PAINTS AND COATINGS/Commercial, Domestic and Automotive
P
Packaging see Crime-scene Investigation and Examination: Packaging.
PAINTS AND COATINGS
Commercial, Domestic and
Automotive
L Brun-Conti, Michigan Department of State Police,
East Lansing, MI, USA
Copyright # 2000 Academic Press
doi:10.1006/rwfs.2000.0581
Paint as Forensic Evidence
The forensic chemist will receive paint as evidence in a
number of different forms. Automotive paint, as chips
or smears, comes into the laboratory from hit-and-run
accidents when the offending vehicle strikes a person
or another vehicle. If a vehicle hits a person, paint
chips may be found in the victim's clothing or on the
person. Structural paint may be found on breaking
and entering tools (prybars, screwdrivers). A double
transfer may occur in any of the preceding cases. A
double transfer is where the paint from the suspect
item (vehicle or tool) is transferred on to the victim
item, and paint from the victim item is transferred on
to the suspect item. For example, paint from the tool
the suspect used to break into a home is transferred on
to the structure, as well as the paint from the structure
being transferred on to the tool. Paint from a vandal-
ism may come in the form of sprayed graffiti from the
outside or inside of a building. In general, anything
that is coated with a paint or protective coating has
the potential to contribute trace amounts of the coat-
ing in a transfer. As Locard's principle states, when
two objects come into contact with one another, each
of the objects may leave particles of one on the other.
Paint (generally a liquid but in some cases a pow-
der, see Application Techniques) is composed of three
1141
basic elements: the vehicle, the pigments and exten-
ders, and the solvent. The following sections will
describe these elements of the paint.
Vehicle or Polymeric Portion of Paint
Types of polymer
The vehicle portion of the paint gives the final film
properties, such as resistance to acids, alkalis, sol-
vents, water or any other material that would mar the
finish from the outside. Also, the vehicle formulation
will effect adhesion, hardness, flexibility, abrasion
resistance and gloss. Some of the following vehicle
polymers may be used in combination with another
so that the desired properties of the final film are
achieved. The vehicle polymer resins include acrylic,
alkyd (or polyester) epoxy, urethane, amino, vinyl,
phenolic and cellulose. The polymer system used will
determine whether the final film is a thermoset or
nonconvertible film, which, once in a dry film, cannot
be converted back into a liquid state, or a thermo-
plastic or convertible film, which can be converted
back into a liquid state by the addition of solvent.
Acrylic resins Acrylic resins are polymers made up
of functional monomers (containing sites for cross-
linking) and nonfunctional monomers (which do not
contain additional sites for crosslinking). These mono-
mers are polymerized into polymer sections of a con-
trolled size. Thermosetting acrylic resins have active
sites on the polymer to facilitate crosslinking. The type
of monomers used in the formulation of the polymer
will depend upon the properties desirable in the final
finish. Table 1 lists are four examples of common
monomers used in acrylic resins and the properties
1142 PAINTS AND COATINGS/Commercial, Domestic and Automotive
Table 1 Structure and properties of some common monomers used in acrylic resins
Monomer Structure
Acrylic acid
Methacrylic acid
Styrene
2-Hydroxy ethyl acrylate
they impart to a film. Polymer chemists must formu-
late the acrylic resin using just enough, but not too
much of the monomers available to them, keeping in
mind the properties which they desire and which
monomers will impart those qualities to the film.
Alkyd and polyester resins Polyester resins have
three basic components which polymerize to form
the resin: fatty acids, polyols and dibasic acids (Fig. 1).
The fatty acid and the polyol form an ester linkage.
The dibasic acid is then added to the mix. The
molecular weight of the polyester resin will depend
upon the quantity of the dibasic acid and additional
polyol. The polyol used is generally glycerol, but
ethylene glycol (two ±OHs), pentaerythritol (four
±OHs) or sorbitol (six ±OHs) may be used. The
dibasic acids used are usually phthalic anhydride,
isophthalic acid and teraphthalic acid. The fatty
acids and glycerol are occasionally replaced by oils
(three moles of a fatty acid plus one mole of glycerol
is a triglyceride or oil) and the resin is then known as
an alkyd. When using oils in an alkyd, the alkyd is
defined by amount of oil: a long oil alkyd contains
455% oil, a medium oil alkyd contains 31±55% oil,
and a short oil alkyd contains 530% oil. The oils are
made up of two or three different fatty acids which
Figure 1
Properties
This carboxyl functional monomer aids in the reaction
of hydroxyls on the acrylic polymer and crosslinking
resin to promote cure. Too high a level can cause
problems with brittle films, gloss loss from humidity
and poor exposure durability. Too low a level yields
poor hardness or cure, poor humidity resistance and
poor outdoor durability
The same comments apply to methacrylic acid as to
acrylic acid. Methacrylic acid had a slightly higher Tg
(higher potential to become hard and brittle)
Provides hardness and chemical resistance but poor
outdoor exposure durability
This monomer is important as it yields all durability and
hardness properties. This is because the hydroxyl is
where the acrylic and crosslinking resin are joined to
form the crosslinked network
will have varying amounts of unsaturation. In es-
sence, the more unsaturation or double bonds, the
more readily the resin will dry. This becomes impor-
tant when considering oxidation curing ability of a
film (see Film formation).
Epoxy resins Epoxy resins are made by polymeriz-
ing an oxirane ring-containing compound, such as
epichlorohydrin, with bisphenol A (Fig. 2). The reac-
tivity of the oxirane ring structure depends upon
whether the oxirane is internal or external. In most
epoxy resins the oxirane ring is external.
Urethane resins Urethane resins are basically the re-
sult of a reaction between an isocyanate and an active
proton (Fig. 3). The reactive proton can be (in order of
reactivity) alkyl-NH2, aromatic, R-NH2, primary
±OH, secondary ±OH, tertiary ±OH, aromatic ±OH,
carboxylic ±OH, primary amide. The isocyanate may
come in an intermediate form as a diisocyanate. When
the isocyanate is added to the active proton-contain-
ing resin, the crosslinking begins immediately and
therefore must be used within a limited period of
time. This `two-package' system may be cumbersome
to use. To make urethanes more convenient to use a
few different `one-package' urethane systems were
 PAINTS AND COATINGS/Commercial, Domestic and Automotive
Figure 2
Figure 3
developed. One type is a moisture cure system where
the polyol diisocyanate adducts cure primarily
through the reaction of the terminal N=C=O with
atmospheric moisture (Fig. 4). The resulting ±NH2
acts as a catalyst to continue the reaction.
Another one-package urethane system is a blocked
adduct urethane coating. In this system the polyol is
mixed in the same container with a blocked isocyanate
monomer. Once the coating is applied and baked, the
blocking component is split and the isocyanate group
is free to react with the polyol.
Vinyl resins Vinyl resins are made of the ethylene
derivatives illustrated in Fig. 5. The vinyl resins are
polymerized using addition polymerization (see Poly-
merization). Polyvinyl chloride and polyvinyl acetate
are prevalent in latex architectural paints.
Phenolic resins Phenolic polymers are based on the
reaction of phenol with formaldehyde (Fig. 6). When
an acid catalyst is used for polymerization, the poly-
mers become a two-dimensional polymer called a
`Novolak'. Novolaks produce hard, nonheat-reac-
tive, chemically resistant coatings. An alkaline con-
densation of the phenol and formaldehyde monomers
forms a resin called `bakelite'. During this process,
the first stage (stage A) produces a monomer with
three methylol groups (±CH2OH), the second stage
(stage B) produces a polymer with one methylol
group on each repeating unit. These methylol groups
are available for crosslinking.
Figure 4
1143
Figure 5
Amino resins This class of resins include melamine,
urea and benzoguanamine (Fig. 7). The resins are
mixed with formaldehyde to form a methylol group
(see Phenolic resins) on the amino group. The methy-
lol form of the resin is then exposed to a monohydric
alcohol, which forms it into an alkoxy compound.
During the baking (crosslinking) process, the alcohol
group comes off of the amino resin and allows a
covalent bond to be formed in a condensation process
at the methylol site. These resins will crosslink at the
following functional groups: ±OH, ±COOH and
±CONH2.
Cellulose resins Cellulose resins are based on the
natural cellulose polymer and, depending on which
functional groups are present, the polymer could be
nitrocellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate bu-
tyrate, ethyl cellulose or methyl cellulose. Cellulose
resins are then combined with alkyds or oils to form
lacquers.
Film formation
A coating is usually in liquid form when applied
(except for powder coatings, see Application tech-
Figure 6
1144 PAINTS AND COATINGS/Commercial, Domestic and Automotive
Figure 7
niques) but the final product desired is a solid. Film
formation is achieved in four basic ways: evaporation
of a solvent, polymerization, oxidation and coagula-
tion.
Evaporation of a solvent As the name implies, all
that is needed for this film former is time and circula-
tion of air. Common types of evaporation finishes are
acrylic lacquers and nitrocellulose lacquers. The final
film of the solvent evaporation film formers are ther-
moplastic and convertible. Organic solvents are used,
such as methyl ethyl ketone, toluene or mineral spirits,
depending on the solubility of the primer and the
intended application. Lacquer production is as simple
as dissolving an acrylic resin in solvent. Film modifiers
such as nitrocellulose resin or vinyl resin may be added
to provide the final film with the desired qualities.
Pigments may be added as a solid or in a resin solution.
Polymerization Polymerization is a polymer chain-
forming reaction. It is used to form monomers into
chains of polymers or in crosslinking two or more
polymers together. This process is done by using heat
or a catalyst. Two types of polymerization are addi-
tion and condensation (although oxidation, which
may also be included in this section, will be ad-
dressed in the next section). Addition polymerization
occurs when a free radical is formed and additional
compounds are added with no by-products (Fig. 8).
Condensation polymerization occurs when two com-
pounds combine and, during this process, by-pro-
ducts such as water, hydrogen gas or carbon dioxide
are evolved (Fig. 9).
Figure 8
Figure 9
Oxidation Oxidation is the type of crosslinking that
occurs in resins containing oils or fatty acids: var-
nishes, polyesters and alkyds. As stated above, oil-
containing resins are classified as short, medium and
long oil resins. The oils used are further classified as
drying, semidrying, and nondrying oils, depending on
the degree of unsaturation of the fatty acid chain.
Drier additives may be added to aid the drying pro-
cess. Dryers are heavy metal soaps of organic acids.
The exact mechanism of the oxidation process is not
known. What is known is that hydroperoxides are
formed on the double bonds and that the dryers
catalyze the decomposition of the hydroperoxide to
the radical state. Some common oils used in oil-con-
taining resins are linseed oil, tung oil, soya oil and
coconut oil.
Coagulation This type of film formation occurs in
systems that involve emulsion technology: latex
(where water is the continuous or liquid phase) and
nonaqueous dispersions (NAD) (where a solvent
other than water is the continuous phase). In an
emulsion, particles of the polymer are dispersed in a
liquid in which they are not completely miscible. To
keep the two semimiscible phases from separating,
emulsifiers must be added. When the solvent evapo-
rates, the polymers coalesce on a macromolecule
scale. Common latex house paints are examples of
this type of film formation.
End uses
Table 2, which is not exhaustive by any means, shows
which resin systems may be found on different types
of products.
Pigments, Fillers and Additives
Pigments, fillers and additives are in the liquid paint
as solids. That is where the similarity ends. Pigments
add color or metallic sheen, additives are used in
small amounts to impart certain qualities on the
paint or finished film, and fillers are generally used
to add body or bulk to the paint.
Pigments
The four types of pigments to be discussed in this
section are inorganic pigments, organic pigments,
 PAINTS AND COATINGS/Commercial, Domestic and Automotive 1145

Table 2 Some resin systems and their end uses
Resin system
Epoxy amine
Epoxy esters
Epoxy phenol
Epoxy amine formaldehyde
(clear)
Epoxy acrylic enamel
Short oil alkyds
Long oil alkyds
Medium oil alkyds
Acrylic emulsions
Acrylic emulsions in water
with amino crosslinking
polymers
Acrylic lacquers
Acrylic melamine enamel
Phenolic varnishes
End use
Marine
Industrial
Automotive primers
Maintenance paints
Internal coatings for pipes
Brass
Aluminum refrigerator trays
Appliance
Outdoor furniture
Air dry primers and
undercoats
Primer on wood siding
Exterior architectural paint
Metal maintenance paints
Topside marine paints
Automotive refinishing
Traffic paints
Implement enamels
Architectural paints (water-
soluble)
Automotive paint (NAD)
Dip coatings
Industrial baked finishes
Waterborne basecoats
(automotive)
Automotive refinishes
Aluminum siding coating
Aircraft finishes
Wood finishes
Automotive
Floors
Trim
Can coatings
Printing inks
strate shade differences using the lowest possible film
thickness. These types of pigment are also inexpen-
sive but have low tinting strength, therefore more
pigment is required to obtain a change in color.
Table 3 lists some inorganic pigments.
White and black pigments The most widely used
white pigment is titanium dioxide (TiO2). TiO2
comes in two forms, rutile and anatase, which are
crystal isomers. Rutile is the isomer of choice because
it has 25% more tinting strength (the ability to tint to
the desired color with the minimum amount of pig-
ment) than anatase. Anatase TiO2 is known to chalk
or degrade when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radia-
tion. Rutile TiO2 has a high refractive index (2.72)
and that is what makes it such a good hiding pigment.
The lead whites (basic carbonate white lead, basic
sulfate white lead and basic silicate white lead) are
not used, owing to the lead content. Two other whites
are the zinc whites, zinc oxide and zinc sulfide, but
the hiding power of the zinc whites is not as good as
that of TiO2.
There are four classes of black pigments: acetylene
black, thermal black, furnace black and impingement
or lamp black. Due to their particle size, good exterior
durability and color, furnace and lamp blacks are used
Table 3 Inorganic pigments
Pigment Color

White See text

Black See text
Chromates
filler and extender pigments, and metallic and pear- Lead Yellow, green, orange
lescent pigments. There are new specialty pigments Zinc Yellow, orange
coming on to the market for automotive topcoats, Strontium Yellow-green
such as the color shifting pigments called Kameleon Barium Lemon yellow
Calcium Yellow
Kolors from DuPont. These specialty pigments will
Silicon Orange
cause the observer to see different colors on the vehi- Oxides
cle during `travel'. Travel is a term used to describe the Iron Red, yellow
change in color when the painted surface is observed Chromium Light green
on its `face' (parallel to the eyes) to the `flop' (nearly Lead Red
perpendicular to the eyes). During the travel of the Sulfides and selenides
Cadmium Orange, yellow
surface painted with the specialty pigments, the sur- Mercury
face will actually change colors, depending upon the Ferrocyanides
viewing angle. The specialty pigments are not com- Iron Blue
monly used yet, as they are expensive; therefore they Copper Maroon
will not be discussed in detail. Nickel titanate Yellow
Ultramarine blue Blue
Mineral violet (phosphate) Purple
Krolor pigments Orange, yellow, red
Inorganic pigments Inorganic pigments are the
Cobalt-based pigments Yellow
hiding or semihiding pigments, which simply means Fluorescent pigments Red-orange
that these pigments have the ability to minimize sub-
1146 PAINTS AND COATINGS/Commercial, Domestic and Automotive
extensively in coatings. Other types of black pigment
are available but are generally used for reasons other
than color: graphite is used as an additive to impart
chemical and mechanical properties to a film, vegeta-
ble and mineral blacks are used as fillers, etc.
Organic pigments Organic pigments are vibrant and
very intense colors. They are costly and somewhat
transparent but have a high tinting strength. Some
organic pigments are listed in Table 4.
Many of the organic pigments can produce a
number of colors, depending upon the functional
groups or chelated molecules. An example would be
phthalocyanine blue (Fig. 10). If the copper molecule
(in the center) and 12±16 hydrogens are replaced with
chlorine, the color of the pigment would be green.
Filler and extender pigments Extender pigments
were first introduced into coatings as fillers because
they were lower in cost than the hiding pigments.
However, as more knowledge was obtained regarding
the effects that fillers have on certain properties of the
finished film, `fillers' became `improvers'. Examples
of fillers include, but are not limited to:
. Calcium carbonates Can be used to increase gloss,
minimize fade in pastel colors and act as a fire
retardant.
. Calcium sulfate (gypsum) Blended with TiO2 to
reduce cost and add whiteness. It is a soft pigment;
therefore there is little wear on grinding equipment.
. Barium sulfate (barytes) This is an easy grinding
pigment and therefore will be used in conjunction
with harder-to-grind pigments to aid in their dis-
persion. Barytes has low water solubility and thus
will have minimal effect on anions present in
waterbased coatings.
. Silica Because of the hardness of this filler it will
add abrasion resistance and has excellent non-
Table 4 Organic pigments
Azo pigments
Isoindolinones
Anthraquinones
Indigoid
Phthalocyanine
Basic phosphotungstic acid
Basic phosphomolybdic acid
Quinacridones
Dioxazines
Chelated nickel azo
Arylide red and maroon
Pyrazolone red
Perylene scarlets and vermillions
Figure 10 Phthalocyanine blue.
chalking properties. Note: Silica comes in many
forms: natural (crystalline, diatomaceous) and syn-
thetic (pyrogenic silica, aerogels, precipitated).
. Silicates (clays) These will provide added `scrubbi-
lity' and stain removal to latex paints, due to the
flat, plate-like microstructure, and will improve the
suspension of other pigments.
. Magnesium silicates (talc) In the fibrous form, talc
replaces asbestos, which used to be used to resist
mud-cracking and sagging. Talc will aid in overall
structure of textured coatings.
. Potassium-aluminum silicate (Muscovite mica)
The platelet structure helps to reinforce the film,
minimize cracking, checking and vapor permeabil-
ity, and is used as a base for the pearlescent pig-
ments.
. Calcium metasilicated (wollastonite) This is used
to stabilize emulsion systems and aids in hiding.
The aforementioned pigments and extenders are
usually incorporated into a paint system by first pro-
ducing a `grind' of the pigment. A grind is made by
mixing the dry pigment with a resin (and possibly a
solvent) from the vehicle system that will be used in
the final paint. The pigment is then pulverized in the
resin using different types of mills (ball mill, sand
mill, three-roll mill or Netzsch mill) or by using the
shearing action of a special spinner blade. The pig-
ments must be ground to a size that is smaller than the
final film so that the pigment particles will not pro-
trude out of the film. The exception to this is for
pigments used in primers: protrusions are desired to
aid in adhesion of the topcoat to the primer.
Metallic and pearlescent pigments Metallic and
pearlescent pigments add sparkle and luster to a fin-
ish. The metallic pigments are generally aluminum
flake dispersed in a resin or oil (the dispersion media
 PAINTS AND COATINGS/Commercial, Domestic and Automotive
are proprietary), although gold bronze and zinc are
also available. Pearlescent pigments are generally
Muscovite mica flakes coated with TiO2, iron oxide
or other colored pigments. Pearlescent pigments may
also be flakes of bismuth oxychloride, basic lead
carbonate or natural pearl essence.
Metallic pigments There are two types of aluminum
pigment: leafing and nonleafing. Leafing pigments
float to the surface of the coating while it is still
wet, producing a silvery metallic appearance. Non-
leafing (the type used in automotive coatings) will
disperse throughout the film, giving depth to the dry
coating.
Gold bronze pigments are made by combining
copper and zinc, atomizing them together and
making flakes of the atomized particles in a ball
mill. Zinc pigments are used in coatings at about
90% zinc by weight with an organo silicate or an
epoxy ester. Extreme care must be taken to prevent
the introduction of moisture into a container of zinc-
containing paint because zinc plus water will produce
zinc dihydroxide and hydrogen gas, which can cause
an explosion in a closed container.
Pearlescent pigments The platelet structure of all
the nacreous or pearlescent pigments gives them their
rich appearance. Interference pigments is another
name for pearlescent pigments. In the case of the
TiO2-coated mica flakes, the TiO2 is deposited on
to both sides of the mica, sandwiching the mineral
between them (Fig. 11). The layers of TiO2 are called
`interference layers'. Reflected light will bounce off
the top and bottom interference layers and will, de-
pending upon the thickness of the TiO2 layers, reflect
a certain color. On the other hand, if light is trans-
mitted through the pigment, the color seen will be the
complementary color to the reflected color. For ex-
ample, if the reflected color is red, the transmitted
color will be green. Iron oxide may also be used to
coat the mica. These pigments will also act as inter-
ference pigments but will all have a red-yellow color,
which is the absorptive color inherent to iron oxide.
The resulting colors of the iron oxide-coated mica
pigments are bronze to copper-red and will have a
metallic luster. Combination pigments are pearles-
cence pigments that will have the coating of TiO2 but
Figure 11 Pearlescent pigment.
1147
will also have an additional layer of colored or ab-
sorptive pigment on the top and bottom of the TiO2-
mica pigment (Fig. 12). For instance, if iron oxide is
the absorptive pigment and the interference color
(from the TiO2) is yellow, the color seen with reflec-
tive light is gold.
Bismuth oxychloride is a crystal that may be used
alone to create pearlescent luster or can be deposited
on mica flakes. Microscopically, basic lead carbonate
appears as regular hexagonal crystals. These are
being phased out owing to concern regarding lead.
Natural pearlescence comes from crystals consisting
of the purines guanine and hypoanthine, crystallized
from fish scales and skins. Natural pearlescence is
primarily used in cosmetics.
Additives
Additives are substances added to the paint to provide
various properties. They include UV absorbers, hin-
dered amine light stabilizers and antioxidants, which
help protect the finish from the effects of UV radia-
tion. Driers used in alkyd and other oil systems are
additives. Wetting agents, such as carboxcylic acids
and sulfuric esters used in the pigment-grinding pro-
cess are also considered additives.
Solvents
The primary function of solvents is to aid in the
application of the coating and to regulate the rate of
evaporation, flow properties and viscosity. Solvents
include water, hydrocarbon solvents, terpene solvents
and oxygenated solvents. The forensic value of sol-
vents is limited, as most paint received as evidence is
in the form of a dry film. Properties that a paint
chemist must consider when choosing a solvent are,
among other things, solvency (the ability of a solvent
to dissolve or disperse a resin), volatility (the evapor-
ation rate), odor and toxicity. Due to more stringent
environmental regulations, the use of volatile organic
solvents is kept to a minimum. Reformulating the
solvent portion of the paint, along with more efficient
application techniques help paint manufacturers
and production facilities comply with Environmental
Protection Agency regulations.
Figure 12 Combination pearlescent pigment.
1148 PAINTS AND COATINGS/Commercial, Domestic and Automotive
Application Techniques
Coatings may be applied in many different ways.
Brushing or rolling is a basic technique for applying
a wet paint to a surface. There are various spray
techniques, including air (an air stream propels the
paint), airless (pressure propels the paint) and elec-
trostatic (the paint is given a negative charge as pres-
sure propels it on to a grounded substrate). All three
of these methods atomize the paint and propel it on to
a substrate. In the electrostatic spray methods the
paint is actually attracted to the substrate and there is
therefore less waste and easier clean-up (just wrap
everything in aluminum foil!). For plastic parts, a
conductive primer may be applied to the substrate.
Other forms of application are electrodeposition
and powder coating. Electrodeposition `electroplates'
the substrate with paint where the substrate is either
the anode or the cathode. The process occurs in the
following manner: an object is dipped into a tank
filled with paint and the current is activated. The
paint then deposits on to the substrate, covering every
conductive area of the surface with a uniform coat.
The uniformity in film thickness is a property of the
electrical potential used. The coated object is then
usually placed in an oven.
Powder coating is an efficient method of depositing
a coating on to a surface without the use of solvents.
In this application technique the `paint' is in the form
of a powder manufactured by mixing a `dry mix' of
the resin, pigments, additives and fillers. These are
then melted into a melt-mix. The melt-mix is then
cooled, flaked and milled into a powder. The types of
resin systems used can be thermoplastic systems, such
as polypropylene, polyethylene, nylon and polyester,
but polyvinyl chloride is most commonly used. The
thermosetting resin systems used are epoxy, epoxy-
polyester, polyester-urethane, polyester-glycidyl and
acrylic-urethane. The application of the powder is
achieved by using a fluidized bed system, electrostatic
fluidized bed system and electrostatic spray. The
fluidized bed system calls for two chambers stacked
on top of one another: a plenum and a coating cham-
ber which are separated by a porous plate (porous
enough for air flow but not to let the powder escape).
Compressed air is fed into the plenum and passed
through the porous plate into the coating chamber to
Paternity Testing see Deoxyribonucleic Acid: Parentage Testing.
fluidize the powder. The substrate is then heated to a
temperature slightly higher than the fusion point of
the resin system used. When the substrate is exposed
to the powder coating, the powder melts on to the
substrate. In the electrostatic fluidized bed system the
air in the plenum is ionized, it flows up into the
coating chamber. In this system the substrate need
not be preheated. Electrostatic spraying is the most
widely used method. In common with conventional
electrostatic liquid spraying, the particles are charged
and the substrate is grounded, except that the coating
is a powder instead of liquid. The powder that is not
deposited on the substrate is reclaimed and reused.
See also: Accident Investigation: Motor Vehicle. Analy-
tical Techniques: Separation Techniques. Crime-scene
Investigation and Examination: Recovery of Human
Remains. Microchemistry.
Further Reading
Allen RA (1981) Epoxy Resins in Coatings. Philadelphia:
Federation of Societies for Coatings Technology.
Allyn G (1971) Acrylic Resins. Philadelphia: Federation of
Societies for Paint Technology.
Brezinski D (1998) Lecture notes and information from the
workshop `Industrial Perspectives on Paint & Glass'.
Chenier P (1991) Survey of Industrial Chemistry. Malabar,
FL: Krieger.
Del Donno T (1988) Waterborne coating outlook bright.
Industrial Finishing. December:28±33.
Federation of Coatings Technology (1995) SciQuest vol. I.
CD-ROM from Consolidated Research. Federation of
Societies for Coatings Technology, Bluebell, PA.
Greenstein LM (1988) Nacreous (Pearlescent) Pigments
and Interference Pigments, vol. I, 2nd edn. New York:
Wiley.
Lewis P (ed.) (1988) Pigment Handbook, vols IIII. New
York: Wiley.
McDonald R (1971) Phenolic Resins. Philadelphia: Fed-
eration of Societies for Coatings Technology.
Rice P and Werley W (1986) Modern powder coating
manufacturing. Industrial Finishing November:23±25.
Rodriguez F (1989) Principles of Polymer Systems, 3rd
edn. New York: Hemisphere.
Ryland S (1988) Lecture notes and information from the
workshop `Forensic Examination of Paint & Glass'.
Saferstein R (ed.) (1982) Forensic Science Handbook.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.