Fundamentals of Aeronautical Engineering

(Questions with Answers)

(Subject Coordinator: E.Churchil)
PART - A

1. Biplanes:

Type of airplane in which two wings are placed one above the other to increase the lift produced with
minimum speed. (e.g) Wright Flyer – I

2. Monoplanes

Type of airplane in which only one wings will be there placed along the lateral axis of aircraft.(e.g) most
modern air crafts are monoplanes.

3. Biplane interference:

The condition in a biplane in which the high pressure on under surface of upper wing low pressure on upper
surface of lower using, results in interference between two wings. Thus lift is reduced.

4. An ornithopter:-

The concepts of wings flapped up and down by various mechanical mechanisms, powered by some type of human
arm, leg or lady movement was given by Leonardo da vinci in late 15th century. This is termed as ornithopter.

5. Triplane:

Type of airplane in which three wings are placed one above the other. The wings are called as low wing, mid
wing and shoulder wing.

6. Differentiate between Monoplanes and Biplanes.

Monoplanes
a) Only one wing is present.
b) Lift produced will be loss compared to biplane
c) Biplane interference will not occur
Biplanes
Two wings placed one above other. They are
a) Upper wing and
b) Lower wing lift produced will be high but not
exactly double the monoplane
Biplane interference will occur

7. Differentiate between Lighter than Aeroplanes and Heavier than Aeroplanes.

Lighter than Airplanes Heavier than Airplanes

Based on Archimedes principles. Based on lift produced by a moving body.
Pay load is very less control and manocurve is tedius Payload is very high control and maneuver is simple.
 Engines are not used for propulsion Engines are used for propulsion.

8. What is the difference between Airmen and Chauffeurs?

Airmen Chauffeurs
a) Air man are those who recognized the need to get a) Chauffeurs are those who just make engine
up in the air, fly around with gliders and obtain and fix, in air frame and gets into air.
the feel of an airplane before engine was used for
powered flight.
b) They are interested in flight control in air b) They interested in thrust and light.

9. Whirling arm apparatus.

Whirling arm apparatus is the one which is used by cay by to test air foils. This is nothing but a airfoil
mounted on the end of a long rod, which was rotated at some speed to generate a flow of air over airfoil, which
allowed the measurement of aerodynamic forces and centre of pressure on lifting surface.

10. Glider:
Gliders are un powered airframes, which has very large lift producing surfaces and less weight.

11. Four forces acting on an aero plane.

i) lift - Perpendicular to direction of relative wind
ii) Drag - Parallel to direction of relative wind
iii) Thrust - produces forward motion
iv) Weight - force of gravity

12. Lift:
A force on airplane which is perpendicular to the direction of relative wind and opposite in
the direction of weight in level flight.

13. Drag:
A force acting on aero plan, which is parallel to the direction of relative wind a opposite
to thrust direction under level flight.

14. Composition of aluminum alloy used in modern aircraft.

i) Duralumin ii) Jn Bocing 747

Al-93.5% Al-80%
Cu-4.4% Steel-17%
Mn-1.5% Titanium-3%
Mg-0.6%

15. How aircrafts propelled during early days?

Some basic propulsion methods are

i) Paddle wheel mechanism

 ii) Steam engine
iii) Flapper using type
iv) Reciprocating engine, etc.
PART - B

DEVELOPMENTS IN PROPULSION AND MATERIALS:-

Human effort to fly literally got off the ground on November 21, 1783, when a balloon carrying Pilatre de
Rozier and Marquis d‟ Arlandes ascended into the air and drifted 5 miles across Paris. The balloon was inflated and
buoyed up by hot air from an open fire burning in a large wicker basket underneath. It was the first time humans had
been lifted off the ground for a sustained period of time.

In 1799, Sir George Cay by used a paddle wheel mechanism for the propulsion of his aero plane. He also
stated that lift is generated by a region of low pressure on the upper surface of using.

In 1810, the first successful airship, propelled by a steam engine was built.

In 1849, he built and tested a full – size airplane of trip lane type called “The Boy carrier” and the vertical and
horizontal fail surfaces are made and propulsive mechanism is flapper wing type.

William Samuel Hendon (1812-1888) was contemporary of cay by. In April 1843, he published in England a
design for a fixed using airplane powered by steam engine driving two propelled called the aerial steam carriage. In
this type the engine is inside a closed fuselage, driving two propellers.

In 1857, Felix Du Temple made the first successful powered model airplane in monoplane type swept.
Forward wings and was powered by lock work.

In 1874, In Temple achieved the world first powered take off by a piloted, full size airplane; it was powered
by some type of hot air engined.

In 1884 Alexander F. Mozhaiski designed a steam powered monoplane,

In 1893, lilienthal build a powered machine; however, the prime mover was carbonic acid gas motor that
twisted six states at each using tip, obviously an ornithoptes type ideal to mimic the natural mode of propulsion for
birds.

In 1897, Hawk was designed with 4hp engine weighing about 40lt, driving a 5-ft diameter propeller by
pitcher.

In 1905 samuel Pierpont Langley designed and builded a series of powered aircraft which finally culminated
in two attempted piloted flights.
 Caylay build a large whirling arm, powered by a steam engine, with which he made force test on airfoils. He
then build nearly 100 different types of rubber – band – powered model airplanes, graduating to steam – powered
models in 1892.

It had two propellers between the wings, powered by a 1-hp steam engines of langley‟s own design.

Departing from his earlier use of steam Langley correctly decided that the gasoline fueled engine was the
proper prime mover for air craft. The first commissioned Stephan Balzer of New York to produce such an engine. The
resulting engine produced 52.4 hp and yet weighted only 208 lt.

Using 1.5-hp gasoline fueled engine he made successful flight with quarter scale size. In 1903, Willbar‟s

build theirs own engine of 12 hp and 200 lp weight.

In Wright flyer I, the spectacular gasoline fueled Wright engine, driving two pushes propellers. By means of
bicycle type chains.

In 1905, the advanced propellers are used in flyer III

During 1905 to 1908, wright‟s atleast would have designed six new engines.

In 1909, the European designers were quick to adopt the long, slender shape wright‟s propeller, different from
wide paddle like shape

The efficiency of propeller used to 76%

DEVELOPMENTS IN STRUCTURE OVER THE YEARS:-

The idea of flying come to human from birds. The early Greek myth of Daedalus and his son I carus.
Imprisoned on the Island of Crete. Daedalus and his son made flying model both escaped from prison.

Leonardo da Vinci has designed many ornithopters during 15th century it is a human powered flight by
flapping wing.

George Cayley in 1799 gave concept of fixed using for generating lift, a paddles for a propulsion and
combined horizontal and vertical (cruciform) tail for stability. In 1804, he built a whirling – arm apparatus for testing
air foils similar to wind tunnels and also designed a model glider. He represented first modern – configuration of air
plane with a fixed wing and horizontal and vertical tail.

In 1809 cayley explained that when surface inclined at some angle to the direction of motion will generate lift
and that a cambered surface will do this more efficiently than a flat surface. For first time in history that lift is
generated by a region of low pressure on the upper surface of the using.
 The first successful air ship, propelled by a steam by a steam engine, was built by Henri Gifford in Paris in 1852
in 1849, he built and tested a full – size airplane.

The modulation are

i) A main using at an angle of incidence for lift, with a dihedral for lateral stability
ii) An adjustable cruciform tail for longitudinal directional stability.
iii) A pilot – operated elevator and rudder
iv) A fuselage in the form of a car, with a pilot‟s seat and three – wheel under carriage
v) A tubular beam and box beam construction.
vi) Tricycle landing gear

In 1857, Felix Du temple made a monoplane with swept- forward wings and in 1884 he made steam powered
plane

In 1866, Francis H. wenhem published paper, in that most of the lift of a wing was obtained from the portion near
the leading edge and using with high aspect ratio was the most efficient for producing lift.

In 1891, otto lilienthal designed and flow the first successful controlled gliders in history with birdlike platform of
the using lilienthal used cambered (carried) airfoil shaped on the using and incorporated vertical and horizontal tail
planes in the back for stability.

In 1896, Chanute designed a hang gliders and biplane glider which introduced by the effective platt truss method
of structural rigging.

In 1903, Langley stepped directly to the full size airplane. He mounted this on tandem winged aircraft on a
catapult to provide an assisted take off.

In willur‟s model the use of using twist to control airplane in lateral (rolling) motion and aibrons are used on
modern airplanes for this purpose, willur wined the term using warping and led to their first aircraft, a trip lane kite
with using span of 5 ft in 1899.

A full size biplane glider was ready by September 1900, it had 17 ft using span and a horizontal elevator in front
of the wings, and was usually flows on strings from the ground.

In 1901, Glider 2 was made of larger using span of 22-ft using span. In 1902, they

made about 200 different airfoil shapes.

In September 20, 1902 number 3 glider of biplane type flow with wing span of 32-ft 1- inch, with modification in
vertical rudder behind the wings.

In 1903, they made wright flyer I of using span 40 feet 4 inch and used double rubber behind the wings and a
double elevator in front of the wings.
 In 1904, wright flyer II made with a smaller using camber (airfoil curvature) and a more powerful and efficient
engine.

In 1905, with more progress flyer III with slightly lower using area, increased airfoil camber, large biplane
elevator, double rubber and improved propellers was made.

In 1909, Henri Farman III introduced flap like ailerons at the trailing edge near wing tips, ailerons quickly became
the favored mechanical means for lateral control, continuing to present day.

Thus the structure of air craft have attained several stages of improvements and made into a fine structure with
high rigid strength and very less drag for effective airborne of air craft.

MATERIALS:

Some of the materials commonly used in flight structures.

Aluminium:

It is the most widely used material in aircraft structures. Modern commercial transports such as Boeing 749
use aluminum for about 80% of the structure. Al in reality formed and machined has reasonable cost is corrosion –
resistant, and has an excellent strength – to – weight ratio. In its pure from Al in two self for aircraft use. Therefore
alloys of Al are used, the most common being Al 2024, an alloy consisting of 93.5%. Al, 4.4% cu, 1.5% Mn and 0.6%
Mg. this alloy is also called duralumin. The first metal covered airplanes were designed by Miyo Junkens. In 1914. He
finet used all steel, which proved to be too heavy, In 1915, he turned to the use of duralumin.

Steel:-

For a typical commercial transport, steel makes up about 17% of the structure. If in used in those areas
requiring very high strength, such as wing attachment fittings, landing gears, engines fittings, and flap tracks steel in
an alloy of iron and carbon, typical steel alloys have about 1% carbon. Stainless steel is an alloy of steel and
chromium that has good corrosion resistant properties.

Titanium:

Titanium has a better strength- to – weight ratio than aluminum and retains its strength at higher temperatures
however it is hard to form and machine and in expensive, costing about 5 to 10 times more than Al. But some
supersonic air craft have to use titanium because of the high skin temperatures due to aerodynamic heating.

High temperature Nickel alloys:

The hypersonic airplanes require advanced, high – temperature materials to withstand the high rates of
aerodynamic heating at hypersonic speeds. Some nickel – based alloys are capable of withstanding the temperatures
associated with moderate hypersonic speeds.
 The hypersonic aircraft X-15 made by usage of inconel, a nickel – based alloy.

Composites:

Composites materials can yield at least a 25% reduction in weight. Composites are quite different from
metals, in both their composition and physical properties.

Generally composites mean “made up of distinct components”.

For example, the Lockheed–martin F-22 has 28% of its structure made up of composite material with 33% Al,
24% Ti, 5% steel and 10% miscellaneous.

Biplanes:

Biplanes are plane using two aerofoils one placed above other. It is naturally come from birds but the biplane
idea seems to be a purely man made invention, though some naturalists claim that there are biplane insects. At any rate
of, the first plane to fly was a biplane, so the idea is at least as old as the history of flight.

A very large wing areas are required for flight, and advantage of the biplane was that this large area could
arranged in a more compact fashion, making the finished airplane more convenient to handle both on the ground and
in the air. The biplane structure seemed more suited than the monoplane to give as what we most required. Strength
without weight so far the biplane seemed to have all the advantages why then, has it proved the loser in the long run.

It is as a wing, as an aerofoil, that the monoplane has always been superior. Remembering how the pressure is
distributed round a wing section let us put two such section let us put two such sections together, one above the other,
and observe the effect. The increase pressure on the under surface of the upper wing is not to so effective as it was
when it was alone – still less is the decreased pressure. Above the lower wing so effective; thus both upper and lower
wings suffer. There is in fact, an interference between the two wings and this is called bipolar interference. Another
way of thinking of it is to consider the induced drag, which is greater on a biplane – with its four wing tips-than on a
monoplane of the same wing area and so the overall lift 1 drag ratio of the monoplane is better than that of the bipolar.
The biplane enthusiasts full of confidence owing to the structural superiority of the bipolar persistently endeavored to
minimize this disadvantage.

To eliminate the interference by staggering the planes. That is separating them horizontally rather than vertically.

 When the leading edge of the upper plane was infront of the leading edge of the lower plane it was called
forward (or) positive stagger.
 When behind it, it was called back ward (or) Negative stagger.

Wright Brothers contribution and their development in obtaining their successful flight

Wilbur and Oreille Wright – Inventors of the first practical airplane they are called the premier aeronautical
engineers of history.

Wilbur look up the study of bird flight as a guide on the path toward mechanical flight. Willur wrote to
smithronian institution in May 1899 for papers and books on aeronautics in turn her received a brief bibliography of
flying. This led to their first air craft, a biplane kite with a using spane of 5 ft in August 1899.

A full size biplane glider was ready by September 1900 and was flown in October of that year at kity Hawk. It had
a 17-ft using span and a horizontal elevator in front of the wings and was usually flown on strings from the ground.

Wilbur and Orville proceeded to build their number 2 glider moving their base of operations to kill Devils Hills, 4
miles south of kitty Hawk, they tested number 2 during July and August of 1901. This new glider was somewhat
larger, with a 22-ft wing span. As with all wright machines, it has a horizontal elevator in front of the wings.

The wrights were not lose to being satisfied with their results when they returned to Dayton after their 1901 tests
with the number 2 glider, both brothers began to suspect the existing data that appeared in the aeronautical literature.

Between September 1901 and August 1902 the wrights under took a major program of aeronautical research. They
built a wind tunnel in their bicycle shop in Dayton and tested more than 200 different airfoil shapes. They designed a
force balance to measure accurately the lift a drag.

The papers of Wilbur and Orville Wright in 1901 led to their number 3 glider, which was flown in 1902. It was so
successful. It first flew at kill Devil Hills on September 20, 1902. It was a biplane glider with a 32 ft 1-inch wing span,
the largest of Wright gliders to data.

After several modifications, the wrightor added a vertical ladder behind the wings. During 1902, they made more
than 1000 perfect flights. They set a distance record of 622.5 ft and a duration
record of 26s. In the process, both Wilbur and Orville become highly skilled and proficient pilots, something’s that
would later be envied worldwide.

They designed and burst their own engine during the winter months of 1903 It produced 12hp and weighed about
200lt. moreover, they conducted their own research which allowed them to design an effective propeller.

Wilbur and Orville built their flyer I from scratch during the summer of 1903. After Orville’s first flight on that
December 17, three more flight were made during the morning, the last covering 852 if an remaining in the air for 59s
the In may 1904, their second powered machine, the Wright flyer II was ready this air craft had a smaller wing camber
and more powerful and efficient engine. More progress was made in 1905. The Wright flyer III was ready by June.
The wing area was slightly smaller than that of the flyer II, the airfoil camber was increased back to what it had been
in 1903. biplane elevators was made larger and was placed.

Composites and advanced materials in aircraft

The Lockheed F-22 uses composites for at least a third of its structure.

For many years, aircraft designers could propose theoretical designs that they could not build because the
materials needed to construct them did not exist (The term “unobtainium” is sometimes used to identify materials that
are desired but not yet available.) For instance, large spaceplanes like the Space Shuttle would have proven extremely
difficult, if not impossible, to build without heat – resistant ceramic tiles to protect them during re – entry. And high –
speed forward-swept-wing airplanes like Grumman‟s experimental X-29 or the Russian Sukhoi S-27 Berkut would
not have been possible without the development of composite materials to keep their wings from bending out of shape.

Composites are the most important materials to be adapted for aviation since the use of aluminium in the
1920s. Composites are materials that are combinations of two or more organic or inorganic components. One material
serves as a “matrix,” which is the material that holds everything together, while the other materials serves as a
reinformcement, in the form of fibres embedded in the matrix. until recently, the most common matrix materials were
”thermosetting” materials such as epoxy, bismaleimide, or polymide. The reinforcing materials can be glass fibre,
boron fibre, carbon fibre, or other more exoitic mixtures.
 Fiberglas is the most common composite material, and consists of glass fibres embedded in a resin matrix.
Fiberglas was first used widely in the 1950s for boats and automobiles, and today most cars have fiberglass bumpers
covering a steel frame Fiberglas was first used in the boeing 707 passenger jet in the 1950s, where it comprised about
two percent of the structure. By the 1960s, other composite materials became available, in particular boron fibre and
graphite, embedded in epoxy resins. The U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy began research into using these materials for
aircraft control surfaces like ailerons and rudders. The first major military production use of boron fibre was for the
horizontal stabilizers on the Navy‟s F-14 Tomcat interceptor. By 1981, the British Aerospace-McDonnell Douglas
AV-8B Harrier flew with over 25 percent of its structure made of composite materials.

Making composite structures is more complex than manufacturing most metal structures. To make a
composite structure, the composite material, in tape or fabric form, is laid out and put in a mould under heat and
pressure. The resin matrix material flows and when the heat is removed, it solidifies. It can be formed into various
shapes. In some cases, the fibres are wound tightly to increase strength. One useful feature of composites is that they
can be layered, with the fibres in each layer running in a different direction. This allows materials engineers to design
structures that behave in certain ways. For instance, they can design a structure that will bend in one direction, but not
another. The designers of the Grumman X-29 experimental plane used this attribute of composite materials to design
forward – step wings that did not bend up at the tips like metal wings of the same shape would have bent in flight.

The greatest value of composite materials is that they can be both lightweight and strong. The heavier an
aircraft weighs, the more fuel it burns, so reducing weight is important to aeronautical engineers.

Despite their strength and low weight, composites have not been a miracle solution for aircraft structures.
Composites are hard to inspect for flaws. Some of them absorb moisture. Most importantly, they can be expensive,
primarily because they are labour intensive and often require complex and expensive fabrication machines.
Aluminium, by contrast, is easy to manufacture and repair. Anyone who has ever gotten into a minor car accident has
learned that dented metal can be hammered back into shape, but a crunched fiberglass bumper has to be completely
replaced. The same is true for many composite materials used in aviation.

Modern airliners use significant amounts of composites to achieve lighter weight. About ten percent of the
structural weight of the Boeing 777, for instance, is composite material. Modern military aircraft, such as the F-22, use
composites for at least a third of their structures, and some experts have predicted that future military aircraft will be
more than two – thirds composite materials. But for now, military aircraft use substantially greater percentages of
composite materials than commercial passenger aircraft primarily because of the different ways that commercial and
military aircraft are maintained.

Aluminum is a very tolerant material and can take a great deal of punishment before it fails. It can be dented
or punctured and still hold together. Composites are not like this. If they are damaged, they require immediate repair,
which is difficult and expensive. An airplane made entirely from aluminium can be repaired almost anywhere. This is
not the case for composite materials, particularly as they use different and more exotic materials. Because of this,
composites
will probably always be used more in military aircraft, which are constantly being maintained, than in commercial
aircraft, which have to require less maintenance.

Thermoplastics are a relatively new material that is replacing thermosets as the matrix material for
composites. They hold much promise for aviation applications. One of their big advantages is that they are easy to
produce. They are also more durable and tougher than thermosets, particularly for light impacts, such as when a
wrench dropped on a wing accidentally. The wrench could easily crack a thermoset material but would bounce off a
thermoplastic composite material.

In addition to composites, other advance materials are under development for aviation. During the 1980s,
many aircraft designers became enthusiastic about ceramics, which seemed particularly promising for lightweight jet
engines, because they could tolerate hotter temperatures than conventional metals. But their brittleness and difficulty
to manufacture ewer major draw backs, and research on ceramics for many aviation applications decreased by the
1990s.

Many modern light aircraft are constructed in composite material such as this Glasair

Aluminium still remains a remarkably useful material for aircraft structures and metallurgists have worked
hard to develop better aluminium alloys (a mixture of aluminium and other materials). In particular, aluminium-
lithium is the most successful of these alloys. It is approximately ten percent lighter than standard aluminium.
Beginning in the later 1990s it was used for the Space Shuttle‟s large External Tank in order to reduce weight and
enable the shuttle to carry more payload. Its adoption by commercial aircraft manufacturers has been slower, however,
due to the expense of lithium and the greater difficulty of using aluminium lithium (in particular, it requires
much care during welding). But it is likely that aluminium lithium will eventually become a widely used material for
both commercial and military aircraft.

Aircraft Structural Design

Introduction

Although the major focus of structural design in the early development of aircraft was on strength, now
structural designers also deal with fail – safety, fatigue, corrosion, maintenance and inspectablility, and producability.

EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN AERODYNAMICS

Aerodynamics, literally “air in motion,” is the branch of the larger field of fluid dynamics that deals with the
motion of air and other gaseous fluids. It concerns the forces that these gaseous fluids, and particularly air, exert on
bodies moving through it. Without the science of aerodynamics, modem flight would be impossible.

The word “aerodynamics” itself was not officially documented until 1837. However, the observation of fluids
and their effect on objects can be traced back to the Greek philosopher. Aristotle in 350 B.C. Aristotle conceived the
notion air has weight and observed that a body moving through a fluid encounters resistance.

Archimedes another Greek philosopher, also has a place in the history of aerodynamics. A hundred years later,
in 250 B.C, her presented his law of floating bodies that formed a basic principle of lighter-than-air vehicles. He stated
that a fluid –either in liquid or a gaseous form – is continuous, basically restating Aristotle‟s theory of a hundred years
earlier. He comprehended that every point on the surface of a body immersed in a fluid was subject to some force due
to the fluid. He stated that, in a fluid, “each part is always pressed by the whole weight of the column perpendicularly
above it. “He observed that the pressure exerted on an object immersed in a fluid is directly proportional to its depth in
the fluid. In other words, the deeper the objects is in the fluid, the greater the pressure on it. Deep-sea divers, who have
to accustom themselves to changes in pressure both on the way does into the sea and again on the way up to the
surface, directly experience this phenomenon.

Leonardo da vinci sketched various flow fields over objects in a flowing stream.
 A direct proportional relationship means that it one part increases, the other will increase by the same factor.
Physicists and mathematicians use the Greek letter alpha ( ) to denote such a relationship. Applied to pressure and
depth, if the depth of an object is doubled, the pressure exerted on the object would double as well (Depth Pressure).
The opposite would also be true. As altitude increases (negative depth), pressure decreases. Archimedes also
demonstrated that, in order to set a stagnant fluid in motion, the pressure on the fluid must be increased or decreased.
The resultant movement will take place in the direction of the decreasing pressure.

The next contribution to aerodynamics did not occur until the end of the 1400s. In 1490, the Italian painter,
sculptor, and thinker Leonardo da vinci began documenting his aerodynamic theories and ideas for flying machines in
personal notebooks. An avid observer of birds and nature, he first believed the birds fly by flapping their wings, and
thought that this motion would have to occur for manmade aircraft to rise. He later correctly concluded that the
flapping of the wings created forward motion, and this forward motion allowed air to pass across the bird‟s wings to
create lift. It was the movement of the wing relative to the air and the resulting reaction that produced the lift
necessary to fly. As a result of his studies, he designed several ornithopters – machines that were intended to copy the
action of a bird‟s wing with the muscle power being supplied by man. But these designs did not leave the drawing
board. His other designs included those for the first helicopter and a parachute.

Leonardo da Vinci’s ornithopters design

Leonardo noticed another phenomenon that would prove useful in the study of aerodynamics. He noticed that
water in a river moved faster- at a greater velocity- where the river narrowed. In numerical terms, the area of a cross
section of a river multiplied by the velocity of the water flowing through that section equals the same number at any
point in the river. This is known as the law of continuity (Area Velocity=constant or AV=constant). The law
of continuity demonstrates the conservation of mass, which is a fundamental principal in modem aerodynamics. He
also observed the different ways in which a fluid flowed around and object- called a flow field.

Leonardo also stated that the aerodynamic results are the same if an object moves through the fluid at a given
velocity or if the fluid flows past the object at rest at the same velocity. This became known as the “wind tunnel
principal.” For example, the results are the same aerodynamically whether a runner moves at 10 miles per hour in
calm air and if the wind is blowing at 10 miles per hour past a stationary person. He also determined that drag on an
object
is directly proportional to the area of the object. The greater the area of an object, the greater the drag. Further,
Leonardo pointed out the benefits of streamlining as a way to reduce an object‟s drag.

However, Leonardo’s notebooks were not discovered until centuries later, and his ideas remained unknown
until the 19th century.

Scientists working in the 17th century contributed several theories relating to drag. The Italian mathematician
and inventor Galileo Galilel built on Archimedes‟ work and discovered that the drag exerted on a body from a moving
fluid is directly proportional to density of the fluid. Density describes the mass or an object per unit volume. A very
dense fluid produces more drag on objects passing through it than a less dense fluid. The density of air (a fluid)
changes with its distance from the Earth‟s surface, becoming less dense the farther it is above the Earth‟s surface and,
as such, exerting less pressure. Thus, an object passing through air high above the Earth‟s surface will encounter less
drag than the same object passing through air close to the Earth‟s surface.

In 1673, the French scientist Edme Manotte demonstrated that drag is proportional to the square of the
velocity of an object (D V2). Dutch mathematician Christiaan Huygens had been testing this theory since 1669 and
published his results with the same conclusion in 1690. The English scientist and mathematician Sir Isaag Newton
presented a derivation of the drag equation of a body in 1687: Drag SV 2(where is density and S is cross – sectional
area of the body.)

In 1738, the Dutch scientist Daniel Bemouli published his findings on the relationship between pressure and
velocity in flowing fluids. Other scientists used his research as a foundation for further research. The French scientist
Jean le Rond d‟Alembert, an associate of Benmouli‟s, introduced a model for fluid flows and an equation for the
principle of the conservation of mass. He further presented the idea that velocity and acceleration can vary between
different points in fluid flow. (Remember that air is a fluid).

Benjamin Robins, the British mathematician, proved that air resistance was a critical factor in the flight of
projectiles in 1746. His apparatus consisted of a whirling arm device in which weight (M) turned a drum and
rotated the test object (P).

Swis mathematician Leonha.d Euler, also an associate of Bernoulli, derived equations from Bemouili‟s and
d‟Alembert‟s principles. The most famous of these became known us “Bemoulli‟s Principle.” It states that, in a
flowing fluid, as velocity increases, pressure decreases. This became
a key concept for understanding how lift is created. Euler also introduced equations for fluid flow, though at the time
they could not be solved and applied.

Italian mathematician Joseph Lagrange and French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace studied Euler‟s
findings and tried to solve his equations. In 1788, Lagrange introduced a new model for fluid flow as well as new
equations for calculating velocity and pressure. In 1789, Laplace developed an equation that would help solve Euler‟s
equations. It is still used in modem aerodynamics and physics. Laplace also successfully calculated the speed of sound.

In addition to these theoretical advancements, experiments in aerodynamics were also producing more
practical results. In 1732, the French chemist Henri Pilot invented the Pilot tube, a device that enables the calculation
of velocity at a point in a flowing fluid. This would help explain the behavior of fluid flow. The English engineer
Benjamin Robins performed experiments in 1746 using a whirling arm device and a pendulum to measure drag at low
and high speeds.

In 1759, the English engineer John Snmeaton also used a whirling arm device to measure the drag exerted on
a surface by moving air. He proposed the equation D=kSV2, where D is the drag, S is the surface area, V is the air
velocity, and k is a constant, which Smeaton claimed was necessary in the equation. This constant became known as
Smeatorn‟s coefficient, and the value of this constant was debated for years. Those making the first attempts at flight,
including the Wright brothers, used this coefficient. The French scientist Jean-charies Borda published the results of
his own whirling arm experiments in 1763. Borda verified and proposed modifications to current aerodynamic theories
and was able to show the effect that the movement of one object had on another nearby object.

Sir George Cayley of England is generally recognized at the father of modem aerodynamics. He understood
the basic forces acting on a wing and built a glider with awing and a tail unit that new successfully, he realized the
importance of the wing angle of attack and that curved surfaces (camber) would produced more limit than flat one.
Stability in his designs came with the use of dihedral – an important concept still used today He first made public the
notion that a fixed-wing aircraft was possible in 1804 in his major publication, “On Aerial Navigation,” which
described the theoretical problems of flight.

The contributions of all of these thinkers, mathematicians, and scientists are part of the foundation of the
science of aerodynamics. They paved the way for the aerodynamic developments that would occur during the
nineteenth century, as well as for those who would eventually achieve heavier than air flight.
 PART – A

1. List out the different classifications of flight vehicles.

AIRCRAFT

LIGATER – THAN – AIR HEAVIER – THAN – AIR

Power – Driven Non-power – Driven Man-power – Driven

2. Differentiate between a gyroplane and a helicopter.

Helicopter Gyroplane

Rotor power driven Rotor not power driven

3. Explain how an airship or balloon is kept in the air.

By Archimedes principle, when a body is immersed in a fluid, a force acts upwards upon if helping to support
its weight, and this upwards force is equal to the weight of the fluid which is displaced by body.

4. State the two kinds of aircraft.

AIRCRAFT

LIGHTER – THAN – AIR HEAVIER – THAN – AIR

5. What are the basic instruments of flying?

1. Altimeter
2. Air speed indicator
3. Mach Indicator
4. Turn and slip indicator
5. Artificial horizon.
6. What are the three main control surfaces used in an aircraft?

Elevator
Rudder
Aileron

7. What is the purpose of elevator?

The elevators are control surfaces that control the nose up – and – down pitching motion. When the deflected
downward the cost on the tail is increased, pulling the tail up and the nose of the airplane down.

8. Name the secondary control surfaces used in an aircraft.

 Slats
 Flaps
 Spoilers
 Trim tab

9. What is the purpose of rudder and ailerons?

Rudder:

The rudder is a control surface that control surface that can turn the nose of the airplane to the right or left
(called yawing).

Ailerons:

The ailerons are control surfaces that control the rolling motion of the airplane around the fuselage.

Example:

When left aileron is deflected downward and the right aileron is deflect upwards, lift is increased on the left
wing and decreased on the right wing, causing the airplane to roll to the rich.

Auxiliary airfoil surface, mounted forward of a main airfoil, to maintain a smooth airflow over the main
airfoil upper surface.

10. What are called Slats and what is its function?

Auxiliary air foil surface, mounted forward of a main air foil, to maintain a smooth air flow over the main air
foil upper surface.
Briefly explain about the Altimeter and air speed indicator. The

Altimeter

The word “altimeter” means “height measurer.” Would that the instrument were true to its name! The so-
called altimeter which is used in aero planes is nothing more or less than an aneroid barometer, such as is used to
measure the pressure of the atmosphere for the purpose of forecasting the weather. The only real modification is that
the dial is marked in thousands of feet instead of in inches or millimeters of mercury, and this makes it just about as
capable of measuring the height as the barometer is of foretelling the weather. What it does do is to record the
pressure. As we go up, the pressure goes down, because there is less weight of air on top of us; but unfortunately the
rate at which the pressure goes down varies from day to day, depending chiefly on the temperature and other effects,
which also vary from day to day. Thus it is impossible to mark off or calibrate the scale of an altimeter so that each
pressure corresponds to a definite height; the best that can be done is to assume some average set of conditions of
temperature and pressure, to mark the scale of the instrument to suit these conditions, and then correct the readings for
any large departure from such standard conditions.

This set of average conditions has been laid down, and, as mentioned in Section 4, is called the International
Standard Atmosphere (fig). When an aeroplane makes a test flight, or some attempt on an altitude record, the height
which counts is not the height reached according to the altimeter, nor is it the actual height above the ground; it is the
height which we estimate it would have reached had the conditions of the atmosphere all the way up corresponded to
those of the Standard Atmosphere. It is not a very satisfactory state of affairs, but we cannot do any better until we can
devise an instrument which will really measure height, instead of just pressure.

Not only does an altimeter fail to record the correct height when flying, but it does not necessarily read zero
when at sea level, since the atmospheric pressure varies considerably from time to the at the earth‟s surface. After all,
that is how a bareometer works, and the altimeter is only a barometer. For this reason, altimeters are fitted with an
adjustment so that they can be made to read zero (or the height of the aerodrome) before starting on a flight. It does
onto by any means follow that they will read zero on return to earth. In a flight of a few hours there may be
considerable change in atmospheric pressure, and there is also a certain amount of lag in the instrument. For these
reasons it is very important when flying over high ground or mountainous districts in foggy weather not to put too
much faith in the altimeter. Although this is usually impressed upon pilots, accidents have occurred from this cause.

Modern altimeters are very much more sensitive than the old types. Some of them have three hands, one
making a complete revolution every 1,000 ft, the next one every 10,000 it, and the third in 100, 000 ft. There is hardly
any lag in such an instrument; in fact, such sensitivity would be of no advantage if there were any serious lag.
Another refinement is that, instead of turning the dial to set the zero, the pointers are moved, and when they read zero
a little window at
the bottom of the instrument gives the reading of the barometer. A great advantage of this method is that if one can
find out, by radio or other means, the reading of the barometer at any aerodrome at which one wishes to land, one has
only to set this reading on the altimeter and, one has only to set this reading on the altimeter and, whatever may be the
altitude of the aerodrome, the hands will all point to zero or, by an alternative setting, to the correct height of the
airfield, when the aircraft touches the ground. This is a great help in instrument flying.

But, however sensitive the barometric type of altimeter may be, it still cannot measure true height in the
atmosphere, except under a very unlikely set of standardized conditions.

Is it possible, then, to measure the true height of an aircraft above sea level? In certain instances it can be done
by taking three simultaneous sight from the ground, or by various radio and radar devices, or by some echo system
such as is used for submarines.

But, for most purposes, the altimeter, the aneroid barometer, with all its faults still holds its own, and though
we never know how high we are flying we can either assume ignorance and hope that the altimeter is right, or we can
try to be very clever and work out how high we ought to be. Special “computers” are provided for this purpose.

The Air-Speed Indicator

Throughout the book we have talked of air speed, and we have repeatedly noticed the close connection with
angle of attack. In taking off, climbing, straight and level flight, turning, gliding, and landing, there is a best speed for
each, while for the purpose of flying from one place to another the navigator must known both the air speed of the
aeroplane and the velocity of the wind. It is true that he would prefer to know the ground speed, but no instrument can
be devised to measure this directly, and the pilot much prefers to know his air speed.

The usual type of air-speed indicator consists of a thin corrugated metal box very like that used in an aneroid
barometer. At some convenient place on the aeorplane, where it will be exposed to the wind yet not affected by
slipstream or other interference, is placed the pitoot-static head Fig.

Figure: Pilot-static head

This consists of two tubes, one of which has an open end facing the air flow-called a pilot tube. The other is
closed at the end, but along the sides are several small holes which allow the
atmospheric pressure to enter, and this tube is called the static tube. In modern types the two tubes are often combined
into one, the static tube concentric with the pitot tube, and outside it (fig).

Figure: Concentric pitot-static tube

Sometimes the pressure near the pitot tube is by no means atmospheric, and the static pressure is taken from
some other part of the aeroplane altogether. But wherever the pitot head, and the static vent, may be, metal tubing is
used to communicate the pressures to the instrument in the pilot‟s cockpit, the pitot tube being connected to one side
of the metal box and the static to the other. When the aeroplane is at rest relative to the air, the ordinary atmospheric
pressure will be communicated by the tubes to both sides of the box and the instrument needle will be at “o”, but when
traveling through the air the pitot, or open, tube will record a higher pressure, depending on the air speed, while the
static tube will still record the atmospheric pressure. The instrument then reads the difference between these two
pressure which is automatically translated by the dial into miles per hour or knots.

The pressure on the pitoto tube, just like all air resistances, will go up in proportion to the square of the speed,
e.g. at twice the speed to pressure will be four times as much, and thus we can understand why the numbers round the
dial of the instrument, 50, 60, 70, m.p.h., and so on, are not equally spaced.

When we fly higher, the density of the air will become less, and since the difference between the two
pressures depends on the density as well as on the air speed, the indicator will read incorrectly, we call the speed
recorded by the instrument the indicated air speed, and the real air speed the true air speed. The error is quite
appreciable; for instance, when the indicator reads 100 m.p.h. at 30,000 ft, the true air speed is about 160 m.p.h., and
at 40,000 ft a reading of 100 m.p.h. on the instrument means that we are really traveling at more than 200 m.p.h.

There is, however, rather an interesting point about this incorrect reading of the air-speed indicator at height.
Just in the same proportion as the pressure on the metal box is reduced by the smaller air density, so is the lift on the
wings correspondingly reduced, and thus a higher speed is necessary to support the aeroplane in flight. Therefore the
stalling speed of the aeroplane will increase with height, but at this increased speed the air-speed indicator will
continue to read, when the aeroplane is about to stall, the same stalling speed as when near the ground. The error, in
other words, has a distinct advantage from the pilot‟s point of view in that, whatever the height the aeroplane stalls at
the same indicated speed. Other speeds of flight, such as the speed for maximum range, are affected in the same way.
True air speed can be measured by a system of rotating vanes or cups called an anemometer. This instrument
is used at meteorological stations for measuring wind velocity, but it is not very satisfactory for use on aircraft. For
navigational purposes elaborate instruments have been devised for measuring true speed, but they are outside the
scope of this book.

Describe about the primary control surface in detail.

There are three basic control on an airplane ailerons, elevator and rudder
These are hinged surfaces usually at the trailing edge of the wings and tail that can be
rotated up and down.
Ailerons and Elevators:

Eleva
tor
Ailer
on

Figure:

The ailerons are control surfaces that control of the rolling motion of airplane around the fuselage

Example:

When left aileron is deflected downward the right aileron is deflected upward, lift is increased on the left wing
deflected upward, lift is increased on the left wing decreased on the right wing causing the airplane to roll to the right.

The elevators are control surfaces that controls nose up and down pitching motion.

When a elevator is deflected down wards the lift on the tail is increased, pulling the tail up and nose of airplane
down.

Rudder:

Figure:

Rudder is control surface can turn nose of airplane to the right or left. It is called yawing 1. 215 & 218
3. 114

Write short notes on Lateral control and longitudinal control.

Lateral control

The usual method of obtaining lateral control is by means of ailerons hinged at the rear of each main plane near
the wing tips.

Plate 5: Here seen with landing gear extended, the Boeing YC-14 was the first to large aircraft to use USB (uperr-
surface blowing), one of the most potent forms of powered lift. The two 25-tonne thrust turbofans blow their jets
across the top of the wing. The Coanda effect keeps the transonic jets attached to the metal surface, so with flaps
depressed (as here) they end up deflected sharply down, enormously increasing lift. The huge tail is needed for control
at the very speeds that can safely be reached.
 Figure:

Plate 6: Here seen in service with the Royal Thai Navy, the Canadair CL-215 proves that large piston-engined aircraft
are not obsolete! Powered by 2,500-hp Pratt and Whitney R-2800 engines, this amphibian is used mainly as a water
bomber to fight forest fires, having the ability to scoop up fresh loads many times in a single mission. Other missions
include anti-smuggling patrols, air-sea rescue, medevac and utility transport.

The ailerons are connected to the control column by a complete system of control wires (figure) by a rigid
system of rods, by torque tubes inside the wings, or again by some power- operated system. This time it is a sideways
movement of the control column which moves the ailerons and does so in such a way that once again the control is
instinctive, i.e. if the control column is moved to the left the right-hand ailerons will go down, increasing the lift on the
right- hand wings, thus banking the airplane to the left; at the same time the left ailerons will have been raised,
decreasing the lift on the left wing and thus adding to the effect.
 Figure: Lateral control-general arrangement
Sometimes the control column has no sideways movement, and lateral control is effected by a type of
handlebars, or by a wheel similar to the steering wheel on a car.

Longitudinal Control

Longitudinal control of an airplane is nearly always provided by elevators attached to the rear of the tail plane.
The principle is best illustrated by the old-fashioned system in which the elevators were connected by control wires
and levers to the control column in the pilot‟s cockpit. The control is instinctive, i.e. when the column is pushed
forward, the elevators are lowered and the upward force on the tail is increased, thus causing the nose of the aeroplane
to drop Fig.

Figure: Longitudinal control-direction of movements

In order to achieve this result it will be seen that in an ordinary simple control system the wires must be
crossed between the control column and the elevators. In modern practice, however, instead of employing two wires
which will tend to become slack, causing a certain amount of backlash in the system, more positive controls are nearly
always used; these may take the form of a rigid rod serving both to push and to pull the elevators from top or bottom
only, or they may rely simply on the torsion of a rod or tube, or the whole control system may be power- operated,
hydraulic, pneumatic or electric.

Explain with a neat sketch component of an aero plane and their functions.
Figure: Parts of an aeroplane
 Figure: Basic components of an aircraft

Fuselage:

The fuselage is that portion of the aircraft that usually contains the crew and payload, either passengers, cargo,
or weapons. Most fuselages are long, cylindrical tubes or sometimes rectangular box shapes. All of the other major
components of the aircraft are attached to the fuselage. Empennage is another term sometimes used to refer to the aft
portion of the fuselage plus the horizontal and vertical tails.

Wing:

The wing is the most important part of an aircraft since it produces the lift that allows a plane to fly. The wing
is made up of two halves, left and right, when viewed from behind. These halves are connected to each other by means
of the fuselage. A wing produces lift because of its special shape, a shape called an airfoil. If we were to cult through a
wing and look at its cross – section, as illustrated below, we would see that a traditional airfoil has a rounded leading
edge and a sharp trailing edge.
 Figure: Definition of an airfoil

Engine:

The other key component that makes an airplane go is its engine, or engines. Aircraft use several different
kinds of engines, but they can all be classified in two major categories. Early aircraft from the Wright Flyer until
World War II used propeller – driven piston engines, and these are still common today on light general aviation
planes. But most modern aircraft now use some form of a jet engine. Many aircraft house the engine(s) within the
fuselage itself. Most larger planes, however, have their engines mounted in separate pods hanging below the wing or
sometimes attached to the fuselage. These pods are called nacelles.

Horizontal stabilizer:

If an aircraft consists of only a wing or a wing and fuselage, it is inherently unstable. Stability is defined as the
tendency of an aircraft to return to its initial state following a disturbance from that state. The horizontal stabilizer,
also known as the horizontal tail, performs this function when an aircraft is disturbed in pitch. In other words, if some
disturbance forces the nose up or down, the horizontal stabilizer produces a counteracting force to push the nose in the
opposite direction and restore equilibrium. When in equilibrium, we say that an aircraft is in its trim condition. The
horizontal tail is essentially a miniature wing since it is also made up of an airfoil cross – section. The tail produces a
force similar to lift that balances out the lift of the wing to keep the plane in equilibrium. To do so, the tail usually
needs to produce a force pointed downward, a quantity called down force.
Vertical stabilizer:

The vertical stabilizer, or vertical tail, functions in the same way as the horizontal tail, except that it provides
stability for a disturbance in yaw. Yaw is the side – to – side motion of the nose, so if a disturbance causes the nose to
deflect to one side, the vertical tail produces a counteracting force that pushes the nose in the opposite direction to
restore equilibrium. The vertical tail is also made of an airfoil cross – section and produces forces just like a wing or
horizontal tail. The difference is that a wing or horizontal tail produces lift or down force, forces that are pointed up or
down from the aircraft. Mean while the vertical tail produces a force pointed to one side of the aircraft. This force is
called side – force.

Basic control surfaces:

In addition to the wing and tail surfaces, aircraft need some additional components that give the pilot the
ability to control the direction of the plane. we call these items control surfaces.

Figure: Aircraft control surfaces and axes of motion

Elevator:

The elevator is located on the horizontal stabilizer. It can be deflected up or down to produce a change in the
down force produced by the horizontal tail. The angle of deflection is considered positive when the trailing edge of the
elevator is deflected upward. Such a deflection increases the down force produced by the horizontal tail causing the
nose to pitch upward.
Rudder:

The rudder is located on the vertical stabilizer. It can be deflected to either side to produce a change in the side
– force produced by the vertical tail. The angle of deflection is usually considered positive when the trailing edge of
the rudder is deflected towards the right wing. Such a deflection creates a side – force to the left which causes the
nose to yaw to the right.

Aileron:

Ailerons are located on the tips of each wing. They are deflected in opposite direction (one goes trailing edge
up, the other trailing edge down) to produce a change in the lift produced by each wing. On the wing with the aileron
deflected down ward, the lift increases whereas the lift decreases on the other wing whose aileron is deflected upward.
The wing with more lift rolls upward causing the aircraft to go into a bank. The angle of deflection is usually
considered positive when the aileron on the left wing deflects downward and that on the right wing deflects upward.
The greater lift generated on the left wing causes the aircraft to roll to the right.

The effects of these control surfaces and the conventions for positive deflection angles are summarized in the
following diagram.

Figure: Aircraft control surfaces and positive deflection angles

3. Additional components:

We‟ve already seen the major parts of a typical plane, but a few important items were left out for simplicity.
Let‟s go back and discuss a few of these items.
 Figure: Components of an aircraft

Flap:
Flaps are usually located along the trailing edge of both the left and right wing, typically
inboard of the ailerons and close to the fuselage. Flaps are similar to ailerons in that they affect the amount of lift
created by the wings. However, flaps only deflect down ward to increase the lift produced by both wings
simultaneously. Flaps are most often used during takeoff and landing to increase the lift the wings generate at a given
speed. This effect allows a plane to takeoff or land at a slower speed than would be possible without the flaps. In
addition to flaps on the trailing edge of a wing, a second major category is flaps on the leading edge. These leading –
edge flaps, more often called slats, are also used to increase life. More information on slats and flaps is available here.
Cabin & cockpit:

Sometimes these two terms are used synonymously, but most of the time the term cockpit is applied to a
compartment at the front of the fuselage where the pilots and flight crew sit. This compartment contains the control
yolks (or sticks) and equipment the crew use to sent commands to the control surfaces and engines as well as to
monitor the operation of the vehicle. Meanwhile, a cabin is typically a compartment within the fuselage where
passengers are seated.

Nose & main gear:

The landing gear is used during takeoff, landing, and to taxi on the ground. Most planes today use what is
called a tricycle landing gear arrangement. This system has two large main gear units located near the middle of the
plane and a single smaller nose gear unit near the nose of the aircraft.

Trim tab:

The above diagram illustrates a “trim tab” located on the elevator. These control tabs may be located on other
surfaces as well, such as a rudder control tab or a balance tab on the aileron. Nonetheless, the purpose of all these tabs
is the same. In the previous section, we discussed that the horizontal stabilizer and elevator are used to provide
stability and control in pitch. In order to keep a plane in a steady, level orientation, the elevator usually has to be
deflected by some small amount. Since it would be very tiring for a pilot to physically hold the control stick in
position to keep the elevator at that deflection angle for an entire flight, the elevator is fitted with a small “tab” that
creates that elevator deflection automatically. The trim tab can be through of almost as a “mini – elevator”. By
deflecting the tab up or down, it increases or decreases the down force created by the elevator and forces the elevator
to a certain position. The pilot can set the deflection of the trim tab which will cause the elevator to remain at the
deflection required to remain trimmed.

Summary:

This discussion has provided an overview of the basic parts and control surfaces of a typical aircraft. Yet there
are still many more features related to control surfaces that we have not seen. In a future installment, we will add
further detail and complexity to illustrate the complex nature of modern control surfaces.
How the air planes are classified? Discuss about various types of flight vehicles with schematic sketches wherever
possible.

Aircraft

Lighter than air Heavier than air

Airships Free balloons Captive balloons Power driven Non - Power driven Man - Power
driven

Gliders Sailplanes Kites

Aero plane Rotorcraft Ornithopter

Land plane Sea plane Amphibian Helicopter Gyroplane Cyclogyro

(rotor (rotor not (paddle – wheel
power power driven) type motor)
driven )

Float plane Flying boat

Lighter than air aircraft:

The name itself indicates, that the aircraft is lighter than air. These depend for their lift on a well – known
scientific fact usually called „Archimedes principle‟. The principles states that „when a body is immersed in a fluid, a
force acts upwards upon it., helping to support its weight and this upward fore is equal to the weight of the fluid which
is displaced by the body.

Air ships, free balloons or kite balloons obtains its lift in precisely the same way (ie) By Archimedes Principle.

Airship:

A power driven aircraft that is light than air. An airship can carry a maximum up to 2 to 3 persons.

Free balloons:

Free balloons are also comes under this category that means the balloons one flown in the air with the help of
gases such as a helium, hydrogen etc.,
Heavier than air aircraft:

Here in the aircraft solid metals are used. So that it could not fly in air without any definite shape. In order to
fly such aircraft, aerofoil shapes should be maintained for such aircrafts. Since, there is steady flow of air over such
aircrafts, these types of aircrafts are found to be airborne (ie, it can stay in air for a long time).

Power driven:

Under the heavier than aircrafts, power driven aircrafts play a dominant role today. Power driven aircrafts are
nothing but aircrafts which are provided with external power supply. (ie) the aircraft can be flown with the help of
certain factors like engines, etc.,

Aero plane:

The aero plane must be given some power, so that it can fly. So as in aero plane, the power is provided
mainly by engines and as well as propulsion systems.

Figure:

Rotor craft:

Here, the power provided to the craft is by means of rotor (ie) a rotating member that can take off the aircraft
to a specified height and it can be flown.

The rotor craft designs are

1. Helicopter
2. Gyroplane
3. Cyclogyro
Helicopter:

Here in the helicopter, the power is driven by a rotor, which is having blades that rotates up to a certain speed,
that makes the helicopter to lift up and so it can fly.

Ornithopters

Here in the ornithopters, the power is given mainly by the mechanism of flapping wings up and down.

Figure: Ornithopter

Non – Power driven:

Non – power driven aircrafts are those crafts which can flown without the help of any external power supply
(ie) there is no presence of engines.

Gliders:

Gliders are those aircrafts which comes under non – power driven such that it can fly without engines
and also it should be start to fly from some elevated places like maintains etc.
Hydraulic Actuator and Electronic actuator system:

Brief summary of the invention:

[0014] According to principles of the present invention, a backup system is provided that has a local electric
motor and pump for some or all of the hydraulic actuators. A local back up hydraulic actuator (LBHA) has two power
sources, central hydraulic as primary and electrical as backup. During normal operation, the hydraulic actuator
receives pressurized fluid from one of the central hydraulic systems and the fluid flow to the chambers is controlled by
a servo valve. Failure of the hydraulic system is detected by the local electronic controller that monitors the output
signal of a pressure sensor. When this observed pressure falls below a certain threshold, the local electronic controller
determines that this central hydraulic system has failed and t urns on the electrical motor, which powers the local
hydraulic pump to provide high pressure hydraulic fluid to the hydraulic actuator via the servo value. The local
electronic controller also uses the pressure reading for closed – loop feedback control, and the pressure is maintained
at the normal level. Other types of monitoring and control schemes may also be used instead. In this manner, the
LBHA remains functional with electrical power following a partial or complete failure of the central hydraulic system.

[0015] By coupling the LBHAs to appropriate flight control surfaces, the airplane remains controllable with
loss of all central hydraulic systems; therefore, the number of central hydraulic systems can be reduced compared to
using only conventional hydraulic actuators.

[0016] As explained in the background of the invention, some prior art approaches provide a reduction in the
number of hydraulic systems, namely EHA and EBHA, for example. A major advantage that the LBHA offers over
these prior art actuators is that it enables this reduction in the central hydraulic system for airplanes with flight control
surfaces which are controlled in an active
– active fashion. This is accomplished by overcoming both of the two major difficulties that have been cited herein for
the electric and hybrid actuators of the prior art, namely that of reduced reliability and force fight.

[0017] The LBHA overcomes the reduced reliability problem by using the low – reliability components only
as backup following the failure of a central hydraulic system or during specific phases of flight. The electrical part of
the LBHA can be switched of during much of flight so the life of the motor and pump is greatly extended. Therefore,
even when the LBHA is used continuously during normal operation, such as on an active- active surface, the operation
is more reliable and the life of the motor and pump are extended.

[0018] The force fight problem associated with coupling dissimilar actuators on a surface and using them in
an active – active fashion is resolved according to this invention by continuously controlling the actuator in the same
manner as a conventional hydraulic actuator and providing as backup only alternate power source. The local motor
and pump are upstream of the servo valve and in parallel with the central hydraulic lines. A common servo value for
the hydraulic actuator is used under a unified electrical control system for both the central hydraulic system and the
backup system. This ensures that there is no substantial force fight when LBHA is used in an active – active fashion
with a hydraulic actuator or another LBHA on the same surface. This is because during normal operation and
operation following the failure of the central hydraulic system, the
LBHA is controlled in the same manner through the servo valve, with the only difference being the source of hydraulic
power, central or local.

[0019] In addition to enabling the reduction of hydraulic systems and resolving the problems associated with
applying electric or hybrid actuators of prior art in an active – active fashion, the LBHA also offers other advantages.
With the LBHA, the local pump can be a one – way pump rather than a two – way pump, which, together with the
motor and controller, is lower in weight and cost, while having higher reliability. The local pump‟s role is to provide
increased local pressure, rather than also provide servo control of the system, thus simplifying the motor, the motor
driver and control device, and increasing the reliability of operation.

[0020] The inventive system also provides the advantage that during critical flight phases, such as takeoff and
landing, both the main system and the backup system can be in operation. In the event of failure of the main system,
the backup; system is already under power and is assisting in the operation, so that there is no time lost for control
while the backup system comes on. Check values are provided between the central hydraulic system and the local
backup system, permitting both to operate at the same time when appropriate.

[0021] A further advantage is that the backup system has a separate power source, namely electric power, so
that increased availability of power is provided to the actuator. Because of this, providing one LBHA in conjunction
with at least one hydraulic actuator for a particular surface is able to ensure that the likelihood of a complete loss of
the power to position the surface correctly is negligible. This may, for example, enable reduction in the number of
actuators coupled to a surface compared to only using conventional hydraulic actuators, while achieving and
equivalent or better level of safety. This may also enable smaller, lighter, and simpler individual actuators than
otherwise would have been possible.

Flight instruments:

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot information about the aircraft’s
attitude, airspeed and altitude.

Figure: Six basic instruments in a light twin – engine airplane arranged in the basic – T. From top left airspeed
indicator, attitude indicator, altimeter, turn coordinator, beading indicator, and vertical speed indicator.
Most aircraft have these seven basic flight instruments:

Figure:

Altimeter:

Gives the aircraft‟s height (usually in feet or meters) above some reference level (usually sea – level) by
measuring the local air pressure. It is adjustable for local barometric pressure (referenced to sea level) which must be
set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings.

Figure: Attitude indicator (also known as an artificial horizon)

Shows the aircraft‟s relative to the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether are level and if the aircraft
nose is pointing above or below the horizon. This is a primary instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor
visibility. Pilots are trained to use other instruments in combination should this instrument or its power fail.

Figure: Airspeed indicator

Shows the aircraft‟s speed (usually in knots) relative to the surrounding air. It works by measuring the ram –
air pressure in the aircraft‟s pitot tube. The indicated airspeed must be corrected for air density (which varies with
altitude, temperature and humidity) in order to obtain the true airspeed, and for wind conditions in order to obtain the
speed over the ground.
Figure: The flight instruments of a Slings by T – 67 Firefly two – seat light airplane. The basic T is present on
the left side primary pilot station.

Magnetic compass:

Shows the aircraft’s heading relative to magnetic north. While reliable in steady level flight it can give
confusion indications when turning, climbing, descending, or accelerating due to the inclination of the earth’s
magnetic field. For this reason, the heading indicator is also used for aircraft operation. For purposes of navigation it
may be necessary to correct the direction indicated (which points to a magnetic pole) in order to obtain direction of
true north or south (which points to the earth’s axis of rotation).

Figure: Heading indicator

Also known as the directional gyro, or DG. Sometimes also called the gyrocompass, though usually not in
aviation applications. Displays the aircraft’s heading with respect to magnetic north. Principle of operation is a
spinning gyroscope, and is therefore subject to drift errors (called precession) which must be periodically corrected by
calibrating the instrument to the magnetic compass. In many advanced aircraft, the heading indicator is replaced by a
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HIS) which provides the same heading information, but also assists with navigation.
 Figure: Turn and bank indicator or turn coordinator

The turn and bank indicator, also called the turn and slip indicator, displays of turn and rate of turn. Internally
mounted inclinometer displays „quality‟ of turn, i.e. whether the turn is correctly coordinated, as opposed to an
uncoordinated turn, where in the aircraft would be in either a slip or a skid. Replaced in the late sixties and early
seventies by the newer turn coordinator, the turn and bank is typically only seen in aircraft manufactured prior to that
time, or in Gliders manufactured in Europe.

A turn coordinator displays rate and direction of roll while the aircraft is rolling; displays rate and direction of
turn while the aircraft is not rolling. Internally mounted inclinometer also displays quality of turn. Replaced the older
turn and bank indicator.

Figure: Vertical speed indicator

Also sometimes called a variometer Senses changing air pressure and displays that information to the pilot as
a rate of climb or descent, usually in feet per minute or meters per second.
Figure: Schempp – Hirth Janus – C glider Instrument panel equipped for “cloud flying”. The turn and bank
indicator is top center. The heading indicator is replaced by a GPS – driven computer with wind and glide data,
driving two electronic variometer displays to the right.

Arrangement in instrument panel:

Most aircraft built since about 1953 have four of the flight instruments located in a standardized arrangement
known as the “basic T”. The attitude indicator is in top center, airspeed to the left, altitude to the right and heading
indicator under the attitude indicator. The other two, turn – coordinator and vertical – speed, are usually found under
the airspeed and altitude, but are given more latitude in placement. The magnetic compass will be above the
instrument panel, often on the windscreen center post. In newer aircraft with glass cockpit instruments the layout of
the displays conform to the basic T arrangement.

Flight instrument

Pitot – static instrument: Altimeter: Airspeed indicator – Machmeter – Vertical speed indicator

Gyroscople instruments: Attitude indicator – Heading indicator – Horizontal Situation Indicator – Turn and back
indicator – Turn coordinator

Navigation: Horizontal Situation Indicator – Course Deviation Indicator – Inertial Navigation System – GPS Other
magnetic compass – Yaw string.

Figure: Tabs fitted on elevators and rudder of an old Catalina flying boat Powered
servo controls:

Powered controls may take two forms, servo – assisted, or fully power operated. In the former type, hydraulic
pressure is transmitted via pipes to a servo – actuator which helps the
mechanical linkage to move the surface. The mechanical linkage can be used to operate the control surface, even if
power is lost, although the controls will then feel very heavy. The system is similar to the servo – assisted steering and
braking system of car.

Power control, fly – by – wire and fly – by – light:

In pure power operation, no mechanical override is provided. Control signals may be transmitted
hydraulically, directly from valves attached to the control column, or electrically to actuators, which move the control
surfaces. The latter system is known as fly – by – wire. The actuators are electrically or hydraulically operated rams
motors.

As an alternative to electrical signal transmission, modulated light signals may be transmitted along optical
fibers. This system is known as fly – by – light and over comes problems due to electromagnetic interference. The
detonation of nuclear weapons would cause very strong electromagnetic signals capable of upsetting, if not
destroying, conventional electronic circuits. The deliberate jamming of electronic circuitry by means of powerful
electromagnetic beams is also a possibility, and some military aircraft have been found to be very vulnerable in this
respect.

Once control by electrical signals is accepted, it becomes convenient to incorporate sophisticate electronic
processing into the circuit, with increasing emphasis on digital systems. Such processing can be used to alter the
response to control inputs, and can follow for maneuvers such as flying in a stalled or an unstable condition, or
approaching very close to the stall on landing.

Fly – by – wire can thus dramatically improve the performance, efficiency and even safety of aircraft. It also
allows for coordinated control surface movement that would be too complex for a pilot to manage unaided. Such
systems have demonstrated a high level of reliability and are being increasingly used. On military aircraft, the flight
control, autostabilisation, navigation, radar ad weapons control system are all integrated in varying degrees.

Feedback or feel:

One problem with power – operated controls is that the pilot has no direct feel for the amount of force that the
control surface is producing. Therefore, some form of artificial feel has to be introduced.

Generally, mechanical controls feed heavier the further they are pulled, so a crude form of feel could be
provided by attaching springs to the control column. This system is inadequate, however, because the control loads
should also increase as the flight speed increase.

The force actually required at the control surface, depends on the dynamic pressure
1 2
V , rather than just the speed. At constant altitude, the controls will, for example, require
2
sixteen times more force to operate them at 800 km /h than at 200 km/h. To overcome this problem, also –called q –
feel device can be added. (q is the symbol conventionally used to denote dynamic pressure). The q – feel unit is a
device which is attached to the mechanical control linkage to increase its stiffness in proportion to increases n
dynamic pressure. Nowadays, much
more sophisticated feedback systems are used, in which the force required to move the control surface is sensed, and
the force required to move the pilot‟s control stick is increased appropriately.
By using the electronic processing of the feedback signal, it is possible to make a small aircraft feel and
handle like a large one. Reversing the procedure might be unwise, as trying to throw a 747 around like a Pitts Special
could cause problems. The handling of new untested aircraft types is often simulated by artificially modifying the
control of an existing different aircraft type.

Early aircraft and small modern types use a direct mechanical linkage between the control surface and the
pilot control stick. The linkage normally consists of an arrangement of multi – stranded wires and pulleys. Figure
shows the complex system used on an executive jet. The rudder actuating wire may just be seen under the tailplane on
the Auster shown in figure. Alternatively push – pull rods and twisting torque – tubes may be used, and are in some
ways preferred, since they produce a stiffer system, less prone to vibration problems.

As the speed and size of aircraft increased, so did the control forces required, and some considerable ingenuity
went into devising means of reducing these loads. The position of the hinge line can be arranged so that the resultant
force acts just behind it, thus producing only a small moment. A typical arrangement, used on many aircraft up to the
1950s, is seen in figure. The top of the rudder projects forward, in front of the hinge line, thereby moving the centre of
pressure of the rudder forwards, towards the hinge line.

Unfortunately, the position of the resultant force changes with angle of attack, speed, and deflection angle, so
that it is difficult to devise an arrangement that produces small forces under all conditions. It is particularly important
that the resultant force should not be in front of the hinge line, as this would cause the control surface to be unstable,
and run away in the direction of the ever – increasing force.

In addition to such aerodynamic balancing the control surface mass should also be balanced so that gravity
forces do not pull it down in level flight, and inertia does not cause it to move relative to the aircraft during
manoeuvres. A rather crude external form of mass balancing may be seen figure. As described later, masses may also
be added to the control surfaces to alter the natural frequency of oscillation.

Servo – tabs and trim tabs:

Another means of reducing the load required is to use a servo – tab, as illustrated in figure. Deflection of the
tab downwards causes the trailing edge of the surface of lift, producing a large turning moment in the primary control
surface. Various means of coupling the tab and primary surface were devised, but such arrangements are now largely
obsolete. Kermode (1996) describes the historical development of tabs.

Nowadays tabs are normally used primarily for trimming the control surfaces; that is, setting them so that the
control surface produces just the right amount of force to keep the aircraft flying steadily, hands – off. Such trim tabs
are controlled by a separate trim wheel in the cockpit or flight deck, and are actuated independently of the main
surface actuating system.
 Figure: External mass balance weights were used on the tail of the Venom

Figure: A servo – tab

Downward deflection of the tab increases the lift on the main control surface causing it to deflect upwards
The force required to operate the tab is considerably less than that which would be needed to operate the main control
surface directly

Trim tabs allow an aircraft to be flown virtually, or even literally, hands – off, for much of the time. Tabs may be seen
in figure. Fixed trim tabs, in the form of small strips of metal affixed to the trailing edge, may sometimes be used, their
purpose being to „tune‟ the control surfaces to give a good balance.

Movable trim tabs can provide restricted emergency control in the case of a failure in the primary control
surface system. On recent aircraft designs, they may provide the only manual means of control.

Cockpit Instruments:

Altimeter
 The word “altimeter” means “height measurer.” Would that the instrument were true to its name! The so-
called altimeter which is used in aero planes is nothing more or less than an aneroid barometer, such as is used to
measure the pressure of the atmosphere for the purpose of forecasting the weather. The only real modification is that
the dial is marked in thousands of feet instead of in inches or millimeters of mercury, and this makes it just about as
capable of measuring the height as the barometer is of foretelling the weather. What it does do is to record the
pressure. As we go up, the pressure goes down, because there is less weight of air on top of us; but unfortunately the
rate at which the pressure goes down varies from day to day, depending chiefly on the temperature and other effects,
which also vary from day to day. Thus it is impossible to mark off or calibrate the scale of an altimeter so that each
pressure corresponds to a definite height; the best that can be done is to assume some average set of conditions of
temperature and pressure, to mark the scale of the instrument to suit these conditions, and then correct the readings for
any large departure from such standard conditions.

This set of average conditions has been laid down, and, as mentioned in Section 4, is called the International
Standard Atmosphere (fig). When an aeroplane makes a test flight, or some attempt on an altitude record, the height
which counts is not the height reached according to the altimeter, nor is it the actual height above the ground; it is the
height which we estimate it would have reached had the conditions of the atmosphere all the way up corresponded to
those of the Standard Atmosphere. It is not a very satisfactory state of affairs, but we cannot do any better until we can
devise an instrument which will really measure height, instead of just pressure.

Not only does an altimeter fail to record the correct height when flying, but it does not necessarily read zero
when at sea level, since the atmospheric pressure varies considerably from time to the at the earth‟s surface. After all,
that is how a bareometer works, and the altimeter is only a barometer. For this reason, altimeters are fitted with an
adjustment so that they can be made to read zero (or the height of the aerodrome) before starting on a flight. It does
onto by any means follow that they will read zero on return to earth. In a flight of a few hours there may be
considerable change in atmospheric pressure, and there is also a certain amount of lag in the instrument. For these
reasons it is very important when flying over high ground or mountainous districts in foggy weather not to put too
much faith in the altimeter. Although this is usually impressed upon pilots, accidents have occurred from this cause.

Modern altimeters are very much more sensitive than the old types. Some of them have three hands, one
making a complete revolution every 1,000 ft, the next one every 10,000 it, and the third in 100, 000 ft. There is hardly
any lag in such an instrument; in fact, such sensitivity would be of no advantage if there were any serious lag.
Another refinement is that, instead of turning the dial to set the zero, the pointers are moved, and when they read zero
a little window at the bottom of the instrument gives the reading of the barometer. A great advantage of this method is
that if one can find out, by radio or other means, the reading of the barometer at any aerodrome at which one wishes to
land, one has only to set this reading on the altimeter and, one has only to set this reading on the altimeter and,
whatever may be the altitude of the aerodrome, the hands will all point to zero or, by an alternative setting, to the
correct height of the airfield, when the aircraft touches the ground. This is a great help in instrument flying.

But, however sensitive the barometric type of altimeter may be, it still cannot measure true height in the
atmosphere, except under a very unlikely set of standardized conditions.
 Is it possible, then, to measure the true height of an aircraft above sea level? In certain instances it can be done
by taking three simultaneous sight from the ground, or by various radio and radar devices, or by some echo system
such as is used for submarines.

But, for most purposes, the altimeter, the aneroid barometer, with all its faults still holds its own, and though
we never know how high we are flying we can either assume ignorance and hope that the altimeter is right, or we can
try to be very clever and work out how high we ought to be. Special “computers” are provided for this purpose.

Air Speed Indicator

Throughout the book we have talked of air speed, and we have repeatedly noticed the close connection with
angle of attack. In taking off, climbing, straight and level flight, turning, gliding, and landing, there is a best speed for
each, while for the purpose of flying from one place to another the navigator must known both the air speed of the
aeroplane and the velocity of the wind. It is true that he would prefer to know the ground speed, but no instrument can
be devised to measure this directly, and the pilot much prefers to know his air speed.

The usual type of air-speed indicator consists of a thin corrugated metal box very like that used in an aneroid
barometer. At some convenient place on the aeorplane, where it will be exposed to the wind yet not affected by
slipstream or other interference, is placed the pitoot-static head Fig.

Figure: Pilot-static head

This consists of two tubes, one of which has an open end facing the air flow-called a pilot tube. The other is
closed at the end, but along the sides are several small holes which allow the atmospheric pressure to enter, and this
tube is called the static tube. In modern types the two tubes are often combined into one, the static tube concentric
with the pitot tube, and outside it (fig).
 Figure: Concentric pitot-static tube

Sometimes the pressure near the pitot tube is by no means atmospheric, and the static pressure is taken from
some other part of the aeroplane altogether. But wherever the pitot head, and the static vent, may be, metal tubing is
used to communicate the pressures to the instrument in the pilot‟s cockpit, the pitot tube being connected to one side
of the metal box and the static to the other. When the aeroplane is at rest relative to the air, the ordinary atmospheric
pressure will be communicated by the tubes to both sides of the box and the instrument needle will be at “o”, but when
traveling through the air the pitot, or open, tube will record a higher pressure, depending on the air speed, while the
static tube will still record the atmospheric pressure. The instrument then reads the difference between these two
pressure which is automatically translated by the dial into miles per hour or knots.

The pressure on the pitoto tube, just like all air resistances, will go up in proportion to the square of the speed,
e.g. at twice the speed to pressure will be four times as much, and thus we can understand why the numbers round the
dial of the instrument, 50, 60, 70, m.p.h., and so on, are not equally spaced.

When we fly higher, the density of the air will become less, and since the difference between the two
pressures depends on the density as well as on the air speed, the indicator will read incorrectly, we call the speed
recorded by the instrument the indicated air speed, and the real air speed the true air speed. The error is quite
appreciable; for instance, when the indicator reads 100 m.p.h. at 30,000 ft, the true air speed is about 160 m.p.h., and
at 40,000 ft a reading of 100 m.p.h. on the instrument means that we are really traveling at more than 200 m.p.h.

There is, however, rather an interesting point about this incorrect reading of the air-speed indicator at height.
Just in the same proportion as the pressure on the metal box is reduced by the smaller air density, so is the lift on the
wings correspondingly reduced, and thus a higher speed is necessary to support the aeroplane in flight. Therefore the
stalling speed of the aeroplane will increase with height, but at this increased speed the air-speed indicator will
continue to read, when the aeroplane is about to stall, the same stalling speed as when near the ground. The error, in
other words, has a distinct advantage from the pilot‟s point of view in that, whatever the height the aeroplane stalls at
the same indicated speed. Other speeds of flight, such as the speed for maximum range, are affected in the same way.
 True air speed can be measured by a system of rotating vanes or cups called an anemometer. This instrument
is used at meteorological stations for measuring wind velocity, but it is not very satisfactory for use on aircraft. For
navigational purposes elaborate instruments have been devised for measuring true speed, but they are outside the
scope of this book.

Mach Numbers

Since the speed of sound is so important it is sometimes convenient to speak of the speed of airplanes in
relation to the speed of sound and to say that they are traveling at half, or three- quarters, or nine-tenths of the speed of
sound, or even at the speed of sound itself or at two or three times that speed. This is expressed in terms of Mach
numbers, a Mach number of 0.5 simply meaning that the airplane is traveling at half the speed of sound. Thus the
Mach numbers in the examples given above would be, respectively, 0.5, 0.75, 0.9, 1, 2 and 3. Here, at least, is a
highbrow term which anyone can understand. It is so simple, in fact, that the reader may well ask why it is necessary
at all-if the speed of sound is 760 m.p.h., we know that when an aeroplane is traveling at 380 m.p.h. it is traveling at
half the speed of sound; why wrap the thing in mystery by saying that it is traveling at a Mach number of 0.5?

Well, as it happens, it ins‟t-in this case-just an attempt to blind people with science. An observant reader-
especially if he has already fallen into some of our traps-may have noticed that we have been rather careful throughout
this argument not to give the actual speeds of rifle bullets and so on, but just to compare them with the speed of sound-
and that when we first said that the speed of sound, was as near as matters, 760 m.p.h., we specified under normal
atmospheric conditions. That is the clue. The rate at which sound travels in air depends on the temperature is the
controlling factors); the lower the temperature the lower the speed of sound. Thus at the temperature of ground level
conditions of the International Standard Atmosphere (conditions which rarely apply in practice) the speed of sound is
about 760 m.p.h.; while at the temperature of the stratosphere an airplane may be traveling below the speed of sound,
at the speed of sound, or above the speed of sound, according to the temperature at the time. What matters is not that it
is going at 700 m.p.h. but at what fraction of the particular speed of sound it is traveling-in other words what matters
is, not its speed, but its Mach number.

When there is no need to specify the actual Mach number and we only wish to indicate that a body, or the air
flow, is traveling at less than the speed of sound, at the speed of sound or above it, it is usual and convenient to use the
Latin words and to speak of subsonic, sonic, and supersonic speeds.

As we shall soon se, it isn‟t just at the speed of sound that curious things happen, but over quite a range of
speeds which include that speed, and it is useful, therefore, to introduce the word transonic. Our subject then falls into
there quite distinct parts, i.e. flight at subsonic speeds which is what we have so far considered, flight at transonic
speeds which has problems all of its own, and flight at supersonic speeds in which we are in a new world altogether
and all the rules are so much the opposite from what we have already learnt that it reminds us of Alice Through the
Looking-glass.
Turn and slip indicator

These two instruments together-the artificial horizon and the directional gyro-are the basis of “George,” the
robot or automatic pilot, which not only detects any tendency of the aeroplane to yaw, pitch or roll but, having done
so, moves the controls until it is once more flying correctly. That sounds wonderful indeed; but it is no longer fantastic
to imagine that in the future aeroplanes will be flying about, carrying and dropping bombs, and perhaps even fighting
each other, without any pilots at all-indeed guided missiles are already doing just this.

This third gyroscopic instrument in common use is the turn and side-slip indicator, which has already been
mentioned. The lower needle on this indicates the rate of turn and is worked by the precession of a gyroscope; the
upper needle indicates side-slip and is worked by a pendulum.

There are not many other instruments concerned with the actual flight of the aeroplene. The air temperature is
needed for various corrections to speed, height, and so on in record or test flights, and for this purpose an ordinary
thermometer may be fitted on some exposed part. A rate- of-climb indicator or, to be more exact, an instrument which
shows either rate of ascent or rate of descent, is usually fitted to modern aircraft, and, like so many of these modern
luxury instruments, is of great value in instrument flying. A mach meter, which will be mentioned in the following
paragraphs, is indispensable in high-speed aircraft.

Apart from the aircraft itself the engine or engine will need revolution indicators, oil-pressure gauges, oil-
temperature gauges, air-pressure gauges, fuel-pressure gauges, boost gauges for superchargers, water thermometers for
water cooled engines, fuel flowmeters, fuel-contents gauges, and so on.

On the electrical side there may be anything varying from the simple switch used for the engine ignition to a
complete system of lighting and heating, dynamos and motors, and full radio and radar installation with all its
attendant instruments.

For high flying, oxygen apparatus must be installed, and this needs special instruments all to itself as does the
pressurization of cabins.

Incidentally, we must not forget what is perhaps the most useful of all man-made instruments-the clock or
watch. For any kind of serious flying it is indispensable.

Artificial horizon

An instrument panel in a modern airplane may contain at least three instruments which depend on gyroscopes.
They are usually driven by suction from an engine-driven pump or from double venture tubes exposed to the air
stream, and may revolve at 10,000 r.p.m.

Perhaps the most striking of all such instruments is the artificial horizon, which shows the position of a small
model airplane relative to a horizon marked on the instrument. If the nose of the real airplane goes down, the model
goes below the horizon; if the nose goes up, the model moves above the horizon. If the aeroplane banks to right or left,
so does the model. even if the pilot cannot see the real horizon at all, if he is flying on the darkest on the darkest
of nights, or
“under the hood”, he can always tell the attitude of his airplane. Only those who have tried to fly “blind” can possibly
conceive the value of such an instrument. It is worked by a gyroscope which is so mounted that its axis does not move
even though the airplane (and with it the case of the instrument) may pitch or roll.

Simpler in principle, but no less useful in practice, is the directional gyro. This detects any turn of the airplane,
just as the artificial horizon shows pitch or roll. It is very like a compass except that, instead of possessing the property
of pointing towards the north, it will remain in any position in which the pilot likes to set it. Actually it is marked off
in degrees just like a compass, and the pilot usually sets it to correspond to the compass course. The reader may well
ask what its justification may be, seeing that it seems to act like a compass, though lacking the chief attribute of the
latter. The answer is simple. The directional gyro responds more quickly to the slights turn, it settle down at once after
at turn, it is unaffected by acceleration and the various magnetic errors of the compass.

Controls:
a) Longitudinal control
b) Lateral control and
c) Directional control

Longitudinal control

Longitudinal control of an aeroplane is nearly always provided by elevators attached to the rear of the tail
plane. The principle is best illustrated by the old-fashioned system in which the elevators were connected by control
wires and levers to the control column in the pilot‟s cockpit. The control is instinctive, i.e. when the column is pushed
forward, the elevators are lowered and the upward force on the tail is increased, thus causing the nose of the aeroplane
to drop Fig.

Figure: Longitudinal control-direction of movements

In order to achieve this result it will be seen that in an ordinary simple control system the wires must be
crossed between the control column and the elevators. In modern practice, however, instead of employing two wires
which will tend to become slack, causing a certain amount of backlash in the system, more positive controls are nearly
always used; these may take the form of a rigid rod serving both to push and to pull the elevators from top or
bottom only, or
they may rely simply on the torsion of a rod or tube, or the whole control system may be power- operated, hydraulic,
pneumatic or electric.

Lateral control

The usual method of obtaining lateral control is by means of ailerons hinged at the rear of each main plane near
the wing tips.

Figure:

Plate 5: Here seen with landing gear extended, the Boeing YC-14 was the first to large aircraft to use USB (upper-
surface blowing), one of the most potent forms of powered lift. The two 25-tonne thrust turbofans blow their jets
across the top of the wing. The Coanda effect keeps the transonic jets attached to the metal surface, so with flaps
depressed (as here) they end up deflected sharply down, enormously increasing lift. The huge tail is needed for control
at the very speeds that can safely be reached.
 Figure:

Plate 6: Here seen in service with the Royal Thai Navy, the Canadair CL-215 proves that large piston-engined aircraft
are not obsolete! Powered by 2,500-hp Pratt&Whitney R-2800 engines, this amphibian is used mainly as a water
bomber to fight forest fires, having the ability to scoop up fresh loads many times in a single mission. Other mission
include anti-smuggling patrols, air-sea rescue, medevac and utility transport.

The ailerons are connected to the control column by a complete system of control wires (figure) by a rigid
system of rods, by torque tubes inside the wings, or again by some power- operated system. This time it is a sideways
movement of the control column which moves the ailerons and does so in such a way that once again the control is
instinctive, i.e. if the control column is moved to the left the right-hand ailerons will go down, increasing the lift on the
right- hand wings, thus banking the aeroplane to the left; at the same time the left ailerons will have been raised,
decreasing the lift on the left wing and thus adding to the effect.

Figure: Lateral control-general arrangement

 Sometimes the control column has no sideways movement, and lateral control is effected by a type of
handlebars, or by a wheel similar to the steering wheel on a car.

Directional control

Directional control is by rudder, which has very much the same effect as on a ship. The rudder is connected by
wires or rods or by a power-operated system to a rudder bar or rudder pedals on the floor of the cockpit (Fig.) . In this
instance it is not wise to stress the point that the control movement is instinctive, because some people claim that it
works the wrong way and should be altered to make it instinctive. If the left foot is pushed forward, the rudder moves
to the left (the wires not being crossed) and the aeorplane turns to the left. It all sounds instinctive enough, but it is
exactly the opposite to what happens on a bicycle when the handlebars are moved in the same way as the rudder bar.

Figure: Directional control-general arrangement

Rocket Engines

The gas turbine and reciprocating internal combustion engines are both air-breathing power plants. They
ingest air from the surrounding atmosphere and use the oxygen in the air as the oxidizer for the chemical burning
process that extracts the heat energy from the fuel. Only the fuel is carried aboard the vehicle. A rocket is a device that
burns fuel and an oxidizer, both of which are carried by the vehicle. The forward thrust is obtained by applying a
rearward momentum to the products of combustion, the mass of which is clearly limited by the weight-carrying
capacity of the vehicle. Therefore, to obtain as large a thrust as possible with a given mass flow, the rearward velocity
must be as large as possible. A rocket is the only means of obtaining thrust in a vacuum or near vacuum such as exists
outside or neat the outer edge of the atmosphere.
 There are two basic types of rockets, liquid propellant rockets and solid propellant rockets. Liquid propellant
rockets employ liquid propellants that are fed under pressure from tanks into the combustion chamber. A schematic
diagram of a liquid propellant system is shown in figure. The propellants consist of a liquid oxidizer, such as liquid
oxygen, red fuming nitric acid, or hydrogen peroxide, and a liquid fuel (e.g., gasoline, ammonia, or liquid hydrogen).

In the combustion chamber the propellants react to form hot gases at high pressure, which in turn are
accelerated and ejected at a high velocity through a nozzle. The momentum imparted to the gases per unit times equal
to the thrust developed by the rocket.

Figure: Simplified schematic diagram of a liquid, propellant rocket system. From Sutton and Ross, Rocket
Propulsion Elements, 1976. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, New York.

A liquid rocket propulsion system is relatively complicated since it requires several precision valves, a
complex fed mechanism with propellant pumps and turbines, or a propellant p[pressurizing device.

Solid propellant rockets contain all the propellant within the combustion chamber. This type of rocket is
simple since a feed system, valves or pumps are not required. Solid rockets are usually limited to short-duration firing
(1/10 to 25 s). Long-duration solid rockets require excessively large and heavy combustion chambers. Solid propellant
rockets have been widely used for jet-assisted takeoff (JATO) purposes for aircraft with marginal takeoff performance,
as well as for the initial launch and acceleration of missiles and spacecraft. Figure shows a cross section of a solid
propellant rocket motor.

The solid propellant charge contains all the chemical elements necessary for complete combustion. The
propellants usually have a plastic like caked appearance and burn on their exposed surfaces to form hot exhaust gases
at a nearly constant rate. The body of the propellant is called the grain. The grain may be a heterogeneous mixture of
several chemicals, for example a mixture of oxidizing crystals of per chlorate in a matrix of an organic, plastic like
fuel such as asphalt. It may be a homogeneous charge special chemicals, such as modified nitrocellulose-type gun
powder.
 Figure: Sectional view of typical solid propellant rocket motor.

The shape, size, and exposed burning surface of the grain influence the burning characteristics of the rocket
and largely determine the operating pressure in the combustion chamber, the thrust, and the duration.

Rocket motor performance

Consider a rocket in flight as shown in Figure. Assume that the rocket is operating in a vacuum without
gravitational forces. The only forces acting on the rocket are the reaction to the exhaust gases being expelled through
the rocket nozzle and the nozzle exit pressure acting over the exit area, Se.

From Newton‟s second law, the time rate of change of linear momentum of a body, in this case the exhaust
gases, is proportional to the force acting on it. Therefore, the force on the exhaust gases is

dm
F1 Ve
dt

where

F1 = force, N (lb)
dm/dt = mass flow rate of the exhaust gases, kg/s (slugs/s)
Ve = exhaust gas velocity relative to the rocket, m/s (ft/s)

Since a rocket is designed to maintain essentially constant temperature and pressure in the combustion
chamber or reservoir, the flow is similar to the supersonic wind tunnel flow .

Figure: Rocket in flight.

 The combustion chamber pressure is always high enough to obtain sonic velocity at the throat or minimum
section of the nozzle. The equation of Chapter 7 apply, and for a given exit area the exit velocity is constant.

From Newton‟s third law, the force imposed on the exhaust gas by the rocket engine is equal to the force
exerted on the engine by the exhaust gases. The later is the major part of the thrust. The other component is the
pressure term given by peSe, so the total thrust, in a vacuum, is

F dm
V pS
e dt e e

If the rocket motor were immersed in the atmosphere at V0 = 0 and with zero thrust (Ve = 0), atmospheric
pressure p0 would act on all surfaces and the net pressure effect would be zero. If the rocket is then ignited, all the
pressures remain the same except at the nozzle exit, where the pressure will be determined by the throat area, the exit
area Se, and the combustion chamber (reservoir) pressure in accordance with the one-dimensional compressible fluid
equations in Chapter 7. The additional force due to pressure is then

F pe p0 Se

and the total thrust is

F dm
Ve p p S
dt

ee 0 e
 Because of the relationship between Se, Ve, and pe, maximum thrust is obtained when the exhaust pressure is
equal to the atmospheric pressure. A rocket nozzle design that permits the expansion of the propellant products to the
pressure of the surrounding fluid is said to have an optimum expansion ratio. An exit area differing from the optimum
area will result in less rocket thrust, although the loss is small for quite large deviations from the optimum area. Since
most rockets experience very large variations in atmospheric pressure along their flight path, exit area is designed for
an intermediate altitude that produces the most efficient overall performance for the rocket powered vehicle.

The effective exhaust velocity is defined by the equation

F
Ce
dm / dt

The effective exhaust velocity is a fractious velocity equal to the actual exhaust velocity plus the increment in
exhaust velocity that would produce the thrust increment actually contributed by the pressure term (pe-p0)Se.ce is equal
to the actual exhaust velocity when pe = p0.

An important performance parameter for rockets is specific impulse or specific thrust. It can be defined as the
thrust that can be obtained with a propellant weight flow of 1 unit per second. It is the reciprocal of specific fuel
consumption. Thus

F
specific impulse Isp
dm / dt g

Since, from equation, F ce dm/ dt ,

I Ce
sp g

The total impulse It is the Integral of thrust F over the operating duration t.
t t dm
It F dt Isp g dt
0 0 dt

For constant thrust,

dm
It Ft Isp gt IspW p
dt

where Wp is the total weight of propellant, N (lb).

Thus the performance of a rocket depends primarily on specific impulse, which, in turn, is proportional to the
effective exhaust velocity ce. The magnitude of ce for chemical rockets ranges from 2000 m/s (6562 ft/s) to 4000 m/s
(13,123 ft/s), with a typical value of about 3048 m/s (10,000 ft/s).

The exhaust velocity for a particular rocket can be determined from equation.

2
cpTe Ve
c 0 TT
2
 so

Te
Ve 2cp TT Te 2c pTT 1
TT

1
Since Te / TT pe/ p T equation , and cp R/ 1 equation .

1/
2 RTT pe
Ve 1
1 pT

From equation, we can see that the exhaust velocity is a function of T T, pe/pT, and the constants R and . TT is a
function of the chemical reaction of the fuel and the oxidizer. Any fuel- oxidizer combination at a particular pressure
will burn at a particular temperature determined by the heat of reaction and called the adiabatic flame temperature.
Thus T T depends primarily on the propellant mixture. PT is dependent on the nozzle throat area and the mass flow rate
at which the rocket fuel and oxidizer are consumed. This, in turn, is determined by the rate at which the pumps drive
fuel into a liquid rocket engine combustion chamber or by the burning surface area in a solid propellant rocket
combustion chamber. The exit pressure pe is determined by the rocket exit area, which is usually designed to bring the
exit pressure equal to the ambient pressure at the average height during the burning phase of the rocket flight path.

The other two factors in equation are the constants R and . Unfortunately, the values we have been using so
far for R and are applicable only to a particular gas, air. The gas constant R is more generally defined as the
universal gas constant R divided by the molecular weight of the
gas, M. Thus

R
R
M

where R, the universal gas constant = 8314 J/K-kg mole.

The molecular weight of air is 28.96. is not really a constant at all, because the composition and
temperature of the gas are changing as the gas flows through the rocket motor. However, for preliminary design of
rockets, is often taken as some average between 1.2 and 1.35.

Table 17.1 shows the combustion chamber temperature, the molecular weight of the products of combustion,
the exhaust velocity, the resulting specific impulse, and for several rocket fuel-oxidizer combinations. We can
see from equation that a fuel-oxidizer combination with
a high value of R, which results from a low molecular-weight M, and a high TT will increase the exhaust velocity and
therefore will be more efficient. Other factors must also be considered. Hydrogen-fluorine, for example, suffers from
being extremely corrosive and toxic. The choice of a rocket fuel must be made not only on the basis of its performance
but also after consideration of the difficultly of designing the storage tanks, the pumps and piping that bring the fuel
the difficulty of designing the storage tanks, the pumps and piping that bring the fuel to the motor, the motor itself, and
the threat to personnel handling the equipment.

Note that the specific impulse as calculated for Table is simply V e/g. this is because the assumed rocket has
been designed so that the exit pressure is equal to the ambient pressure (i.e., p e = p0 in equation). Also, the ratio of pT
to pe has been taken as 68.03. this corresponds to a
combustion chamber pressure of 1000 lb/in2. at sea level, a combination widely used to compare rocket engine
performance.
 The use of equation to determine rocket motor performance is shown in the following example.

Example:

A rock motor using liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen as the fuel and oxidizer has a combustion chamber
temperature and pressure of 2700 K and 25 atm, respectively. The rocket motor throat area is 0.07 m2. The exit area is
designed for a standard pressure altitude of 17 km. may be assumed as 1.26.. The exit molecular weight of the
combustion products is 9.5.

Table: Typical properties of several liquid rocket propellants

Fuel- oxidizer Combustion Molecular

combination chamber weight of Ve, m/s Isp, s
temperature K combustion
products
Kerosene- 3555 21.9 2788 28.5 1.24
oxygen
Hydrogen- 3869 11.8 3774 385 1.33
fluorine
Hydrogen- 2689 8.9 3760 384 1.26
oxygen

apT/pe = 68.03; sea level, pe = po.

At the design altitude of 17 km, calculate the exit velocity, specific impulse, and the thrust of the engine. Also
determine the Mach number and the area at the exit.

Solution: Since the rocket is designed for an altitude of 17 km, the nozzle exit area will be designed to give an exit
pressure equal to the ambient pressure at 17 km. From Table A.1. this pressure is, by interpolation, 8852 N/m2.

The chamber pressure is 25 atm (i.e.. 25 times the sea-level standard pressure). Thus pT = 25 x 101, 325 =
2.533, 125 N/m2. the given problem is then
From equation,

1/
pe
Ve 2 RTT 1
1 pt

R 8314 875.2 and =1.26

R
M 9.5

Then

1.26 1 / 1.26

Ve 2 1.26 875.2 2700 1 8852

1.26 1 2.533,125
3971.79m/ s

Since the nozzle is designed with pe = p0, Isp is from equation, where ce = Ve.
Ve 3971.79
Isp 405.29s
g 9.8

From equation.
/ 1 1/
pe Te Te pe
so that
p Tt TT pT
T

and

1.26 1 / 1.26
8852
Te 2700 840.3K
2,533,125

Then the speed of sound at the nozzle exit is

ae RTe 1.26 875.2 840.3 962.62m/ s

and

Ve 3971.79 4.126
Me
ae 962.62
 The area of the exit is found from equation. Note that figure is not applicable since we are not working with
air and is not.
2 1/ 1
Se 1 2 1 2e
S*l M2 1 1 2 M
e
2.26 / 0.26
1 2 0.26 2
2
1 4.126 517.5
4.126 2.26 2

and

Se S*l 517.5 0.07 22.75 1.592m2

Thrust = Ve (dm/dt), so we must find dm/dt, the mass flow rate.

dm
peSe Ve
dt
pe
pe 8852 0.0121kg kg/m3
RTe 875.2 840.3

Then
dm
0.0121 1.592 3971.79
dt
= 76.51 kg/s
 and

thrust 3971.79 76.51

303,879N
68,318lb

Propulsion-Airframe integration

Propulsion-airframe integration is the process of locating the power plants and designing their installation to
meat many operating requirements while minimizing drag and weight penalties. The arrangement of the propulsive
units influences aircraft safety, structural weight, flutter, drag, control, maximum lift, propulsive efficiency,
maintainability, and aircraft growth potential.

For prop-driven aircraft, the propeller requirements almost always place the engines on the wing or, for
single-engine airplanes, at the fuselage nose. An unusual design used in converting a small piston-engine-powered
commuter airplane from a twin-engine configuration to a trimotor was to place the center engine on the vertical tail. A
recent trend in turboprop executive aircraft has

been to place the engines on the rear portion of the wing. The pusher propellers, at the rear of the engines, are behind
the aft bulkhead of the passenger cabin. The latter is actually the fundamental design objective because it reduces the
noise and vibration in the cabin caused by the propellers. Because the engines are so far aft, the center of gravity is
also far aft, and the moment arm of the horizontal tail is small. For this reason, longitudinal control.

A Canadian division of Part & Whitney, United Technologies, is Prat & Whitney Canada (PWC). Figure
summarizes the PWC product line. This company produces several engines, all of which are also discussed in this
chapter.

General Electric Axial compressor Engines

Another major manufacturer of both large and small axial-flow gas turbines in this country is the General
Electric Company. One of their most highly produced machines is the J79 series Fig. currently used in the McDonnel
Douglas F-4 and formerly used on the General Dynamics B-58 and other aircraft. A commercial version of this engine
was called the CJ805-3, and an affan counterpart, the CJ805-23 Fig. was used in the Convair 880 and the Convair 990,
respectively, but it was never widely accepted. Three points worth noting about thee engine are the ariable-angle inlet
guide vanes, the variable-angle first six stator stages in the compressor (see chap. 5) and the location and method of
driving the fan in the CJ805-23 engine. The fan, located in the rear, is “gas coupled” to the primary engine as opposed
to the mechanical coupling used in many of the Pratt & Whitney designs and others. Placing the fan in the rear and
having it gas coupled is claimed to compromise basic engine performance to a lesser degree. In addition, the engine
can be accelerated faster, and the aft-fan blades are automatically anti-iced by thermal conduction. Forward fan
designers claim fewer problems resulting from foreign-object damage, since most of the foreign material will be
thrown radically outward and not passed through the rest of the engine. Furthermore, they claim that the forward fan
in the cold section of the engine for highest durability and reliability and minimum sealing problems.

As an interesting aside, General Electric‟s venture into the ultra-high-bypass-ratio propfan area is based on
their aft-fan concept. A General Electric F404 engine was modified by placing a multistage, free-power turbine at the
rear of the engine; this turbine was then attached to counter rotating, wide-chord, carbon/epoxy composite fan blades.
The engine, called Unducted Fan (UDF), was never put into production but remains a viable competitor among
propfan designs.

In addition to its aft-fan designs, General Electric also produces a high-bypass-ratio, forward-fan engine called
the TF39 Fig., which powers the Lockheed C5A and B Galaxy, one of the largest airplanes in the world.

From the TF39, General electric has developed a series of engines using the same basic gas generator (core)
portion of the engine, but it has changed the fan and the number of turbines needed to drive the fan. The CF6 series is
installed in the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and MD-11, the Airbus Industrie A-300 and A-310, and the Boeing 747
and 767. The Rockwell International B- 1 Bomber uses the General electric F101, a medium-bypass turbofan. A low-
bypass General Electric turbofan engine is the F404, used in the McDonnell Douglas/Northrop F-18 Fig, while the
General Electric F110 (fig) is installed in the General Dynamics F-16. A no afterburning derivative
of the General Electric F110, the F18-GE-100, powers the Northrop B-2, and the General Electric 90B1 Fig. is slated for
the Boeing 777.

Like Pratt & Whitney, General Electric manufactures a series of smaller gas turbine engines. The CJ610, or
J85 Fig. is used in the early Gates Lear Jet, Northrop Talon T38 (F5), and the early Jet Commander. The Jet
Commander, now made in Israel, is called the West wind 1124 and Astra 1125 and is powered by the Allied Signal
Garrett TFE731 engine Fig. As might be expected, General Electric has developed an aft-fan version of the CJ610
called the CF700 (fig), two of which are installed on many models of the Falcon fanjet.

In addition to the turbojet and turbofan engines, General Electric manufactures the T58 (fig) and the T64 Fig.
Both are free-power turbine engines, a major difference being the location of the power take-off shaft, and are used to
power a variety of Sikorsky and Boeing helicopters.

The TF34 Fig is one of General Electric‟s small turbofan engines, driving the Lockheed S- 3A and the
Fairchild Republic A-10 aircraft.

Other Axial Compressor Engines

Still other examples of axial-flow machines are the Allison Engine Company J71 Fig. which powered the
Douglas B-66, and the Allison Engine Company 501 series or T56 engine Fig., used in the Lockheed Hercules and
Electra, Grumman Hawkeye, Convair 580 Conversion, Lockheed C- 130, Lockheed P-3, and Grumman E-2C. Since
the 501 is a turboprop, the compressor and the load of the propeller require the use of many turbine wheels, a
requirement typical of all turboprop/turbofan designs. Although it was never put into production, the Allison Engine
Company has also designed an axial-flow turboprop engine incorporating a fixed regenerator.

British manufacturers have com up with some interesting variations of the axial-flow engine. For example, the
Fig. all three-spool turbofan engines. The RB211, in particular, has found wide acceptance in this country and is used
in the Lockheed L-1011; the Boeing 747, 757, 767, and 777; and the Airbus Industrie A330. The Rolls-Royce spey
Fig, which powers the DeHavilland Trident, British Aerospace Corporation (B.A.C) One-Eleven, and engine with a
mixed exhaust. The Rolls Royce Tyne Fig. is a two-spool turboprop engine with an integral gearbox for use in the
Caadair 44. Rolls-royce, in collaboration with SNECMA of France, also builds the Olympus 593, one of the few
afterburning commercial engines, for use in the supersonic British Aerospace Aerospatiale Concorde.

The Oryx manufactured by D. Napier and Son Ltd., is another unusual design of British manufacture. The
power produced by the gas-generator section of the engine is used to drive another axial-flow compressor. The airflow
from both the gas generator and the air pump is mixed together, resulting in an extremely high-volume airflow. The
engine is specifically designed to drive helicopter rotor blades by a jet reaction at the tips.

The Rolls-Royce/Bristol Produce is another form of engine designed to produce high- volume airflows. Fan
air and primary airflow are both vectored (directed) in an appropriate direction in order to achieve the desired line of
thrust. The engine is installed in the V/STOL Hawker Harrier.
Axial-Centrifugal Compressor Engines

As a group, the axial-centrifugal-flow engines exhibit the greatest variability and design innovation. The
AlliedSignal Garrett ATF3 is a perfect example Fig. All of the various permutations and combinations of compressor
design, number of spools, type of combustion chamber, single-shaft versus free-power turbine, location of the power-
takeoff shaft, etc., can be found on these engines.

An important producer of axial-centrifugal engines in this country is AlliedSignal Lycoming Fig. their T53
and T55 series engines Fig, in their several versions, have been designed for wide application in both conventional and
rotary wing aircraft. Both engines use the same basic concept and arrangement of parts; the main difference is in the
number of compressor and free- power turbine stages. The mechanically independent free-power turbine drives a
coaxial through- shaft to provide cold, front-end power extraction. A feature of these engines is the reverse-flow
combustion chamber design mentioned previously.
 Two later engines developed by AlliedSignal Lycoming are the LTS/LTP (fig) series of small
turboshaft/turboprop engines and the ALF502 (Fig). At the time of this writing, most turbofan engine fans are either
coupled to one of the compressors or to a group of turbines independent of the gas-generator compressor turbine(s).
Either case requires a compromise, since the best number of revolutions per minute (rpm) for the fan is, in most cases,
lower than the best rpm for the gas-generator compressor (core engine) or any turbine wheel. In the ALF502, the fan is
geared down, like the propeller on many piston engines, so the low pressure turbine and high- bypass-ratio fan can
each turn at an appropriate rpm.

The highly produced and used Pratt & Whitney Canada (PWC) PT6A engine also uses a reverse-flow
combustion chamber. On this machine, the air enters toward the rear and flows forward, with the power takeoff at the
front. It is currently in use on many twin engine aircraft in business and commuter operation, including the Beech
Starship, Beech King Air, Shorts 360, the Piper Aircraft Corp. Cheyenne, Cessna Conquest, a few Bell helicopters,
and several foreign aircraft. The engine has also been used to power the STP Special at the Indianapolis 500 race.
Another interesting design from PWC, also incorporation a reverse-flow combustion chamber to keep the engine
short, is the JT15d fig. used on the Cessna Citation. As can be seen in this chapter, many other engine manufacturers
use the reverse-flow burner concept in their designs.

Allison Engine Company‟s bid for the small turbine market, the T63 (model 250) fig. has an axial-centrifugal
compressor (some variations of this engine use only a centrifugal compressor) and incorporates many unusual design
features. For example, it can be disassembled in minutes with ordinary hand tools, contains a single combustion
chamber, and has an interchangeable gearbox. The axial part of the compressor is only about 4.5 inch (in) diameter,
and the engine weighs about 140 lb [64 kilograms (kg)] yet produces over 400 hp [298 kw] in some versions. The
turbo shaft variation of this engine is installed in the Hughes OH-6 Light Observation Helicopter (LOH), the Bell Jet
Ranger helicopter, and others. Figures 2-87 and 2-86 show two small turbofans, with an axial-and centrifugal-style
compressor: the Williams International FJ-44, which powers the Cessna CitationJet, and the F107 Wr-400 used in the
cruise missile.
 Most small gas turbines use the free-power turbine method of driving the load, and the driving the load, and
the Boeing engine in Fig. 2-26 is no exception. Air is compressed by a single axial stage, followed by a single
centrifugal stage. The compressed air is mixed with fuel and ignited in twin combustors. Hot gases then expand
through the single-stage, gas-producer and power turbines and exhaust through either a single-or double-exhaust
nozzle.

GE is now producing an axial-centrifugal engine called the T700 (commercial version CT7) Fig. This engine
is designed to be installed in the Sikorsky Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft (UTTAS) UH60A, the model 214 Bell
helicopter, and the McDonnell Douglas Army Attack Helicopter (AAH) AH64. It is sometimes fitted with an integral
inlet particle separator located at the forward end.

An engine that shows great promise, and combines many of the design innovations discussed at the beginning
of the section on the axial-centrifugal compressor, is to AlliedSignal Garrett TFE731 Fig. This machine is a medium-
bypass, two-spool engine, with the geared front fan coupled through a planetary gearbox to the low-pressure axial
spool. The centrifugal- compressor, high-pressure spool is driven by a single turbine. Reverse-flow combustion
chambers are also used. The engine will be found on late model Lear Jerts, the I.A.I. 124 Westwind, and other aircraft.

Once again, British designers and manufacturers have produced an unusual axial- centrifugal flow engine. The
Bristol Proteus Fig. incorporates a reverse-flow, axial-centrifugal compressor and a two-stage, free-power turbine
driving the propeller output shaft through a series of reduction gears. The engine is used in the Britannia aircraft.

Mixed-Flow Compressor Engine

The mixed-flow compressor does not fall into any of the three main categories. The mixed- flow design is
similar in appearance to the single-entry centrifugal compressor, but The mixed-flow compressor does not fall into any
of the three main categories. The mixed-flow design is similar in appearance to the single-entry centrifugal
compressor, but the blade arrangement provides a different type of airflow. The compressor receives its air axially, as
do many other types, but it discharges this air at some angle between the straight-though flow of the axial compressor
and the radial flow of the centrifugal compressor. The Fairchild J44 engine Fig. used this design.

PART – A

2. ISA:- (International standard Atmosphere)

It is the Atmospheric manual containing the mean values of the temp, pressure, density etc existing throughout
the world.
3. How drag disaffected by air density?

From the formula for relative drag produced on the body

R 1
C PV2.S C coeff as drag
d F d
2
P-density
R is disectly proportional to p V-Velocity
thus drag increases as pineseases SF Pr ontal area
 In other means, As the P increases the mass of air p molecules striking the wing increases which in turn
increases the energy to be supplied to displace the air molecules hitting the mane/it absorbs energy: R increases with p.

4. Absolute attitude:

Absolute attitude is defined as the attitude of the plane from the centre of the earth. It is p represented by ha.

Ha = ha + r (m)

hG

ha
r

Figure:

10. Pressure distribution over an aerofoil:-

Figure:

11. What do you mean by lift & drag?

Figure:

Lift is the force component on the wing/plane which is responsible for the up & down movement drag is the
unwanted force component on the plane which resists motion and always lie opp to the direction of motion.

12. How pressure and density varies with attitude?

 Pressure decreases with the increase in attitude, density also decrease with the increase in attitude.

These are verified with the eqn.

Figure:
go go
.h2 1 h dR
P2 RT T2
e
P1

isothermal region gradient region

go 1
p2 go .h h
RT 2 1 T2 aR
e
p1

isothermal region gradient region

where
a – lapse rate - dT
dh
go – all due to glave in the rea level

Short notes on ISA:-

The most aggravating feature of the atmosphere is its changeability- it is never the same from day to day, from
hour to hour. For this reason we have been forced to adopt an average set of conditions (as shown in figure) called the
International Standard Atmosphere. Although there may never be a day when the conditions of the atmosphere all the
way up are exactly the same as those average conditions, they do serve as a standard for comparing the performances
of aircraft. For instance, when a height record is attempted, the height allowed is not the height actually achieved but
the height allowed is not the height actually achieved but the height which, according
to calculation, would have been achieved if the conditions had been those of the International Standard Atmosphere. So
it is no good choosing a lucky day!.

It is not easy to say how far the atmosphere actually extends, for the simple reason that the change from
atmosphere to space is so gradual it is impossible to decide on a definite dividing line; of this reason it is hardly
surprising to find that estimates of the maximum height vary from 50 to 250 miles or more –rather a wide range. So
far as aircraft are concerned, the higher we get, the more difficult does it become to go any higher. At record breaking
heights we already have to pump air into the engine, enclose the pilot in air-tight suit, supply him with oxygen and
heat his clothing artificially, while the aircraft itself can hardly get sufficient support in air that not got one- quarter the
thickness of the air near the ground.
Fig: The International Standard Atmosphere
 Nor is it surprising that estimates of temperature in even higher regions of the atmosphere vary very
considerably-between temperatures both above and below anything known on earth- when the air is so thin it isn‟t the
temperature of the air that matters so much as the temperature of the outer surfaces of the aircraft.

But in these days of missiles, satellites, and spaceships, we have become very interested, no only in the upper
reaches of the atmosphere, but in the space beyond it. These may not be aircraft (as we have defined the term), and
although they may not even fly (according to our definition), no book on flight, with or without formulae, can any
longer leave them out of consideration; we shall have more to say about them towards the end of the book.

Derive an expression for the speed of sound:-

Consider an aircraft is flying at a certain velocity, IT is producing sound and the sound is traveling at an
velocity of a m/s.

Figure:

P, e, p + dp,
V p + dp,
V + dv.

Let us examine the wave in focus, speaking with respect to the wave, the air molecules approaches the wave at a
velocity vend at pressure p and density p and leaves the wave at an a velocity vtdvat pressure p+2p and density p+dp
applying continuity eqn, we have

PVA p dp v dv A
PV p dp v dv
PV pdV dpV dpdV dpdv o
O=pdv+dpv
dpv=pdv - 1

(A cannot change since area of the steam tube remains same before & after the wave)
 From the culer‟s momentum eqn

dp dv vdv
dP
2
sub (2) in (1) v

vd
dp
p pv
dp
v2
dp

dp
v 3
dp

Zn this sound transmission there is no heat transfer in the process and also there is no friction and so it is an
isentropic flow process.

and therefore
Paf Vbe
m
t f m-mass
Pbe Vaf m

f t
xaft Pr operty after the wave Pr
xbef operty before he wave
paf
t
pbe
f

Paft Pbef P
Constnat =C= 4
Paft Pbef p

P
C P=Cp
p

and d cp 1 C  p
dp c  5
d
d

sub (5) in (3)

 V vp

V RT PV=mRT
V
P RT
m
P RT

By substuting the values of an ideal gas

V = 340.29 m/s

PART – A

1. Define AR & Camber.

Aspect ratio:-

It is defined as the ratio of the wing span to the chord of the wing if it has a constant chord.
Otherwise it is the ratio of the wing span to the plan area of the wing

b
b
n
S

b S – Plan area
AR
c
AR b2
S
Figure:

Camber:
 Camber is defined as the max distance between the chord and the mean camber line

Mean camber line

Chord

Chamber

Figure:

2. Mach number:- (M)

It is defined as the ratio of the velocity of the aircraft (or) air (or) an object(v) to the velocity of sound (a)
V
M no units a
3. Airfoil:-

Airfoil is the cross section of the wing whose upper surface is more bulged than surface to produce tight.
4. Aerodynamic centre:-

It is a point on the chord of the aerofoil where these is no change in the moment.
5. Types of drag:

(i) Form drag (or) pressurizing

(ii) Skin fiction (or) surface friction drag
(iii) Boundary layer drag

6. Centre of pressure:-

it is a point where the total pressure force acts on the aerofoil.

PART-B

The Turbojet Engine

 Which deals with engine theory, points out that a turbojet derives its thrust by highly accelerating a small
mass of air, all of which goes through the engine. Since a high “jet” velocity is required to obtain an acceptable
amount of thrust, the turbine of a turbojet is designed to extract only enough power from the hot gas stream to drive
the compressor and accessories. All of the propulsive force produced by a jet engine is derived from the imbalance of
forces within the engine itself Fig.

The turbojet characteristics and uses are as follows:

1. Low thrust at low forward speeds

2. Relatively high, thrust-specific fuel consumption (TSFC) at low altitudes and airspeeds, a disadvantage that
decreases as altitude and airspeed increase
3. Long takeoff roll
4. Small frontal area, resulting in low drag and reduced ground-clearance problems
5. Lightest specific weight (weight per pound of thrust produced)
6. Ability to take advantage of high ram-pressure ratios

These characteristics suggest that the turbojet engine would be best for high-speed, high- altitude, long-distance
flights.

The Turboprop Engine

Propulsion in a turboprop engine is accomplished by the conversion of the majority of the gas-steam energy
into mechanical power to drive the compressor, accessories, and the propeller load. Only a small amount
(approximately 10 percent of “jet” thrust is available in the relatively low-pressure, low-velocity gas stream created by
the additional turbine stages needed to drive the extra load of the propeller.

The turboprop characteristics and uses are as follows:

1. High propulsive efficiency at low airspeeds, which results in shorter takeoff rolls but falls off rapidly as
develop high thrust at low airspeeds because the propeller can accelerate large quantities of air at zero forward
velocity of the airplane. A discussion of propulsive efficiency follows in the next chapter.
2. More complicated design and heavier weight than a turbojet
3. Lowest TSFC
4. Large frontal area of propeller and engine combination that necessitates longer landing gears for low-wing
airplanes but does not necessarily increase parasitic drag
5. Possibility of efficient reverse thrust

These characteristics show that turboprop engines are superior for lifting heavy loads off short and medium-
length runways. Turboprops are currently limited in speeds to approximately 500 mph [805 km/h], since propeller
efficiencies fall off rapidly with increasing airspeeds because of shock wave formations. However, researchers in the
Hamilton Standard division of United Technologies Corporation and others are trying to overcome, or extend, this
limitation by experimenting with small diameter, multibladed, wide-chord propellers, said to be more efficient than the
high-bypass-ratio turbofan, with a 20 percent reduction in thrust-specific fuel
consumption. Aluminum blades large enough to deliver sufficient thrust and absorb high engine power and of the right
shape are also too heavy and flexible to resist straightening out from a curved and tapered aluminum spar bonded to a
fiberglass, airfoil-shaped shell filled with a plastic like foam material. This composite construction produces a more
rigid blade one-half the weight of a comparable conventional aluminum blade. The obvious advantage is that the
propeller hub and the pitch-changing mechanism located within can be lighter and the blade will more closely
maintain its correct aerodynamic position.

The Turbofan Engine

The turbofan engine has a duct-enclosed fan mounted at the front or rear of the engine and driven either
mechanically geared down or at the same speed as the compressor, or by an independent turbine located to the rear of
the compressor drive turbine. Also illustrate two methods of handling the fan air. Either the fan air can exit separately
from the primary engine air (short duct), or it can be ducted back to mix with the primary engine‟s air at the rear (long
duct). On some long duct engines the primary and secondary airflow may be mixed internally and then exit from a
common nozzle, or the two gas streams may be kept separate for the entire length of the engine. If the fan air is ducted
to the rear, the total fan pressure must be higher than the static gas pressure in the primary engine‟s exhaust, or air will
not flow. By the same token, the static fan discharge pressure must be less than the total pressure in the primary
engine‟s exhaust, or the turbine will not be able to extract the energy required to drive the compressor and fan. By
closing down the area of flow of the fan duct, the static pressure can be reduced and the dynamic pressure increased.
For a discussion of static, dynamic, and total pressure.

The efficiency of the fan engine is increased over that of the pure jet by converting more of the fuel energy
into pressure energy rather than the kinetic (dynamic) energy of a high-velocity exhaust gas stream. As shown in
chapter 3, pressure times the area equals a force. The fan produces this additional force or thrust without increasing
fuel flow. As in the turboprop, primary engine exhaust gas velocities and pressures are low because of the extra
turbine stages needed to drive the fan, and as a result the turbofan engine is much quieter. One fundamental difference
between he turbofan and turboprop engine is that the airflow through the fan is controlled by design so that the air
velocity relative to the fan blades is unaffected by the aircraft‟s speed. This design eliminates the loss in operational
efficiency at high airspeeds that limits the maximum airspeed of propeller-driven aircraft.

The first generation of turbofan designs, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT3D engine series, had a bypass ratio of
approximately 1:1; that is, about 50 percent of the air went through the engine core as primary airflow, and about 50
percent went through the fan as secondary airflow. Second generation turbofans like the General Electric CF6 (fig),
the Pratt & Whitney JT9D (Fig.) and the Rolls Royce RB211 Fig have bypass rations on the order of 5:1 or 6:1. the
fan thus provides a greater percentage of the total thrust produced by the engine.

In terms of actual airflow, Table shows the fan, or cold stream, airflow and the core, or hot stream, airflow for
an engine with a total airflow of 1000 lb/s at several different bypass ratios. Other engines with different airflows will
have different fan and core airflows for similar bypass ratios. For example, for a 500 lb/s airflow engine, divide each
fan and core airflow in half for a given bypass ratio.
 Emphasis on the use and development of the turbofan engine in recent years is due largely to the development
of the transonic blade. The large-diameter fan would require a much lower rpm to keep the blade tips below the speed
of sound, development that would not be conducive to good gas turbine design.

Fan engines show a definite superiority over the pure jet engines at speed below Mach 1, the speed of present-
day commercial aircraft, which, of course, require small frontal areas. At high speeds, the increased drag offered by
the fan more than offsets the greater net thrust produced. The disadvantage of the fan for high-speed aircraft can be
offset at least partially by burning fuel in the fan discharge air.

Table: Fan and core airflow for different bypass ratios.

Bypass Ratio Fan Airflow lb/s Core Airflow lb/s

6.00 858 143
5.00 834 167
4.00 800 200
3.00 750 750
2.00 667 333
1.00 500 500
0.75 429 572
0.50 333 667

This process expands the gas, and, in order to keep the fan discharge air at the same pressure, the are fan jet
nozzle is increased. This action results in increased gross thrust due to an increase in pressure times an area, and
increased thrust-specific fuel consumption. Very-low- bypass-ratio turbofan engines (less than one) are being used on
some fighter aircraft capable of supersonic speeds.
The turbofan characteristics and uses are as follows:

1. Increased thrust at forward speeds similar to a turboprop results in a relatively short takeoff. However, unlike
the turboprop, the turbofan thrust is not penalized with increasing airspeed, up to approximately Mach 1 with
current fan designs.

2. Weight falls between the turbojet and turboprop.

3. Ground clearances are less than turboprop but not as good as turbojet.

4. TSFC and specific weight fall between turbojet and turboprop, resulting in increased operating economy and
aircraft range over the turbojet.

5. Considerable noise level reduction of 10 to 20 percent over the turbojet reduces acoustic fatigue in
surrounding aircraft parts and is less objectionable to people on the ground. Also, no noise suppressor is
needed. On newer fan engines, such as the General Electric CF6 and Pratt & Whitney 4000 series shown in
Figs. Others, the inlet guide vanes have
 been eliminated to reduce the fan noise, which is considered to be a large problem for high-bypass-ratio fan
engines. The noise level is reduced by the elimination by the fan blades cutting through the wakes behind the
vanes. Other fan-noise-reducing features are also incorporated.

6. The turbofan is superior to the turbojet in “hot day” performance.

7. Two thrust reversers are required if the fan air and primary engine air exit through separate fan nozzles, the
advantage of which is the short fan duct with corresponding low duct loss.

Jet Propulsion

It is the propulsion of jet aircraft or other missiles by the reaction of jet coming out with a high velocity. The
term jet propulsion is used where the oxygen is obtained from the surrounding atmosphere. It consists of air plus
combustion products. The principle of jet propulsion is obtained from the application of Newton‟s law of motion. It
is nothing but reaction principle. Since all the air craft engines breaths air from the surrounding atmosphere hence it is
called air – breathing engines. The air breathing engines are classified as:

(i) Turbojet engine

(ii) Turbo prop engine
(iii) Pulse jet (or) flying bomb and
(iv) Ram jet engine

Turbo Jet Engine

It is a most common type of air breathing engine whose essential features are shown in
figure.
 Figure: Components of Turbo Jet Engines

This engine consists of inlet diffuser, compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and an exhaust nozzle. The
function of the diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into a static pressure rise. After this air
enters to the compressor, (axial or centrifugal) which further compresses the air to a very high pressure and delivers it
to the combustion chamber. Then fuel nozzle supplies fuel continuously and continuous combustion takes place at
constant pressure. The high pressure and high temperature gases then enters the turbine, where they expand partially to
provide drive power for the turbine. The turbine is directly connected the compressor and all the power developed by
the turbine is to drive the compressor and the auxiliary devices. After the gases leave the turbine, they expand further
in the exhaust nozzle and are ejected with a very high velocity than the flight velocity to produce a thrust for
propulsion.

The T – S diagram or ideal and actual cycle is shown in figure

Figure:
i – 1 Inlet diffuser
1 – 2 Air
compressor
2 –3 Combustion chamber
3 –4 Turbine
4 –e Nozzle or tail pipe

Advantages:

1. Lower frontal area due to the absence of fan. Therefore the drag is less
2. Suitable for long distance flights at higher altitudes and speeds.
 3. Since this engine has a compressor it is capable of operating under static conditions.
4. Reheat can be possible to increase the thrust.
5. Lower weight per unit thrust at design speed and altitude.
6. Since a diffuser is at the inlet, part of the compression is done by it without any work input.

Disadvantages:

1. Propulsive efficiency and thrust are lower at lower speeds

2. Thrust specific fuel consumption is high at low speeds and altitudes.
3. It is not economical for short distance flights.
4. Long runway is required due to slower acceleration.
5. Sudden decrease of speed is difficult to achieve.

Applications:

Turbo jet engines are used in military aircrafts, guided missiles and piloted aircrafts, etc,

Turbo Prop Engine:

It is very similar to turbo jet engine , the major difference being that the turbine is designed so that it develops
shaft power for deriving a propeller to provide most of the propulsive thrust (90%), and only a small amount jet thrust
is produced in the nozzle is shown in figure.

Figure: Components of Turbo – Prop Engine

The engine consists of a diffuser, compressor, combustion chamber, turbine, exhaust nozzle, reduction gear
and a propeller. The diffuser, compressor and combustion chamber functions are as same as the turbo jet engine.
However, in the turbo prop engine, the turbine extracts much more power than the turbo – jet engine, because the
turbine provides power for both the compressor and the propeller. When all of this energy is extracted from the high
temperature gases, only little energy is left out for producing jet thrust. Thus the turbo – prop engine drives most of its
propulsive thrust from the propeller and drives only a small portion (10 to 25%) from the exhaust nozzle.
 Since the shaft rotation speed of gas turbine engine is very high, a reduction gear must be placed between the
turbine shaft and the propeller to enable the propeller to operate efficiently.

Advantages:

1. Propulsive efficiency is very high.

2. The TSFC based on thrust is low
3. High acceleration at lower speed enables to a shorter run way.
4. Thrust reversal is possible by varying the blade angle, this gives the advantage of decreasing the speed
drastically.
5. Used for shorter distance travels. ( C < 600 Kmph)

Disadvantages:

1. Heavier propeller, compressor and turbine decreases pay load capacity.

2. A reduction gear is required to transmit the power from the turbine shaft to the propeller shaft.
3. If the speed of the engine increases above 600 Kmph, the efficiency drastically decreases.
4. The frontal area is being blocked on account of large diameter propeller which increases the co – efficient of
drag.
5. Engine is heavier and more complicated.

Ram Jet Engine:

The simplest types of air – breathing engine is the Ram jet engine which is shown in figure. The engine
consists of a supersonic diffuser, subsonic diffuser section, combustion chamber and a discharge nozzle section. The
function of a supersonic and subsonic diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into a pressure rise,
called the “ram pressure”.

Air from the atmosphere enters the supersonic diffuser where in its static pressure increased and the velocity
of air is reduced. Then the air enters the subsonic diffuser it is compressed further. The air then flows into the
combustion chamber, where the fuel burners are located and here the air is heated to a high temperature (1600 0 C to
20000 C) by the continuous combustion of fuel. The highly heated products of combustion are then allowed to expand
in the exhaust nozzle section and are discharged from the engine with a speed greater than that of entering air. Because
of the rate of increase in momentum of the working fluid flowing through the engine, a thrust „F‟ is developed in the
direction of flight.
 Figure: Components of Ram Jet Engine

The cycle pressure ratio of ram jet engine depends upon its flight velocity; the higher the flight velocity, the
larger the ram pressure and consequently larger the thrust. Since the flight speed is very high, the pressure rise in the
diffuser (ram pressure) is very high and this eliminates the compressor. Consequently the turbine is also eliminated,
because, the function of a turbine in just to run the compressor. Since the rum jet engine cannot operate under static
conditions as there will be no pressure rise in the diffuser, it is not self – operating at zero flight velocity. Therefore to
attain the required flight speed some kind of starting device must be required such as launching rockets.

Advantages:

1. Pay load capacity is very high due to the absence of fan, compressor and turbine.
2. Its fuel consumption decreases with flight speed and approaches reasonable values when the flight Mach
number is between 2 to 4, and therefore, it is suitable for propelling supersonic missiles.
3. Since the frontal area is less, the co – efficient of drag is low.
4. It increases the mechanical efficiency due to the absence of sliding and moving parts.
5. High temperature and pressure can be employed.

Disadvantages:

1. A starting device is required to propel ram jet up to supersonic speed.

2. Altitude limitation is there.
3. It has low thermal efficiency and high TSFC.
4. Due to high temperature of gas coming out from the nozzle, erosion occurs at the exit of the nozzle.
Applications:

Uses as guided missiles and high supersonic speed aircrafts.

Pulse Jet or Flying Bomb:

Figure a pulse jet engine which consists of a inlet diffuser, valve grid (contains springs that close on their own
spring pressure), combustion chamber, spark plug and a discharge nozzle.
 Figure: Components of Pulse Jet Engine

The function of a diffuser is to change the kinetic energy of the entering air into static pressure rise by slowing
down the air velocity. When a certain pressure drop exits across the valve grid, the valves will open and allow the
fresh air to enter the combustion chamber, where fuel is injected and mixed with air. Hence combustion takes place
with spark ignition. There is a rapid increase in pressure, which causes the valve to close rapidly and surges the
products of combustion rearward into the nozzle, where they expand and escape with higher velocity than the entrance
velocity. Thus the thrust is produced at the nozzle exit.

Since firing in the combustor is intermittent and therefore intermittent thrust is produced. The pulse – jet
engine is a simple, cheap for subsonic flights and well adopted to pilot less aircraft.

Advantages:

1. It gives higher pay load capacity due to the absence of compressor, propeller and turbine.
2. It is simple in construction and cheap. It is suitable for subsonic flights.
3. Drag co – efficient is less due to smaller frontal area.
4. Due to the absence of sliding and moving parts mechanical efficiency is very high.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited flight speed and altitude.

2. Severe vibrations and high intensity of noise due to intermittent combustion.
3. Nozzle erosion occurs, due to the high temperature of gases coming out from the nozzle.

Thrust:
 The force which propels the aircraft forward at a given speed is called propulsive force or thrust. This
propulsive force is mainly depends on the velocity of gases at the exit of the nozzle in turbo jet engines and from the
propeller in turbo prop engines.

Jet Thrust (Turbo Jet Engine)

The two section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2 of an imaginary control surface for a turbo jet engine is shown in figure. The
flow of air (internal and external) is separated by the solid boundaries of the engine casing.

Figure: Flow of Gases in Turbo Jet Engine

Ambient air enters the jet engine at a pressure Pa and velocity „u‟ and after expansion hot gases leave from the
nozzle at a pressure Pe and high velocity Ce. If Pe = Pa the expansion is complete i.e., Ce = Cj (Jet velocity).

.
and the mass flow rate at exit is . .
Mass flow rate at inlet of the engine is ma
ma mf

Kg/sec. Part of the air flow at section 1 – 1 is swallowed by the jet engine and experiences change in momentum flux,
the remaining flows through the engine without any change in the momentum flux.
The net thrust on the engine = momentum thrust + pressure thrust F = Fmom +

Fpr

. . .
Momentum thrust Fmom = ma mf Ce - ma u
 Pressure thrust Fpr = (Pe – Pa ) Ae

. . .
Net thrust F = ma mf Ce - ma u + Ae (Pe – Pa)

Propeller Thrust:

Figure shows the air flow takes place across the propeller of a turbo prop engine. The air flow pattern before
and after the propeller is shown in figure. A flow boundary similar to the walls of a duct which separates the fluid at
rest and fluid in motion.

Figure: Flow through a Turbo – Prop Engine

The pressure at section 1 – 1 and outside the boundary is ambient. Therefore, the thrust on the propeller and
the aircraft is due to the change in momentum flux between inlet and outlet section.

.
The thrust on the propeller F = ma (Cj – u)
Where Cj = Jet velocity and u =

flight speed

The flight to jet velocity ratio or effective speed ratio

u
Cj
Therefore, . u
F ma Cj 1
Cj
.
= ma Cj [ 1 - ]
Propulsive, Thermal and Overall Efficiencies

The performance of an aircraft population system can be analyzed by various efficiencies.

Figure shows the utilization of power of the fuel in a turbo jet engine.

Figure: Utilization of Power in Aircraft Propulsion

.
Power input to the engine (Fuel power) = mf Qf

1 .
Power output from the engine =
2 u2
m Cj
2
Propulsive power (or) Thrust power F u = (Pout – Pin)

Propulsive Efficiency ( p)

Propulsive power (or) Thrust power

Pr opulsive efficiency=
Power output of the engine
.
m Cj u u 2 Cj u u
1 . Cj u Cj u
m C 2j u2
2
2u
p
Cj u

Divide both Nr. and Dr. by „Cj‟ the above equation becomes
 2
p
1
2 2
p
1 Cj
1 1
u

Case (a): When the speed of air craft u = 0, the propulsive efficiency is maximum. p = 0, but the specific thrust
Maximum thrust is needed during take – off period.

Case (b): When the speed of aircraft equals to the speed of jet i.e., u = Cj, p = 100%, but the
specific thrust is zero. Therefore „Cj‟ must be always greater than „u‟ when the aircraft is flying. In normal conditions
when the speed ratio ( ) increases, the propulsive efficiency ( p) will also increases. The propulsive efficiency can be
increased by increasing the jet velocity close to the flight speed where as the thrust power can be increased by
increasing the mass flow rate of air or gas through the propulsive device. The propulsive efficiency versus speed ratio
for turbo jet and turbo prop engine is shown in figure.

Figure: Comparison of Turbo Jet Engines

Characteristics, Applications, comparisons, and evaluation of the turbojet, turboprop, turbofan, and propfan
engines

By converting the shaft horsepower of the turboprop into pounds of thrust and the fuel consumption per
horsepower into fuel consumption per pound of thrust, a comparison between the various engine forms can be made.
Assuming that the engines have equivalent compressor ratios and internal temperatures and that they are installed in
equal-sized aircraft best suited to the type of engine used, Fig. shows how the various engines compare in thrust and
thrust specific fuel consumption versus airspeed. As the graphs indicate, each engine type has its advantages and
limitations. Summaries of these characteristics and uses follow.
Thermal Efficiency ( th)

Power output of the engine

th
Power input to the engine through fuel
1 . 2 2
m CJ u
2
= .
mf Qf

Overall efficiency ( 0)

Propulsive power
th
Power input to the engine through fuel
.
m Cj uu
= .
mf Qf
1 . 2
, the above equation becomes,
Multiply both Nr. and Dr. by 2 u
m CJ
2
.
1m.
C2J u2
m Cj u u 2
.
1m.
C2J u2 mf Q f
2
0 p th

Specific Fuel consumption:

It is the ratio between fuel consumption rate per unit thrust. Since the output is in the form of thrust, a thrust
fuel consumption is

.
mf
TSFC
F

It is an important parameter to compare the engine performance of different types of aircraft propulsion systems.

Substituting equation we get,

u u
0 . .
mf mf
. Qf Qf
F
m Cj u
 u TSFC
=
Qf
Specific Thrust:

It is defined as the thrust produced per unit mass flow rate through the propulsive device.
F
Fsp .

It is an another useful parameter for comparing the different types of propulsion devices.

Specific Impulse:

It is defined as the thrust produced per unit weight flow rate through the propulsive device.
It is also an another useful performance parameter in aircraft propulsion devices.

.
Isp
F m Cj u
. .
W mg

u Cj
= 1
g u
u 1
=
g

Effect of Forward Speed:

The forward speed of the aircraft affects the compressor inlet pressure and temperature. As flight velocity
increases, inlet drag will be more and the net specific thrust is reduced using the normal values of cycle variables.
Therefore, propulsive efficiency is decreased.

Effect of Altitude:

At higher altitude, the ambient temperature and pressure is very less. This ambient air is not sufficient to
propel the aircraft engines. Therefore, the flight must fly at a designed altitude.

Thrust Augmentation:

To achieve better take – off performance, higher rates of climb and increased performance at altitude during
combat maneuvers, there has been a demand for increasing the thrust output of aircraft power plant for short intervals
of time. The following methods of thrust augmentation for turbo jet engines are:

(a) After - burning:

 Burning additional fuel in the tail pipe between the turbine exhaust section and entrance section of the exhaust
nozzle is shown in figure.

Figure: After Burner

This method of thrust augmentation increases the enthalpy of air entering the nozzle. Thus the jet velocity at
the nozzle exit is increased, resulting in increased thrust.

(b) Injecting Refrigerants:

Injecting refrigerants, water or water – alcohol mixture at some point between inlet and exit sections of the air
compressor. This method of thrust augmentation increases the mass flow rate of air and decreases the compressor
work.

1. What are the functions of ribs and spars?

Spars:-
The wing spars which are large I-beams that run most of the span of wing, with heights that reach from the
bottom to the top surface of the wing. The spars are basically cantilever beams extending from the fuselage carry
through structure.

Ribs:-
The spars the run along the span of the wing, and the airfoil section that help to form the
shape of the wing, these airfoil shapes are called the wing ribs.

2. Differentiate between monocoque and semi-monocoque construction.

Monocoque:-

A structure in which the outer skin carries the primary stresses and is free of internal bracing.

Semi-monocoque:-

An aircraft structure in which the outer skin in inadequate to carry the primary stresses, and is reinforced by
frames, formers and longerons.

3. State the uses of titanium in aircraft industries.

Titanium has a better strength-to-weight ratio than aluminium and retains its strength at higher temperatures.
 Supersonic aircraft have to use titanium because of the skin temperatures due to aerodynamic heating.

4. Enumerate the composite materials.

Composite materials are bringing about a revolution in aircraft structures because for the same load the
composite structure can yield at least a 25% reduction in weight. Composite materials are quite different from metals
in both their composition and physical properties.

5. State the uses of aluminium alloys in aircraft industry.

 Aluminium is readily formed and machined, reasonable cost, corrosion resistant, and has an excellent strength
to weight ratio.

 It is pure form, aluminium is too short for aircraft use.

6. What are the different types of fuselage structure?

1. Monocoque shell
2. Geodetic construction
3. D-Spar construction
4. Box-Spar construction
5. Semi-monocoque

7. What is box truss structure?

 A box truss is a structure composed of three or more chords connected by transverse and/or diagonal
structural elements.

Box trusses are commonly used in certain types of electric power pylons, large ratio antennas, and many
bridge structures.

8. What is monocoque shell?

Monocoque is a construction technique that supports structural load using an object‟s external skin. This
stands in contrast with using an internal framework (or truss) that is then covered with a non-load-bearing skin.
Monocoque construction was first widely used in aircraft, starting in the 1930s.

PART – B

1. Types, characteristics, and uses of Titanium and its alloys.

Titanium and titanium alloys are used chiefly for parts that require good corrosion resistance, moderate
strength up to 600oF, and lightweight.

Types, Characteristics, and uses

Titanium alloys are being used in quantity for jet engine compressor wheels, compressor blades, spacer rings,
housing compartments, and airframe parts such as engine pads, ducting, wing surfaces, fire walls, fuselage skin
adjacent to the engine outlet, and armor plate. In view of titanium‟s high melting temperature, approximately 3,300oF,
its high-temperature properties are disappointing. The ultimate and yield strengths of titanium drop fast above 800 oF.
In applications where the declines might be tolerated, the absorption of oxygen and nitrogen from the air at
temperatures above 1,000oF makes the metal so brittle on long exposure that it soon becomes worthless. Titanium has
some merit for short-time exposure up to 2,000oF where strength is not important, as in aircraft fire walls. Sharp tools
are essential in machining techniques because titanium has a tendency to resist or back away from the cutting edge of
tools. It is readily welded, but the tendency of the metal to absorb oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen must never be
ignored. Machine welding with an inert gas atmosphere has proven most successful. Both commercially pure and alloy
titanium can absorb large amounts of cold-work without cracking. Practically anything that can be deep drawn in low-
carbon steel can be duplicated in commercially pure titanium, although the titanium may require more intermediate
anneals.
Identification of Titanium:-

Titanium metal, pure or alloyed, is easily identified. When touched with a grinding wheel, it makes white
spark traces that end in brilliant white bursts. When rubbed with a piece of glass, moistened titanium will leave a dark
line similar in appearance to a pencil mark.

2. Write a short note on composite material.

Composites are materials consisting of a combination of high-strength stiff fibers embedded in a common
matrix (binder) material; for example, graphite fibers and epoxy resin. Composite structures are made of a number of
fiber and epoxy resin laminates. These laminates can number from 2 to greater than 50, and are generally bonded to a
substructure such as aluminum or nonmetallic honeycomb. The much stiffer fibers of graphite, boron, and Kevlar®
epoxies have given composite materials structural properties superior to the metal alloys they have replaced.

The use of composites is not new. Fiber glass, for example, has been used for some time in various aircraft
components. However, the term application for naval aircraft.

Composite materials are replacing and supplementing metallic materials in various aircraft structural
components. The first materials were used with laminated fiber glass radomes and helicopter rotor blades. In recent
years, the replacement of metallic materials with more advanced composite materials has rapidly accelerated. This has
become particularly evident with the advent of the F/A-18, AV-8B, SH-60B, and CH-53E aircraft; and it is anticipated
that composite materials will continue to comprise much of the structure in future aircraft. As a result, there is a
growing requirement to train you in the use of advanced composite materials.

There are numerous combinations of composite materials being studied in laboratories and a number of types
currently used in the production of aircraft components. Examples of composite materials are as follows:
graphite/epoxy, Kevlar®/epoxy, boron poly-amide, graphite polyamide, boron-coated boron aluminum, coated boron
titanium, boron graphite epoxy hybrid, and boron/epoxy. The trend is toward minimum use of boron/epoxy because of
the cost when compared to current generation of graphite/epoxy composites. Composites are attractive structural
materials because they provide a high strength/weight ratio and offer design flexibility. In contrast to traditional
materials of construction, the properties of these materials can be adjusted to more efficiently match the requirements
of specific applications.
 Figure: Sandwich construction

However, these materials are highly susceptible to impact damage, and the extent of the damage is difficult to
determine visually. Nondestructive inspection (NDI) is required to analyze the extent of damage that the effectiveness
of repairs. In addition, repair differs from traditional metallic repair techniques.

3. Discuss the monocoque and semi-monocoque construction.

There are two general types of fuselage construction-welded steel truss and monocoque designs. The welded
steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and it is still being used in some helicopters. The monocoque design
relies largely on the strength of the skin, or covering, to carry various loads. The monocoque design may be divided
into three classes-monocoque, semimonocoque, and reinforced shell ! The true monocoque construction uses formers,
frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary stresses. Since
no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid. The biggest problem in
monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight within limits. ! Semimonocoque
design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem of monocoque construction. In addition to having formers, frame
assemblies, and bulkheads, the semimonocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members. ! The
reinforced shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural members. Different portions of the
same fuselage may belong to any one of the three classes. Most are considered to be of semimonocoque-type
construction. The semimonocoque fuselagies constructed primarily of aluminimum alloy, although steel and titanium
are found in high- temperature areas. Primary bending loads are taken by the longerons, which usually extend across
several points of support. The longerons are supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers.

Stringers are more numerous and lightweight than longerons. The vertical structural members are referred to
as bulkheads, frames, and formers. The heavier vertical members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated
loads. These members are also found at points where fittings are used to attach other units, such as the wings and
stabilizers. The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins. They have some rigidity but are
chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of skin. The strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers.
The bulkheads and formers hold the stringers. All of these join together to form a rigid fuselage framework. Stringers
and longerons prevent tension and compression stresses from bending the fuselage. The fuselage skin thickness varies
with the load carried and the stresses sustained at particular location.
4. Write a short note on wings structure.

Wings develop the major portion of the lift of a heavier-than-air aircraft. Wing structures carry some of the
heavier loads found in the aircraft structure. The particular design of a wing depends on many factors, such as the size,
weight, speed, rate of climb, and use of the aircraft. The wing must be constructed so that it holds its aerodynamics
shape under the extreme stresses of combat maneuvers or wing loading. Wing construction is similar in most modern
aircraft. In its simplest form, the wing is a framework made up of spars and ribs and covered with metal. The
construction of an aircraft wing is shown in figure. Spars are the main structural members of the wing. They extend
from the fuselage to the tip of the wing. All the load carried by the wing is taken up by the spars. The spars are
designed to have great bending strength. Ribs give the wing section its shape, and they transmit the air load from the
wing covering to the spars. Ribs extend from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the wing. In addition to the main
spars, some wings have a false spar to support the ailerons and flaps. Most aircraft wings have a removable tip, which
streamlines the outer end of the wing. Most NAVY aircraft are designed with a wing a wing referred to as a wet wing.
This term describes the wing that is constructed so it can be used as a fuel cell. The wet wing is sealed with a fuel-
resistant compound as it is built. The wing holds fuel without the usual rubber cells or tanks. The wings of most naval
aircraft are of all metal, full cantilever construction. Often, they may be folded for carrier use. A full cantilever wing
structure is very strong. The wing can be fastened to the fuselage without the use of external bracing, such as wires or
struts. A complete wing assembly consists of the surface providing lift for the support of the aircraft. It also provides
the necessary flight control surface.

Note: The flight control surfaces on a simple wing may include only ailerons and trailing edge flaps. The more
complex aircraft may have a variety of devices, such as leading edge flaps, slats, spoilers, and speed brakes. Various
points on the wing are located by wing station numbers (fig). Wing station (WS) 0 is located at the centerline of the
fuselage, and all wing stations are measured (right or left) from this point (in inches).
 PART – C

1. Types, characteristics, and uses of aluminium and its alloys.

Commercially pure aluminum is a white, lustrous metal, light in weight and corrosion resistant. Aluminum
combined with various percentages of other metals (generally copper, manganese, magnesium, and chromium) form
the alloys that are used in aircraft construction. Aluminum alloys in which the principal alloying ingredients are either
manganese, magnesium, or chromium, or magnesium and silicon, show little attack in corrosive environments. On the
other hand, those alloys in which substantial percentages of copper are used are more susceptible to corrosive action.
The total percentage of alloying elements is seldom more than 6 or 7 percent in the wrought aluminum alloys.

Types, characteristics, and uses

Aluminium is one of the most widely used metals in modern aircraft construction. It is vital to the aviation
industry because of its high strength/weight ratio, its corrosion-resisting qualities, and its comparative ease of
fabrication. The outstanding characteristic of aluminum is its light weight. In color, aluminium resembles silver,
although it possesses a characteristic bluish tinge of its own. Commercially pure aluminum melts at the comparatively
low temperature of 1,216oF. It is nonmagnetic, and is an excellent conductor of electricity.
Commercially pure aluminum has a tensile strength of about 13,000 psi, but by rolling or other cold-working
processes, its strength may be approximately doubled. By alloying with other metals, together with the use of heat-
treating processes, the tensile strength may be raised to as high as 96,000 psi, or to well within the strength range of
structural steel.

Aluminum alloy material, although strong, is easily worked, for it is very malleable and ductile. It may be
rolled into sheets as thin as 0.0017 inch or drawn into wire 0.004 inch in diameter. Most aluminum alloy sheet stock
used in aircraft construction ranges from 0.016 to
0.096 inch in thickness; however, some of the larger aircraft use sheet stock that may be as thick as 0.0356 inch.

One disadvantage of aluminum maybe divided into two classes-casing alloys (those suitable for casting in
sand, permanent mold, and die castings) and the wrought alloys (those that may be shaped by rolling, drawing, or
forging). Of the two, the wrought alloys are the most widely used in aircraft construction, being used for stringers,
bulkheads, skin, rivets, and extruded sections. Casting alloys are not extensively used in aircraft.

Wrought Alloys:-

Wrought alloys are divided into two classes-nonheat treatable and heat treatable. In the nonheat-treatable
class, strain hardening (cold-working) is the only means of increasing the tensile strength. Heat-treatable alloys may
be hardened by heat treatment, by cold-working, or by the application of both processes. Aluminum products are
identified by a universally used designation system. Under this arrangement, wrought aluminum and wrought
aluminum alloys are designated by a four-digit index system.

The first digit of the designation indicates the major alloying element or alloy group, as shown in table. The
lxxx indicates aluminum of 99.00 percent or greater; 2xxx indicates an aluminum ally in which copper is the major
alloying element; 3xxx indicates an aluminum alloy with manganese as the major alloying element; etc. Although
most aluminum alloys contain several alloying elements, only one group (6xxx) designates more than one alloying
element.

In the 1xxx group, the second digit in the designation indicates modifications in impurity limits. If the second
digit is zero, it indicates that there is no special control on individual impurities. The last two of the four digits
indicate the minimum aluminum percentage. Thus, alloy 1030 indicates 99.30 percent aluminum without special
control on impurities. Alloys 1130, 1230, 1330, etc., indicate the same aluminum purity with special control on one or
more impurities. Likewise, 1075, 1175, 1275, etc., indicate 99.75 percent aluminum.

Table:
 Aluminum – 99.00 percent minimum and greater ................................ xxx

Aluminum alloys, grouped by major alloying element:

Copper ...................................................................................................xxx
Manganese ............................................................................................ xxx
Silicon ....................................................................................................xxx
Magnesium ……………………………………………………………… 5xxx
Magnesium and silicon ......................................................................... xxx
Zinc ....................................................................................................... xxx
Other elements ..................................................................................... xxx

In the 2xxx through 8xxx groups, the second digit indicates alloy modifications. If the second digit in the
designation is zero, it indicates the original alloy, while numbers 1 through 9, assigned consecutively, indicate alloy
modifications. The last two of the four digits have no special significance, but serve only to identify the different
alloys in the group.

The temper designation follows the alloy designation and shows the actual condition of the metal. It is always
separated from the alloy designation by a dash.

The letter F following the alloy designation indicates the “as fabricated condition, in which no effort has been
made to control the mechanical properties of the metal,

The letter O indicates dead soft, or annealed, condition.

The letter W indicates solution heat treated. Solution heat treatment consists of heating the metal to a high
temperature followed by a rapid quench in cold water,
This in an unstable temper, applicable only to those alloys that spontaneously age at room temperature. Alloy
7075 may be ordered in the W condition.

The letter H indicates strain hardened, cold-worked, hand-drawn, or rolled. Additional digits are added to the
H to indicate the degree of strain hardening. Alloys in this group cannot be strengthened by heat treatment, hence the
term nonheat-treatabel.

The letter T indicates fully heat treated. Digits are added to the T to indicate certain variations in treatment.

Greater strength is obtainable in the heat-treatable alloys. They are often used in aircraft in preference to the
nonheat-treatable alloys. Heat-treatable alloys commonly used in aircraft construction ( in order of increasing strength)
are 6061, 6062, 6063, 2017, 2024, 2014, 7075, and
7178.

Alloys 6061, 6062, and 6063 are sometimes used for oxygen and hydraulic lines and in some applications as
extrusions and sheet metal.

Alloy 2017 is used for rivets, stressed-skin covering, and other structural members.

Alloys 2024 is used for airfoil covering and fitting. It may be used wherever 2017 is specified, since it is
stronger.
Alloy 2014 is used for extruded shapes and forgings. This alloy is similar to 2017 and 2024 in that it contains
a high percentage of copper. It is used where more strength is required than that obtainable from 2017 or 2024.

Alloy 7178 is used where highest strength is necessary, Alloy 7178 contains a small amount of chromium as a
stabilizing agent, as does alloy 7075.
 Nonheat-treatable alloys used in aircraft construction are 1100, 3003, and 505. These do not respond to any
heat treatment other than a softening, annealing effect. They may be hardened only by cold-working.

Alloy 1100 is used where strength is not an important factor, but where weight, economy, and corrosion
resistance are desirable. This alloy is used for fuel tanks, fairings, oil tanks, and for the repair of wing tips and tanks.

Alloy 3003 is similar to 1100 and is generally used for the same purposes. It contains a small percentage of
manganese and is stronger and harder than 1100, but retains enough work ability that it is usually preferred over 1100
in most applications.

Alloy 5052 is used for fuel lines, hydraulic lines, fuel tanks, and wing tips. Substantially higher strength
without too much sacrifice of workability can be obtained in 5052. it is preferred over 1100 and 3003 in many
applications.

Alclad is the name given to standard aluminum alloys that have been coated on both sides with a thin layer of
pure aluminum. Alclad has very good corrosion-resisting qualities and is used exclusively for exterior surfaces of
aircraft. Alclade sheets are available in all tempers of 2014, 2017, 7075, and 7178.

2. Explain in detail the main group of materials used in aircraft construction.

Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Titanium and titanium alloys are used chiefly for parts that require good corrosion resistance, moderate
strength up to 600oF, and lightweight.

Types, characteristics, and uses

Titanium alloys are being used in quantity for jet engine compressor wheels, compressor blades, spacer rings,
housing compartments, and airframe parts such as engine pads, ducting, wing surfaces, fire walls, fuselage skin
adjacent to the engine outlet, and armor plate. In view of titanium‟s high melting temperature, approximately 3,300oF,
its high-temperature properties are disappointing. The ultimate and yield strengths of titanium drop fast above 800 oF.
In applications where the declines might be tolerated, the absorption of oxygen and nitrogen from the air at
temperatures above 1,000oF makes the metal so brittle on long exposure that it soon becomes worthless. Titanium has
some merit of short-time exposure up to 2,000oF where strength is not important, as in aircraft fire walls. Sharp tools
are essential in machining techniques because titanium has a tendency to resist or back away from the cutting edge of
tools. It is readily welded,
but the tendency of the metal to absorb oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen must never be ignored. Machine welding with
an inert gas atmosphere has proven most successful. Both commercially pure and alloy titanium can absorb large
amounts of cold-work without cracking. Practically anything that can be deep drawn in low-carbon steel can be
duplicated in commercially pure titanium, although the titanium may require more intermediate anneals.

Identification of Titanium:

Titanium metal, pure or alloyed, is easily identified. When touched with a grinding wheel, it makes white
spark traces that end in brilliant white bursts. When rubbed with a piece of glass, moistened titanium will leave a dark
line similar in appearance to a pencil mark with an inert gas atmosphere has proven most successful. Both
commercially pure and alloy titanium can absorb large amounts of cold-work without cracking. Practically anything
that can be deep drawn in low- carbon steel can be duplicated in commercially pure titanium, although the titanium
may require more intermediate anneals.

Copper and Copper Alloys

Most commercial copper is refined to a purity of 99.9 percent minimum copper plus silver. It is the only
reddish-colored metal, and it is second only to silver in electrical conductivity. Its use as a structural material is limited
because of its great weight. However, some of its outstanding characteristics, such as its high electrical and heat
conductivity, in many cases overbalance the weight factor. Because it is very malleable and ductile, copper is ideal for
making wire. In aircraft, copper is used primarily for the electrical system and for instrument tubing and bonding. It is
corroded by salt water, but is not affected by fresh water. The ultimate tensile strength of copper varies greatly. For
cast copper, the tensile strength is about 25, 000 psi; and when cold-rolled or cold-drawn, its tensile strength increases,
ranging from 40,000 to 67,000 psi.

BRASS.-

Brass is copper alloy containing zinc and small amounts of aluminum, iron, lead, manganese, magnesium,
nickel, phosphorous, and tin. Brass with a zinc content of 30 to 35 percent is very ductile, while that containing 45
percent has relatively high strength. “Muntz metal” is a brass composed of 60 percent copper and 40 percent zinc. It
has excellent corrosion- resistant qualities when in contact with saltwater. Its strength can be increased by heat
treatment. As cast, this metal has an ultimate tensile strength of 50, 000 psi and can be elongated 18 percent. It is used
in making bolts and nuts, as well as parts that come in contact with salt water. “Red brass,” sometimes termed bronze
because of its tin content, is used in fuel and oil line fittings. This metal has good casting and finishing properties and
machines freely.

Bronzes.-

Bronzes are copper alloys containing tin. The true bronzes have up to 25 percent tin, but those below 11
percent are most useful, especially for such items as tube fittings in aircraft. Among the copper alloys are the copper
aluminum alloys, of which the aluminum bronzes rank very high in aircraft usage. They would find greater usefulness
in structures if it were not for their strength/weight ratio as compared with alloy steels. Wrought aluminum bronzes are
almost as
strong and ductile as medium-carbon steel, and posses a high degree of resistance to corrosion by air, salt water, and
chemicals. They are readily forged, hot-or cold-rolled, and some react to heat treatment. These copper-based alloys
contain up to 16 percent of aluminum (usually 5 to 11 percent) to which other metals such as iron, nickel, or
manganese maybe added. Aluminum bronzes have good tearing qualities, great strength, hardness, and resistance to
both shock and fatigue. Because of these properties, they are used for diaphragms and gears, air pumps, condenser
bolts, and slide linears. Aluminum bronzes are available in rods, bars, plates, sheets, strips, and forgings. Cast
aluminum bronzes, using about 89 percent copper, 9 percent aluminum, and 2 percent of other elements, have high
strength combined with ductility, and are resistant to corrosion, shock, and fatigue. Because of these properties, cast
aluminum bronze is used in gun mounts, bearings, and pump parts. These alloys are useful in areas exposed to salt
water and corrosive gases. Manganese bronze is an exceptionally high-strength, tough, corrosion-resistant copper zinc
alloy containing aluminum, manganese, iron, and occasionally nickel or tin. This metal can be formed, extruded,
drawn, or rolled to any desired shape. In rod form, it is generally used for machined parts. Otherwise it is used in
catapults, landing gears, and brackets. Silicon bronze is composed of abut 95 percent copper, 3 percent silicon, and 2
percent mixture of manganese, zinc, iron, tin, and aluminum. Although not a bronze in the true sense of the word
because of its small tin content, silicon bronze has high strength and great corrosion resistance and is used variably.

Beryllium Copper

Beryllium copper is one of the most successful of all the copper-based alloys. It is a recently developed alloy
containing about 97 percent copper, 2 percent beryllium, and sufficient nickel to increase the percentage of elongation.
The most valuable feature of this metal is that the physical properties can be greatly stepped up by heat 1-33
treatment-the tensile strength rising from 70,000 psi in the annealed state to 200,000 psi in the heat-treated state. The
resistance of beryllium copper to fatigue and wear makes it suitable for diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings,
ball cages, spring washers, and nonsparking tools.

Monel

Monel, the leading high-nickel alloy, combines the properties of high strength and excellent corrosion
resistnace. This metal consists of 67 percent nickel, 30 percent copper, 1.4 percent iron, 1 percent manganese, and
0.15 percent carbon. It cannot be hardened by heat treatment; it responds only ot cold-working. Monel, adaptable to
castings and hot- or cold- working, can be successfully welded and ahs working properties similar to those of steel. It
has a tensile strength of 65, 000 psi that, by means of cold-working, may be increased to 160, 000 psi, thus entitling
this metal to classification among the tough alloys. Monel has been successfully used for gears and chains, for
operating retractable landing gears, and for structural parts subject to corrosion. In aircraft, Monel has been used for
parts demanding both strength and high resistance to corrosion, such as exhaust manifolds and carburetor needle
valves and sleeves.

K-Monel
 K-Monel is a nonferrous alloy containing mainly nickel, copper, and aluminum. It is produced by adding a
small amount of aluminum to the Monel formula. It is corrosion resistant and capable of hardening by heat treatment.
K-Monel has been successfully used for gears, chains, and structural members in aircraft that are subjected to
corrosive attacks. This alloy is nonmagnetic at all temperatures. K-Monel can be successfully welded.

Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys

Magnesium, the world‟s lightest structural metal, is a silvery-white material weighing only two-thirds as
much as aluminum. Magnesium does not possess sufficient strength in its pure state for structural uses; but when ti is
alloyed with zinc, aluminum, and manganese, it produces an alloy having the highest strength/weight ratio.
Magnesium is probably more widely distributed in nature than any other metal. It can be obtained from such ores as
dolomite and magnetite, from underground brines, from waste liquors of potash, and from seawater, With about 10
million pounds of magnesium in 1 cubic mile of seawater, there is no danger of a dwindling Supply. Magnesium is
used extensively in the manufacture of helicopters. Its low resistance to corrosion has been a factor in reducing its use
in conventional aircraft. The machining characteristics of magnesium alloys are excellent. Usually the maximum
speeds of machine tools can be used with heavy cuts and high feed rates. Power requirements for magnesium alloys
are about one-sixth of those for mild steel. An excellent surface finish can be produced, and, in most cases, grinding is
not essential. Standard machine operations can be performed to tolerances of a few ten- thousandths of an inch. There
is no tendency of the metal to tear or drag. Magnesium alloy sheets can be worked in much the same manner as other
sheet metal with one exception-the metal must be worked while hot.

The structure of magnesium is such that the alloys work harden rapidly at room temperatures. The work is
usually done at temperatures ranging from 450oF, which is a disadvantage.

However, compensations are offered by the fact that in the ranges used, magnesium is more easily formed
than other materials. Sheets can be sheared in much the same way as other metals, except that a rough flaky fracture is
produced on sheets thicker than about 0.064 inch. A better edge will result on a sheet over 0.064 inch thick if it is
sheared hot. Annealed sheet can be heated to 600oF, but heard-rolled sheet should not be heated above 275oF. A
straight bend with a short radius can be made by the Guerin process, as shown in figure 1-24, or by press or leaf
brakes. The Guerin process is the most widely used method for forming and shallow drawing, employing a rubber pad
as the female die, which bends the work to the Sharpe of the male die. Magnesium alloys possess good casting
characteristics. Their properties compare favorably with those of cast aluminum. In forging, hydraulic presses are
ordinarily used; although, under certain conditions, forging can be accomplished in mechanical presses or with drop
hammers. Magnesium embodies fire hazards of an unpredictable nature. When in large sections, its high thermal
conductivity makes it difficult to ignite and prevents its burning. It will not burn until the melting point is reached,
which is approximately 1,200oF, However, magnesium dust and fine chips are ignited.

3. Write a note on types of fuselage structure.

1) Box truss structure

The structural elements resemble those of a bridge, with emphasis on using linked triangular elements. The
aerodynamic shape is completed by additional elements called formers and stringers and is then covered with fabric
and painted. Most early aircraft used this technique with wood and wire trusses and this type of structure is still in use
in many lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. This method is especially suitable for amateur-build
aircraft kits, where a complete welded truss structure is delivered with the fitting of other components, covering, and
finishing completed by the user, as it ensures that a robust, uniform load bearing structure is within the completed
aircraft.
2) Geodetic construction

Airframe geodetic fuselage structure exposed by battle damage

Geodetic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and into World
War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of construction multiple flat
strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral
directions, forming a basket-like appearance. This proved to be light, strong, and rigid and hand the advantage of
being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in the Vickers Warwick
with less materials than would be required for other structural types. The geodesic structure is also redundant and so
can survive localized damage without catastrophic failure. A fabric covering over the structure completed the
aerodynamic shell (see the Vickers Wellington for an example of a large warplane which uses this process). The
logical evolution of this is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in which multiple sheets are laid with the
grain in differing directions to give the monocoque type below.

3. Monocoque shell

In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form of this
(see the Lockheed Vega) was built using molded plywood, where the layers of plywood are formed over a “plug” or
within a mold. A later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of
plywood, as the skin. A simple form of this used in some amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the
core, with a fiberglass covering, eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but requiring more effort in finishing
(see the Rutan VariEze). An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light
bomber of World War II . It should be noted that no plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening
elements are incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin. The
use of molded fiberglass using negative (“female”) molds (which give a nearly finished product) is prevalent in the
series production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for fuselage structures is being extended
to large passenger aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner (using pressure molding on female molds).
Semi-monocoque

This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frame in the shape of
the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture, or jig. These frames are then joined with lightweight
longitudinal elements called stringers. These are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or
by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then disassembled and removed from the completed fuselage shell,
which is then fitted out with wiring, controls, and interior equipment such as seats and luggage bins. Most modern
large aircraft are built using this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this fashion which are then
joined with fasteners to form the complete fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product is determined largely by the
costly fixture, this form is suitable for series production, where a large number of identical aircraft are to be produced.
Early examples of this type include the Douglass Aircraft DC-2 and DC-3 civil aircraft and the Boeing B-17 Flying
Fortress. Most metal light aircraft are constructed using this process.

Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as “stressed skin” structures as all or a portion of the
external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete masses such as the engine) is taken by the surface
covering. In addition, all the load from internal pressurization is carried (as skin tension) by the external skin

Figure: Construction of the wing for the Dc-10. (McDonnell Douglas Corp.)
Figure: The internal structure of a modern transport wing. (Lockheed California Co).
Stops the yaw.
Control surfaces

1. Winglet
2. Low-Speed Aileron
3. High-Speed Aileron
4. Flap track fairing
5. Kruger flaps
6. Slats
7. Three slotted inner flaps
8. Three slotted outer flaps
9. Spoilers
10. Spoilers-Air brakes