
t o be a symbol of life and dynamism and s p i r i t u a l knowledge,
The ~harms&gtra%and &anma enjoih t h a t lamps must W,

offered on c e r t a i n special occasions l i k e the san'kramanas.

It i s evident from inscriptions t h a t lamps were not only

off *red on d i f f e r e n t auspicious occasions but a l s o f o r the

fulfilment of a variety of desires. A l l these asgecte a r e

discweed i n d e t a i l i n t h i s chapter.

The SECOND CHWTER deals with the d i f f e r e n t kinds

..
of lamps 'euch as perpetual lamps (akhanda-dims 1, twilight
lamps ( sandhy&dipas), half -a-lamp ( ara-dlyas 1, day lamp,
etc . Thw t h e lanps can be classif ied under these and
a few other heads depending upon t h e time during which
they a r e supposed to be burnt.

The THIRD W E R is divided i n t o two sections.

In the f l r s t section various endowments like cowe, sheep,
goats , buff aloes, land, money, gold, tax-incomes,
villages made f o r providing lighting medium t o lamps s e t
up i n t h e temples of the three regions, vy&, , Coastal
kdhra, ~ a ~ a l a s - hand
a ~ e l a k h n a ,of Andhra Pradesh are
discussed. Further a few examples of similar practice8
obtaining fran the neighbouring s t a t e s , viz ., Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu are a l s o discussed.

The aecond section deals w i t h the economic condi-

tions of hndhra Pradesh i n general and different temples
i n particular. An analysis of different endowments
made f o r maintaining lamps i n temples formed basis f o r
t h i s study. Fifteen tables and eight graphs showing
number cd lamps s e t up i n seven major tamplee and the
different objects gifted for t h e i r maintenance e r e
appended t o this chapter t o highlight the pattern of
endowmnts ever centuries.

People of different ranks, casts and communities

.endowed lamps t o temples and a l s o of ten s i f t e d c a t t l e ,
land, etc ., f o r t h e i r (e.
' lamps ' ) maintenance. Some-
times land, house-site, etc., were also given t o those
individuals who undertook the responsibility of maintain-
ing lamps. An analytical study of t h e s t a t u s of those
who undertook t o maintain lamps by receiving t h e g i f t
objects is made i n t h e FOURTH CHAPTER. It is i n t e r e s t -

i n g t o n o t e t h a t among t h o s e who undertook t o m a i n t a i n

lamps were archakas, d e v a d Z s i s , temple o f f i c i a l s and

l o c a l b o d i e s a p a r t f r o m shepherds. This chapter concludes
w i t h t h e d i g c u s s i o n of s a n e s t i p u l a t i o n s l a i d down by t h e
donore of lamps.

The F I F T H CHAPTm d e a l s w i t h t h e e v o l u t i o n and

a r t a s p e c t of lamps. Many i n s c r i p t i o n s under s t u d y have
i n t e r e s t i n g r e f e r e n c e s t o d h - t a r u n G or d b a - l a b h m x s ,
images of d o n o r s s c u l p t u r e d as h o l d i n g t h e r e c e p t a c l e s of
lamps, and l a m p s t a n d s i n t h e s h a p e of swan. Thts chapter
is d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s e c t i o n s . The i i r s t s e c t i o n d e a l s
w i t h t h e e v o l u t i o n of l a m p s t a n d s on t h e b s i s of Excava-
t i o n Reports, etc. The second d e a l s with t h e s t o n e - p i l l a r
lamps. The t h i r d d e a l s w i t h t h e m e t a l lamps, preserved
i n d i f f e r e n t museums, The lamps are c l a s s i f i e d i n t o

d i f f e r e n t groups t a k i n g typology i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n and

t h e i r a r i t t i c v a l u e is$sseased.

The SIXTH CHAPTER, which i s t h e l a s t one, i s i n

the f o r m of ~eswnd. I t a l s o c o n s i s t e af t h e r e s u l t s of
t h e p r e s e n t study.

S e l e c t b i b l i o g r a p h y is g i v e n a t t h e end of t h t
chapter, T h i s is followed by a d e s c r i p t i v e l i s t of t h e
i l l u t r a t i o n a which a r e given a t t h e end of t h e t h e e f s .