Soot may have killed off the dinosaurs and ammonites

Global climate change caused by soot aerosol at the K-Pg boundary.

Credit: Kunio Kaiho

A new hypothesis on the extinction of dinosaurs and ammonites at the end of the
Cretaceous Period has been proposed by a research team from Tohoku University and
the Japan Meteorological Agency's Meteorological Research Institute.

The researchers believe that massive amounts of stratospheric soot ejected from rocks
following the famous Chicxulub asteroid impact, caused global cooling, drought and
limited cessation of photosynthesis in oceans. This, they say, could have been the
process that led to the mass extinction of dinosaurs and ammonites.

The asteroid, also known as the Chicxulub impactor, hit Earth some 66 million years
ago, causing a crater more than 180 km wide. It's long been believed that that event
triggered the mass extinction that led to the macroevolution of mammals and the
appearance of humans.
Tohoku University Professor Kunio Kaiho and his team analyzed sedimentary organic
molecules from two places - Haiti, which is near the impact site, and Spain, which is
far. They found that the impact layer of both areas have the same composition of
combusted organic molecules showing high energy. This, they believe, is the soot from
the asteroid crash.

Soot is a strong, light-absorbing aerosol, and Kaiho's team came by their hypothesis by
calculating the amount of soot in the stratosphere estimating global climate changes
caused by the stratospheric soot aerosols using a global climate model developed at the
Meteorological Research Institute. The results are significant because they can explain
the pattern of extinction and survival.

While it is widely accepted that the Chicxulub impact caused the mass extinction of
dinosaurs and other life forms, researchers have been stumped by the process of how. In
other words, they'd figured out the killer, but not the murder weapon.

Earlier theories had suggested that dust from the impact may have blocked the sun, or
that sulphates may have contaminated the atmosphere. But researchers say it is unlikely
that either phenomenon could have lasted long enough to have driven the extinction.

The new hypothesis raised by Kaiho's team says that soot from hydrocarbons had
caused a prolonged period of darkness which led to a drop in atmospheric temperature.
The team found direct evidence of hydrocarbon soot in the impact layers and created
models showing how this soot would have affected the climate.

According to their study, when the asteroid hit the oil-rich region of Chicxulub, a
massive amount of soot was ejected which then spread globally. The soot aerosols
caused colder climates at mid-high latitudes, and drought with milder cooling at low
latitudes on land. This in turn led to the cessation of photosynthesis in oceans in the first
two years, followed by surface-water cooling in oceans in subsequent years.

This rapid climate change is believed to be behind the loss of land and marine creatures
over several years, suggesting that rapid global climate change can and did play a major
role in driving extinction.

Kaiho's team is studying other mass extinctions in the hopes of further understanding
the processes behind them.

Reference:
Kunio Kaiho, Naga Oshima, Kouji Adachi, Yukimasa Adachi, Takuya Mizukami,
Megumu Fujibayashi & Ryosuke Saito. Global climate change driven by soot at the K-
Pg boundary as the cause of the mass extinction. DOI:10.1038/srep28427

Note: The above post is reprinted from materials provided by Tohoku University.
Mohs Hardness Scale

The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is a qualitative ordinal scale that characterizes the scratch
resistance of various minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer
material. It was created in 1812 by the German geologist and mineralogist Friedrich Mohs and
is one of several definitions of hardness in materials science, some of which are more
quantitative.

The method of comparing hardness by seeing which minerals can visibly scratch others,
however, is of great antiquity, having been mentioned by Theophrastus in his treatise On
Stones, c. 300 BC, followed by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia, c. 77 AD. While
greatly facilitating the identification of minerals in the field, the Mohs scale does not show how
well hard materials perform in an industrial setting.

About Hardness Tests

The hardness test developed by Friedrich Mohs was the first known test to assess resistance of a
material to scratching. It is a very simple but inexact comparative test. Perhaps its simplicity has
enabled it to become the most widely used hardness test.
Since the Mohs Scale was developed in 1812, many different hardness tests have been invented.
These include tests by Brinell, Knoop, Rockwell, Shore and Vickers. Each of these tests uses a
tiny "indenter" that is applied to the material being tested with a carefully measured amount of
force. Then the size or the depth of the indentation and the amount of force are used to calculate
a hardness value.

Because each of these tests uses a different apparatus and different calculations they can not be
directly compared to one another. So if the Knoop hardness test was done the number is usually
reported as a "Knoop hardness". For this reason, Mohs hardness test results should also be
reported as a "Mohs hardness."

Why are there so many different hardness tests? The type of test used is determined by the size,
shape and other characteristics of the specimens being tested. Although these tests are quite
different from the Mohs test there is some correlation between them.

Usage
Despite its simplicity and lack of precision, the Mohs scale is highly relevant for field
geologists, who use the scale to roughly identify minerals using scratch kits. The Mohs scale
hardness of minerals can be commonly found in reference sheets. Reference materials may be
expected to have a uniform Mohs hardness.

Minerals
The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to
scratch another mineral visibly. The samples of matter used by Mohs are all different minerals.
Minerals are pure substances found in nature. Rocks are made up of one or more minerals.

As the hardest known naturally occurring substance when the scale was designed, diamonds are
at the top of the scale. The hardness of a material is measured against the scale by finding the
hardest material that the given material can scratch, and/or the softest material that can scratch
the given material. For example, if some material is scratched by apatite but not by fluorite, its
hardness on the Mohs scale would fall between 4 and 5.

"Scratching" a material for the purposes of the Mohs scale means creating non-elastic
dislocations visible to the naked eye. Frequently, materials that are lower on the Mohs scale can
create microscopic, non-elastic dislocations on materials that have a higher Mohs number.
While these microscopic dislocations are permanent and sometimes detrimental to the harder
material's structural integrity, they are not considered "scratches" for the determination of a
Mohs scale number.

The Mohs scale is a purely ordinal scale. For example, corundum (9) is twice as hard as topaz
(8), but diamond (10) is four times as hard as corundum. The table below shows the comparison
with the absolute hardness measured by a sclerometer, with pictorial examples.

Mohs Hardness Scale

Mohs Hardness Scale

Mineral Hardness

Talc 1

Gypsum 2

Calcite 3

Fluorite 4

Apatite 5

Orthoclase 6

Quartz 7

Topaz 8

Corundum 9

Diamond 10
 Mohs Hardness of Common Minerals
Alphabetical Decreasing Hardness

Mohs Mohs
Mineral Mineral
Hardness Hardness

Anhydrite 3 to 3.5 Diamond 10

Apatite 5 Corundum 9

Arsenopyrite 5.5 to 6 Chrysoberyl 8.5

Augite 5.5 to 6 Topaz 8

Azurite 3.5 to 4 Beryl 7.5 to 8

Barite 2.5 to 3.5 Spinel 7.5 to 8

Bauxite 1 to 3 Zircon 7.5

Beryl 7.5 to 8 Cordierite 7 to 7.5

Biotite 2.5 to 3 Staurolite 7 to 7.5

Bornite 3 to 3.25 Tourmaline 7 to 7.5

Calcite 3 Quartz 7

Cassiterite 6 to 7 Garnet 6.5 to 7.5

Chalcocite 2.5 to 3 Jadeite 6.5 to 7

Chalcopyrite 3.5 to 4 Sillimanite 6.5 to 7.5

Chlorite 2 to 2.5 Olivine 6.5 to 7

Chromite 5.5 to 6 Spodumene 6.5 to 7

Chrysoberyl 8.5 Marcasite 6 to 7.5

Cinnabar 2 to 2.5 Cassiterite 6 to 7

Copper 2.5 to 3 Epidote 6 to 7

Cordierite 7 to 7.5 Zoisite 6 to 7

Corundum 9 Orthoclase 6 to 6.5

Cuprite 3.5 to 4 Plagioclase 6 to 6.5

Diamond 10 Prehnite 6 to 6.5

Diopside 5.5 to 6.5 Pyrite 6 to 6.5

Dolomite 3.5 to 4 Rutile 6 to 6.5

Enstatite 5 to 6 Diopside 5.5 to 6.5

Epidote 6 to 7 Rhodonite 5.5 to 6.5

Fluorite 4 Arsenopyrite 5.5 to 6

Galena 2.5 to 2.75 Augite 5.5 to 6

Garnet 6.5 to 7.5 Chromite 5.5 to 6

Glauconite 2 Hematite 5.5 to 6.5

Gold 2.5 to 3 Nepheline 5.5 to 6

Graphite 1 to 2 Sodalite 5.5 to 6

Gypsum 1.5 to 2 Magnetite 5 to 6.5

Halite 2 to 2.5 Enstatite 5 to 6

Hematite 5 to 6.5 Hornblende 5 to 6

Hornblende 5 to 6 Ilmenite 5 to 6

Ilmenite 5 to 6 Nephrite 5 to 6

Jadeite 6.5 to 7 Turquoise 5 to 6

Kyanite 4.5 to 5 or 7 Uraninite 5 to 6

Limonite 1 to 5 Monazite 5 to 5.5

Magnesite 3.5 to 5 Titanite 5 to 5.5

Magnetite 5 to 6.5 Apatite 5

Malachite 3.5 to 4 Wollastonite 4.5 to 5.5

Marcasite 6 to 7.5 Kyanite 4.5 to 5 or 7

Molybdenite 1 to 2 Fluorite 4

Monazite 5 to 5.5 Magnesite 3.5 to 5

Muscovite 2 to 3 Pyrrhotite 3.5 to 4.5

Nepheline 5.5 to 6 Siderite 3.5 to 4.5

Nephrite 5 to 6 Azurite 3.5 to 4

Olivine 6.5 to 7 Chalcopyrite 3.5 to 4

Orthoclase 6 to 6.5 Cuprite 3.5 to 4

Plagioclase 6 to 6.5 Dolomite 3.5 to 4

Prehnite 6 to 6.5 Malachite 3.5 to 4

Pyrite 6 to 6.5 Rhodochrosite 3.5 to 4

Pyrophyllite 1 to 2 Sphalerite 3.5 to 4

Pyrrhotite 3.5 to 4.5 Serpentine 3 to 5

Quartz 7 Anhydrite 3 to 3.5

Rhodochrosite 3.5 to 4 Witherite 3 to 3.5

Rhodonite 5.5 to 6.5 Bornite 3 to 3.25

Rutile 6 to 6.5 Calcite 3

Serpentine 3 to 5 Barite 2.5 to 3.5

Siderite 3.5 to 4.5 Biotite 2.5 to 3

Sillimanite 6.5 to 7.5 Chalcocite 2.5 to 3

Silver 2.5 to 3 Copper 2.5 to 3

Sodalite 5.5 to 6 Gold 2.5 to 3

Sphalerite 3.5 to 4 Silver 2.5 to 3

Spinel 7.5 to 8 Galena 2.5 to 2.75

Spodumene 6.5 to 7 Muscovite 2 to 3

Staurolite 7 to 7.5 Chlorite 2 to 2.5

Sulfur 1.5 to 2.5 Cinnabar 2 to 2.5

Sylvite 2 Halite 2 to 2.5

Talc 1 Glauconite 2

Titanite 5 to 5.5 Sylvite 2

Topaz 8 Sulfur 1.5 to 2.5

Tourmaline 7 to 7.5 Gypsum 1.5 to 2

Turquoise 5 to 6 Limonite 1 to 5

Uraninite 5 to 6 Bauxite 1 to 3

Witherite 3 to 3.5 Graphite 1 to 2

Wollastonite 4.5 to 5.5 Molybdenite 1 to 2

Zircon 7.5 Pyrophyllite 1 to 2

Zoisite 6 to 7 Talc 1

Mohs Hardness of Common Objects

Fingernail 2 to 2.5

Copper 3

Nail 4

Glass 5.5

Knife blade 5 to 6.5

 Steel file 6.5

Streak plate 6.5 to 7

Quartz 7

Reference:
Wikipedia: Mohs scale of mineral hardness

Read more : http://www.geologypage.com/2016/04/mohs-hardness-scale.html#ixzz4I1r4z3su

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Geological Folds

This Diagram depicts some of the differences between

Asymmetrical, Symmetrical, and OVERTURNED folds.
Credit: W. H. Freeman and Company

A wave-like geologic structure that forms when rocks deform by bending instead of breaking
under compressional stress. Anticlines are arch-shaped folds in which rock layers are upwardly
convex. The oldest rock layers form the core of the fold, and outward from the core
progressively younger rocks occur.

A syncline is the opposite type of fold, having downwardly convex layers with young rocks in
the core. Folds typically occur in anticline-syncline pairs. The hinge is the point of maximum
curvature in a fold. The limbs occur on either side of the fold hinge. The imaginary surface
bisecting the limbs of the fold is called the axial surface. The axial surface is called the axial
plane in cases where the fold is symmetrical and the lines containing the points of maximum
curvature of the folded layers, or hinge lines, are coplanar.
Concentric folding preserves the thickness of each bed as measured perpendicular to original
bedding. Similar folds have the same wave shape, but bed thickness changes throughout each
layer, with thicker hinges and thinner limbs.

Folds form under varied conditions of stress, hydrostatic pressure, pore pressure, and
temperature gradient, as evidenced by their presence in soft sediments, the full spectrum of
metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow structures in some igneous rocks. A set of folds
distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of orogenic zones. Folds
are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be formed as a result of
displacement on a non-planar fault (fault bend fold), at the tip of a propagating fault (fault
propagation fold), by differential compaction or due to the effects of a high-level igneous
intrusion e.g. above a laccolith.

Fold Classification
Folds are classified on the basis of several geometric factors:

Tightness of folding
The tighness of folds can be described as open (limbs dip gently), tight (limbs dip steeply) or
isoclinal (limbs are parallel).

Orientation of axial plane

The orientation of the axial plane relative to the horizontal together with the orientation of fold
limbs allow subdivision into upright (axial plane vertical, limbs symmetric), overturned (axial
plane moderately inclined, one limb overturned), or recumbent (axial plane near horizontal, one
limb inverted).
Thickness of folded beds
Thickly-bedded, brittle units tend to form concentric folds with the bed thickness preserved
normal to bedding surfaces. Thinly-bedded, clay-rich units have a tendency to develop a
foliation parallel to the axial plane and form similar folds with the vertical distance between top
and bottom of the unit preserved through the deformation.

Fold types

 Anticline: linear, strata normally dip away from axial center, oldest strata in center.
 Syncline: linear, strata normally dip toward axial center, youngest strata in center.
 Antiform: linear, strata dip away from axial center, age unknown, or inverted.
 Synform: linear, strata dip toward axial centre, age unknown, or inverted.
 Dome: nonlinear, strata dip away from center in all directions, oldest strata in center.
 Basin: nonlinear, strata dip toward center in all directions, youngest strata in center.
 Monocline: linear, strata dip in one direction between horizontal layers on each side.
 Chevron: angular fold with straight limbs and small hinges
 Recumbent: linear, fold axial plane oriented at low angle resulting in overturned strata
in one limb of the fold.
 Slump: typically monoclinal, result of differential compaction or dissolution during
sedimentation and lithification.
 Ptygmatic: Folds are chaotic, random and disconnected. Typical of sedimentary slump
folding, migmatites and decollement detachment zones.
 Parasitic: short wavelength folds formed within a larger wavelength fold structure -
normally associated with differences in bed thickness
  Disharmonic: Folds in adjacent layers with different wavelengths and shapes

Anticline

Scheme of an Anticline
Credit: Pearson Scott Foresman

In structural geology, an anticline is a type of fold that is an arch-like shape and has its oldest
beds at its core. A typical anticline is convex up in which the hinge or crest is the location where
the curvature is greatest, and the limbs are the sides of the fold that dip away from the hinge.
Anticlines can be recognized and differentiated from antiforms by a sequence of rock layers that
become progressively older toward the center of the fold. Therefore, if age relationships
between various rock strata are unknown, the term antiform should be used.

The progressing age of the rock strata towards the core and uplifted center, are the trademark
indications for evidence of Anticlines on a geologic map. These formations occur because
Anticlinal ridges typically develop above thrust faults during crustal deformations. The uplifted
core of the fold causes compression of strata that preferentially erodes to a deeper stratigraphic
level relative to the topographically lower flanks. Motion along the fault including both
shortening and extension of tectonic plates, usually also deforms strata near the fault. This can
result in an asymmetrical or overturned fold.
Terminology of anticlines

Anticline at Calico Ghost Town

Location: San Bernardino County,
California, United States.
Photo Copyright © Garry Hayes

An Antiform can be used to describe any fold that is convex up. It is the relative ages of the
rock strata that separate anticlines from antiforms. The hinge of an anticline refers to the
location where the curvature is greatest, also called the crest. The hinge is also the highest point
on a stratum along the top of the fold. The culmination also refers to the highest point along any
geologic structure. The limbs are the sides of the fold that display less curvature.

The inflection point is the area on the limbs where the curvature changes direction. The axial
surface is an imaginary plane connecting the hinge of each layer of rock stratum through the
cross sectional anticline. If the axial surface is vertical and the angles on each side of the fold
are equivalent, then the anticline is symmetrical. If the axial plane is tilted or offset then the
anticline is asymmetrical. An anticline that is cylindrical has a well-defined axial surface,
whereas non-cylindrical anticlines are too complex to have a single axial plane.

Formation processes
Anticlines are usually developed above thrust faults, so any small compression and motion
within the inner crust can have large effects on the upper rock stratum. Stresses developed
during mountain building or during other tectonic processes can similarly warp or bend bedding
and foliation (or other planar features). The more the underlying fault is tectonically uplifted,
the more the strata will be deformed and must adapt to new shapes. The shape formed will also
be very dependent on the properties and cohesion of the different types of rock within each
layer.

During the formation of flexural-slip folds, the different rock layers form parallel-slip folds to
accommodate for buckling. A good way to visualize how the multiple layers are manipulated, is
to bend a deck of cards and to imagine each card as a layer of rock stratum. The amount of slip
on each side of the anticline increases from the hinge to the inflection point.

Passive-flow folds form when the rock is so soft that it behaves like weak plastic and slowly
flows. In this process different parts of the rock body move at different rates causing shear stress
to gradually shift from layer to layer.iii There is no mechanical contrast between layers in this
type of fold. Passive-flow folds are extremely dependent on the rock stratums makeup and can
typically occur in areas with high temperatures.

Syncline
In structural geology, a syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of the
structure. A synclinorium (plural synclinoriums or synclinoria) is a large syncline with
superimposed smaller folds. Synclines are typically a downward fold, termed a synformal
syncline (i.e. a trough); but synclines that point upwards, or perched, can be found when strata
have been overturned and folded (an antiformal syncline).

Barstow syncline in Rainbow Basin, Mojave Desert, California

Photo Copyright © Garry Hayes

Dome
A dome is a feature in structural geology consisting of symmetrical anticlines that intersect each
other at their respective apices. Intact, domes are distinct, rounded, spherical-to-ellipsoidal-
shaped protrusions on the Earth's surface. However, a transect parallel to Earth's surface of a
dome features concentric rings of strata. Consequently, if the top of a dome has been eroded
flat, the resulting structure in plan view appears as a bullseye, with the youngest rock layers at
the outside, and each ring growing progressively older moving inwards. These strata would
have been horizontal at the time of deposition, then later deformed by the uplift associated with
dome formation.

The Richat Structure in the Sahara Desert of Mauritania.

Credit: NASA/GSFC/MITI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team

Basin
A structural basin is a large-scale structural formation of rock strata formed by tectonic warping
of previously flat lying strata. Structural basins are geological depressions, and are the inverse
of domes. Some elongated structural basins are also known as synclines. Structural basins may
also be sedimentary basins, which are aggregations of sediment that filled up a depression or
accumulated in an area; however, many structural basins were formed by tectonic events long
after the sedimentary layers were deposited.

Basins appear on a geologic map as roughly circular or elliptical, with concentric layers.
Because the strata dip toward the center, the exposed strata in a basin are progressively younger
from outside-in, with the youngest rocks in the center. Basins are often large in areal extent,
often hundreds of kilometers across.

Structural basins are often important sources of coal, petroleum, and groundwater.
Monocline
A monocline (or, rarely, a monoform) is a step-like fold in rock strata consisting of a zone of
steeper dip within an otherwise horizontal or gently-dipping sequence.

The monocline-like fold is nicely exposed where the

San Juan River leaves the Raplee uplift.

Chevron
Chevron folds are a structural feature characterized by repeated well behaved folded beds with
straight limbs and sharp hinges. Well developed, these folds develop repeated set of v-shaped
beds. They develop in response to regional or local compressive stress. Inter-limb angles are
generally 60 degrees or less. Chevron folding preferentially occurs when the bedding regularly
alternates between contrasting competences. Turbidites, characterized by alternating high-
competence sandstones and low-competence shales, provide the typical geological setting for
chevron folds to occurs.

Perpetuation of the fold structure is not geometrically limited. Given a proper stratigraphy,
chevrons can persist almost indefinitely.
 Chevron folds with flat-lying axial planes, Millook Haven, North Cornwall, UK
Credit: Smalljim

Recumbent

An asymmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is inclined. An overturned fold, or
overfold, has the axial plane inclined to such an extent that the strata on one limb are
overturned. A recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane. When the two limbs of a
fold are essentially parallel to each other and thus approximately parallel to the axial plane, the
fold is called...

Recumbent fold at Godrevy in Cornwall in England. The rocks are

of Devonian age and they were folded during the Variscan orogeny.
Credit: mwcarruthers

Slump
Typically monoclinal, result of differential compaction or dissolution during sedimentation and
lithification.
 Slump Fold An almost isoclinal fold (coin, seaweed and shells for scale)
formed as wet layers of mud settled and solidified in Triassic times.
Credit: Anne Burgess

Ptygmatic
Folds are chaotic, random and disconnected. Typical of sedimentary slump folding, migmatites
and decollement detachment zones.

Ptygmatic folding, Broken Hill

Credit: Monash University

Parasitic
Short wavelength folds formed within a larger wavelength fold structure - normally associated
with differences in bed thickness
Disharmonic
Folds in adjacent layers with different wavelengths and shapes

Disharmonic folds in quartzite and shale.

Folding mechanisms
Flexural slip
Flexural slip allows folding by creating layer-parallel slip between the layers of the folded
strata, which, altogether, result in deformation. A good analogy is bending a phone book, where
volume preservation is accommodated by slip between the pages of the book.

The fold formed by the compression of competent rock beds is called "flexure fold".

Buckling
Typically, folding is thought to occur by simple buckling of a planar surface and its confining
volume. The volume change is accommodated by layer parallel shortening the volume, which
grows in thickness. Folding under this mechanism is typically of the similar fold style, as
thinned limbs are shortened horizontally and thickened hinges do so vertically.

Mass displacement
If the folding deformation cannot be accommodated by flexural slip or volume-change
shortening (buckling), the rocks are generally removed from the path of the stress. This is
achieved by pressure dissolution, a form of metamorphic process, in which rocks shorten by
dissolving constituents in areas of high strain and redepositing them in areas of lower strain.
Folds created in this way include examples in migmatites, and areas with a strong axial planar
cleavage.
Photos

Folded Chert
This folded chert is in the Franciscan Complex at California's Marin Headlands.
Photo Copyright © Michael Collier

Recumbent fold, King Oscar Fjord

Photo Copyright © Håvard Berland

Drag Folds
These drag folds near Charleston Utah are the result of a large overthrust fault.
Photo Copyright © Bruce Molnia, Terra Photographics

Reference:
Wikipedia: Fold (geology)
Encyclopædia Britannica: Recumbent fold
University of Saskatchewan: Fold Classification
Types of volcanic eruptions

The image correlates types of volcanoes with their respective eruption, highlighting the differences.
Credit: ChiaraCingottini, DensityDesign Research Lab

During a volcanic eruption, lava, tephra (ash, lapilli, volcanic bombs and blocks), and various
gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure. Several types of volcanic eruptions have been
distinguished by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type
of behavior has been observed. Some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of
eruption during a period of activity, while others may display an entire sequence of types all in
one eruptive series.

There are three different meta types of eruptions. The most well-observed are magmatic
eruptions, which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it forward.
Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of volcanic eruption, driven by the compression of
gas within magma, the direct opposite of the process powering magmatic activity. The last
eruptive metatype is the phreatic eruption, which is driven by the superheating of steam via
contact with magma; these eruptive types often exhibit no magmatic release, instead causing the
granulation of existing rock.

Within these wide-defining eruptive types are several subtypes. The weakest are Hawaiian and
submarine, then Strombolian, followed by Vulcanian and Surtseyan. The stronger eruptive types
are Pelean eruptions, followed by Plinian eruptions; the strongest eruptions are called "Ultra
Plinian." Subglacial and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism, and vary in
strength. An important measure of eruptive strength is Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), an
order of magnitude scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to eruptive types.
Eruption mechanisms
Volcanic eruptions arise through three main mechanisms:

 Gas release under decompression causing magmatic eruptions

 Thermal contraction from chilling on contact with water causing phreatomagmatic
eruptions
 Ejection of entrained particles during steam eruptions causing phreatic eruptions

There are two types of eruptions in terms of activity, explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions.
Explosive eruptions are characterized by gas-driven explosions that propels magma and
tephra.Effusive eruptions, meanwhile, are characterized by the outpouring of lava without
significant explosive eruption.

Volcanic eruptions vary widely in strength. On the one extreme there are effusive Hawaiian
eruptions, which are characterized by lava fountains and fluid lava flows, which are typically
not very dangerous. On the other extreme, Plinian eruptions are large, violent, and highly
dangerous explosive events. Volcanoes are not bound to one eruptive style, and frequently
display many different types, both passive and explosive, even the span of a single eruptive
cycle. Volcanoes do not always erupt vertically from a single crater near their peak, either.
Some volcanoes exhibit lateral and fissure eruptions. Notably, many Hawaiian eruptions start
from rift zones, and some of the strongest Surtseyan eruptions develop along fracture zones.
Scientists believed that pulses of magma mixed together in the chamber before climbing
upward—a process estimated to take several thousands of years. But Columbia University
volcanologists found that the eruption of Costa Rica’s Irazú Volcano in 1963 was likely
triggered by magma that took a nonstop route from the mantle over just a few months.

Magmatic eruptions
Magmatic eruptions produce juvenile clasts during explosive decompression from gas release.
They range in intensity from the relatively small lava fountains on Hawaii to catastrophic Ultra
Plinian eruption columns more than 30 km (19 mi) high, bigger than the eruption of Mount
Vesuvius in 79 that buried Pompeii.
Hawaiian

Diagram of a Hawaiian eruption.

(key: 1. Ash plume 2. Lava fountain
3. Crater 4. Lava lake 5. Fumaroles
6. Lava flow 7. Layers of lava and ash
8. Stratum 9. Sill 10. Magma conduit
11. Magma chamber 12. Dike)
© Sémhur

Hawaiian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the Hawaiian volcanoes with
which this eruptive type is hallmark. Hawaiian eruptions are the calmest types of volcanic
events, characterized by the effusive eruption of very fluid basalt-type lavas with low gaseous
content. The volume of ejected material from Hawaiian eruptions is less than half of that found
in other eruptive types. Steady production of small amounts of lava builds up the large, broad
form of a shield volcano. Eruptions are not centralized at the main summit as with other
volcanic types, and often occur at vents around the summit and from fissure vents radiating out
of the center.

Hawaiian eruptions often begin as a line of vent eruptions along a fissure vent, a so-called
"curtain of fire." These die down as the lava begins to concentrate at a few of the vents. Central-
vent eruptions, meanwhile, often take the form of large lava fountains (both continuous and
sporadic), which can reach heights of hundreds of meters or more. The particles from lava
fountains usually cool in the air before hitting the ground, resulting in the accumulation of
cindery scoria fragments; however, when the air is especially thick with clasts, they cannot cool
off fast enough due to the surrounding heat, and hit the ground still hot, the accumulation of
which forms spatter cones. If eruptive rates are high enough, they may even form splatter-fed
lava flows. Hawaiian eruptions are often extremely long lived; Pu'u O'o, a cinder cone of
Kilauea, has been erupting continuously since 1983. Another Hawaiian volcanic feature is the
formation of active lava lakes, self-maintaining pools of raw lava with a thin crust of semi-
cooled rock; there are currently only 5 such lakes in the world, and the one at Kīlauea's
Kupaianaha vent is one of them.
Strombolian

Diagram of a Strombolian eruption.

(key: 1. Ash plume 2. Lapilli 3. Volcanic ash rain
4. Lava fountain 5. Volcanic bomb 6. Lava flow
7. Layers of lava and ash 8. Stratum
9. Dike 10. Magma conduit
11. Magma chamber 12. Sill)
© Sémhur

Strombolian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the volcano Stromboli,
which has been erupting continuously for centuries. Strombolian eruptions are driven by the
bursting of gas bubbles within the magma. These gas bubbles within the magma accumulate and
coalesce into large bubbles, called gas slugs. These grow large enough to rise through the lava
column. Upon reaching the surface, the difference in air pressure causes the bubble to burst with
a loud pop, throwing magma in the air in a way similar to a soap bubble. Because of the high
gas pressures associated with the lavas, continued activity is generally in the form of episodic
explosive eruptions accompanied by the distinctive loud blasts. During eruptions, these blasts
occur as often as every few minutes.

The term "Strombolian" has been used indiscriminately to describe a wide variety of volcanic
eruptions, varying from small volcanic blasts to large eruptive columns. In reality, true
Strombolian eruptions are characterized by short-lived and explosive eruptions of lavas with
intermediate viscosity, often ejected high into the air. Columns can measure hundreds of meters
in height. The lavas formed by Strombolian eruptions are a form of relatively viscous basaltic
lava, and its end product is mostly scoria. The relative passivity of Strombolian eruptions, and
its non-damaging nature to its source vent allow Strombolian eruptions to continue unabated for
thousands of years, and also makes it one of the least dangerous eruptive types.

Strombolian eruptions eject volcanic bombs and lapilli fragments that travel in parabolic paths
before landing around their source vent. The steady accumulation of small fragments builds
cinder cones composed completely of basaltic pyroclasts. This form of accumulation tends to
result in well-ordered rings of tephra.

Strombolian eruptions are similar to Hawaiian eruptions, but there are differences. Strombolian
eruptions are noisier, produce no sustained eruptive columns, do not produce some volcanic
products associated with Hawaiian volcanism (specifically Pele's tears and Pele's hair), and
produce fewer molten lava flows (although the eruptive material does tend to form small
rivulets).

Vulcanian

Diagram of a Vulcanian eruption.

(key: 1. Ash plume 2. Lapilli
3. Lava fountain 4. Volcanic ash rain
5. Volcanic bomb 6. Lava flow
7. Layers of lava and ash
8. Stratum 9. Sill 10. Magma conduit
11. Magma chamber 12. Dike)
© Sémhur

Vulcanian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the volcano Vulcano, which
means the word Volcano. It was named so following Giuseppe Mercalli's observations of its
1888-1890 eruptions. In Vulcanian eruptions, highly viscous magma within the volcano make it
difficult for vesiculate gases to escape. Similar to Strombolian eruptions, this leads to the
buildup of high gas pressure, eventually popping the cap holding the magma down and resulting
in an explosive eruption. However, unlike Strombolian eruptions, ejected lava fragments are not
aerodynamic; this is due to the higher viscosity of Vulcanian magma and the greater
incorporation of crystalline material broken off from the former cap. They are also more
explosive than their Strombolian counterparts, with eruptive columns often reaching between 5
and 10 km (3 and 6 mi) high. Lastly, Vulcanian deposits are andesitic to dacitic rather than
basaltic.
Initial Vulcanian activity is characterized by a series of short-lived explosions, lasting a few
minutes to a few hours and typified by the ejection of volcanic bombs and blocks. These
eruptions wear down the lava dome holding the magma down, and it disintegrates, leading to
much more quiet and continuous eruptions. Thus an early sign of future Vulcanian activity is
lava dome growth, and its collapse generates an outpouring of pyroclastic material down the
volcano's slope.

Peléan

Diagram of Peléan eruption.

(key: 1. Ash plume 2. Volcanic ash rain
3. Lava dome 4. Volcanic bomb
5. Pyroclastic flow 6. Layers of lava and ash
7. Stratum 8. Magma conduit
9. Magma chamber 10. Dike)
© Sémhur

Peléan eruptions (or nuée ardente) are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the volcano
Mount Pelée in Martinique, the site of a massive Peléan eruption in 1902 that is one of the worst
natural disasters in history. In Peléan eruptions, a large amount of gas, dust, ash, and lava
fragments are blown out the volcano's central crater, driven by the collapse of rhyolite, dacite,
and andesite lava dome collapses that often create large eruptive columns. An early sign of a
coming eruption is the growth of a so-called Peléan or lava spine, a bulge in the volcano's
summit preempting its total collapse. The material collapses upon itself, forming a fast-moving
pyroclastic flow (known as a block-and-ash flow) that moves down the side of the mountain at
tremendous speeds, often over 150 km (93 mi) per hour. These massive landslides make Peléan
eruptions one of the most dangerous in the world, capable of tearing through populated areas
and causing massive loss of life. The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée caused tremendous
destruction, killing more than 30,000 people and competely destroying the town of St. Pierre,
the worst volcanic event in the 20th century.

Peléan eruptions are characterized most prominently by the incandescent pyroclastic flows that
they drive. The mechanics of a Peléan eruption are very similar to that of a Vulcanian eruption,
except that in Peléan eruptions the volcano's structure is able to withstand more pressure, hence
the eruption occurs as one large explosion rather than several smaller ones.

Plinian

Diagram of a Plinian eruption.

(key: 1. Ash plume 2. Magma conduit
3. Volcanic ash rain 4. Layers of lava and ash
5. Stratum 6. Magma chamber)
© Sémhur

Plinian eruptions (or Vesuvian) are a type of volcanic eruption, named for the historical eruption
of Mount Vesuvius in 79 of Mount Vesuvius that buried the Roman towns of Pompeii and
Herculaneum, and specifically for its chronicler Pliny the Younger. The process powering
Plinian eruptions starts in the magma chamber, where dissolved volatile gases are stored in the
magma. The gases vesiculate and accumulate as they rise through the magma conduit. These
bubbles agglutinate and once they reach a certain size (about 75% of the total volume of the
magma conduit) they explode. The narrow confines of the conduit force the gases and
associated magma up, forming an eruptive column. Eruption velocity is controlled by the gas
contents of the column, and low-strength surface rocks commonly crack under the pressure of
the eruption, forming a flared outgoing structure that pushes the gases even faster.

These massive eruptive columns are the distinctive feature of a Plinian eruption, and reach up 2
to 45 km (1 to 28 mi) into the atmosphere. The densest part of the plume, directly above the
volcano, is driven internally by gas expansion. As it reaches higher into the air the plume
expands and becomes less dense, convection and thermal expansion of volcanic ash drive it
even further up into the stratosphere. At the top of the plume, powerful prevailing winds drive
the plume in a direction away from the volcano.

Plinian eruptions are similar to both Vulcanian and Strombolian eruptions, except that rather
than creating discrete explosive events, Plinian eruptions form sustained eruptive columns. They
are also similar to Hawaiian lava fountains in that both eruptive types produce sustained
eruption columns maintained by the growth of bubbles that move up at about the same speed as
the magma surrounding them.

Phreatomagmatic eruptions
Phreatomagmatic eruptions are eruptions that arise from interactions between water and magma.
They are driven from thermal contraction (as opposed to magmatic eruptions, which are driven
by thermal expansion) of magma when it comes in contact with water. This temperature
difference between the two causes violent water-lava interactions that make up the eruption. The
products of phreatomagmatic eruptions are believed to be more regular in shape and finer
grained than the products of magmatic eruptions because of the differences in eruptive
mechanisms.

There is debate about the exact nature of phreatomagmatic eruptions, and some scientists
believe that fuel-coolant reactions may be more critical to the explosive nature than thermal
contraction. Fuel coolant reactions may fragment the volcanic material by propagating stress
waves, widening cracks and increasing surface area that ultimetly lead to rapid cooling and
explosive contraction-driven eruptions.

Surtseyan

Diagram of a Surtseyan eruption.

(key: 1. Water vapor cloud 2. Compressed ash
3. Crater 4. Water 5. Layers of lava and ash
6. Stratum 7. Magma conduit
8. Magma chamber 9. Dike)
© Sémhur
A Surtseyan eruption (or hydrovolcanic) is a type of volcanic eruption caused by shallow-water
interactions between water and lava, named so after its most famous example, the eruption and
formation of the island of Surtsey off the coast of Iceland in 1963. Surtseyan eruptions are the
"wet" equivalent of ground-based Strombolian eruptions, but because of where they are taking
place they are much more explosive. This is because as water is heated by lava, it flashes in
steam and expands violently, fragmenting the magma it is in contact with into fine-grained ash.
Surtseyan eruptions are the hallmark of shallow-water volcanic oceanic islands, however they
are not specifically confined to them. Surtseyan eruptions can happen on land as well, and are
caused by rising magma that comes into contact with an aquifer (water-bearing rock formation)
at shallow levels under the volcano. The products of Surtseyan eruptions are generally oxidized
palagonite basalts (though andesitic eruptions do occur, albeit rarely), and like Strombolian
eruptions Surtseyan eruptions are generally continuous or otherwise rhythmic.

Submarine

Diagram of a Submarine eruption.

(key: 1. Water vapor cloud 2. Water
3. Stratum 4. Lava flow
5. Magma conduit 6. Magma chamber
7. Dike 8. Pillow lava)
© Sémhur

Submarine eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption that occurs underwater. An estimated 75%
of the total volcanic eruptive volume is generated by submarine eruptions near mid ocean ridges
alone, however because of the problems associated with detecting deep sea volcanics, they
remained virtually unknown until advances in the 1990s made it possible to observe them.

Submarine eruptions may produce seamounts which may break the surface to form volcanic
islands and island chains.

Submarine volcanism is driven by various processes. Volcanoes near plate boundaries and mid-
ocean ridges are built by the decompression melting of mantle rock that rises on an upwelling
portion of a convection cell to the crustal surface. Eruptions associated with subducting zones,
meanwhile, are driven by subducting plates that add volatiles to the rising plate, lowering its
melting point. Each process generates different rock; mid-ocean ridge volcanics are primarily
basaltic, whereas subduction flows are mostly calc-alkaline, and more explosive and viscous.

Subglacial

A diagram of a Subglacial eruption.

(key: 1. Water vapor cloud 2. Crater lake
3. Ice 4. Layers of lava and ash
5. Stratum 6. Pillow lava
7. Magma conduit 8. Magma chamber 9. Dike)
© Sémhur

Subglacial eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption characterized by interactions between lava
and ice, often under a glacier. The nature of glaciovolcanism dictates that it occurs at areas of
high latitude and high altitude. It has been suggested that subglacial volcanoes that are not
actively erupting often dump heat into the ice covering them, producing meltwater. This
meltwater mix means that subglacial eruptions often generate dangerous jökulhlaups (floods)
and lahars.

The study of glaciovolcanism is still a relatively new field. Early accounts described the unusual
flat-topped steep-sided volcanoes (called tuyas) in Iceland that were suggested to have formed
from eruptions below ice. The first English-language paper on the subject was published in
1947 by William Henry Mathews, describing the Tuya Butte field in northwest British
Columbia, Canada. The eruptive process that builds these structures, originally inferred in the
paper, begins with volcanic growth below the glacier. At first the eruptions resemble those that
occur in the deep sea, forming piles of pillow lava at the base of the volcanic structure. Some of
the lava shatters when it comes in contact with the cold ice, forming a glassy breccia called
hyaloclastite. After a while the ice finally melts into a lake, and the more explosive eruptions of
Surtseyan activity begins, building up flanks made up of mostly hyaloclastite. Eventually the
lake boils off from continued volcanism, and the lava flows become more effusive and thicken
as the lava cools much more slowly, often forming columnar jointing. Well-preserved tuyas
show all of these stages, for example Hjorleifshofdi in Iceland.

Products of volcano-ice interactions stand as various structures, whose shape is dependent on

complex eruptive and environmental interactions. Glacial volcanism is a good indicator of past
ice distribution, making it an important climatic marker. Since they are imbedded in ice, as ice
retracts worldwide there are concerns that tuyas and other structures may destabalize, resulting
in mass landslides. Evidence of volcanic-glacial interactions are evident in Iceland and parts of
British Columbia, and it's even possible that they play a role in deglaciation.

Phreatic eruptions

Diagram of a phreatic eruption.

(key: 1. Water vapor cloud 2. Magma conduit
3. Layers of lava and ash
4. Stratum 5. Water table
6. Explosion 7. Magma chamber)
© Sémhur

Phreatic eruptions (or steam-blast eruptions) are a type of eruption driven by the expansion of
steam. When cold ground or surface water come into contact with hot rock or magma it
superheats and explodes, fracturing the surrounding rock and thrusting out a mixture of steam,
water, ash, volcanic bombs, and volcanic blocks. The distinguishing feature of phreatic
explosions is that they only blast out fragments of pre-existing solid rock from the volcanic
conduit; no new magma is erupted. Because they are driven by the cracking of rock stata under
pressure, phreatic activity does not always result in an eruption; if the rock face is strong enough
to withstand the explosive force, outright eruptions may not occur, although cracks in the rock
will probably develop and weaken it, furthering future eruptions.
Often a precursor of future volcanic activity, phreatic eruptions are generally weak, although
there have been exceptions. Some phreatic events may be triggered by earthquake activity,
another volcanic precursor, and they may also travel along dike lines. Phreatic eruptions form
base surges, lahars, avalanches, and volcanic block "rain." They may also release deadly toxic
gas able to suffocate anyone in range of the eruption.

Photos

Eruption type : Hawaiian

Looking up the slope of Kilauea, a shield volcano on the island of Hawaii. In the foreground, the Puu Oo vent has erupted fluid
lava to the left. The Halemaumau crater is at the peak of Kilauea, visible here as a rising vapor column in the background. The
peak behind the vapor column is Mauna Loa, a volcano that is separate from Kilauea.

Eruption type: Hawaiian/Strombolian

Mt. Stromboli
Stromboli is a small island in the Tyrrhenian Sea, off the north coast of Sicily
 Eruption type: Vulcanian
Nevado del Ruiz
Steam on the mountain in July 2007

Eruption type: Plinian/Ultra Plinian

Krakatoa or Krakatau or Krakatao is a volcanic island in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra in Indonesia
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krakatoa).

Reference:
USGS : Types of Volcanic Eruptions
University of Hawai‘i : HAWAIIAN ERUPTIONS
Wikipedia: Types of volcanic eruptions
University of California : VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND ERUPTIONS